UNIT-5

C HEMICAL B ONDING AND S HAPE

OF M OLECULES
Q. Define the terms: valence shell, valence electrons, core electrons and Lewis
dot or cross formula with appropriate examples.
Valence shell: The outermost shell of an atom is called valence shell. It is called valence shell because the number of
electrons present in this shell determines the valency of the atom. Example:
For Na atom : K shell =2 electrons, L shell =8 electrons, M shell=1 electron. Here M shell is valence shell.
Valence electrons : The number of electron(s) present in the outermost shell of an atom is called valence electron. Valence
electron is responsible in the formation of chemical bonding. Example: Na atom has one valence electron.
Core electrons: The total number of electrons in the inner shell other than valence electron(s) is called core electrons.
Example: Sodium has ten core electrons.
Lewis dot or cross formula: According to Lewis, core electrons are represented by the symbol of element while valence
electrons are symbolized by putting dot or cross in the outer part of symbol. Examples: Mg, H,O and C has got 2,1,6 and 4
valence electrons respectively and are represented by Lewis formula as,
   

Mg H  O



 C 


Q. What is Octet Theory or Octet Rule?

Ans: The tendency of atoms of every element to acquire the nearest inert gas configuration i.e. 8 or 2 electrons in their
outermost orbit is called octet rule and the theory based on this rule is called electronic theory of valency. However, this
octet rule is not sufficient enough to explain all types of stable molecules. Some stable molecules do not follow octet rule.
Examples: BeCl2, BF3 (Molecules having less than 8 electrons in the central atom) and PCl5, SF6, IF7 (Molecules having
more than 8 electrons in their central atom).
Q. Write down the postulates of electronic theory of valency.
Ans: Electronic theory of valency is also called modern theory of valency which has the following postulates depending
upon the octet rule.
Postulates
1. Only valence electrons take part in the formation of chemical bond and these electrons determine the combining
capacity of atom.
2. Inert gas elements are assumed to be most stable elements since they have 8 electrons(octet) in their valence shell
except helium has two elements(duplet). Therefore, all the other atoms always try to become stable by acquiring
configuration just like nearest inert gas configuration. This tendency of every atom is the cause of chemical
combination.
3. Each combining atom acquires their electronic configuration to nearest inert gas either by loss or gaining or by mutual
sharing of electrons.
4. The number of electrons lost or gained or shared by an atom during the bond formation is called its valency.
5. A chemical bond is formed between two atoms only when there is overall decrease in energy due to rearrangements of
electrons. Lower the energy of the combining atoms, stable is the molecule.
Q. Define ionic bond with example.
Ans: The bond formed by the complete transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to other atom is called
electrovalent bond or ionic bond or polar bond. This type of bond is formed between metal and nonmetal atom. Metal
atom having electrons less than 4 in their valence shell, is always in the tendency to lose electron and the non metal atom
having electrons 5, 6 or 7 in their valence shell, is always in the tendency to gain electron to make octet in the outermost
shell. The metal atom gets converted into cation after losing its valence electron(s) while non metal atom gets converted into
anion after gaining the electron(s). The resulting cation and anion are held together by electrostatic force of attraction. This
force of attraction which holds cation and anion together is called ionic bond or electrovalent bond. The compounds form
due to ionic bond or electrovalent bond is called ionic compounds or electrovalent compounds. Example: Formation of
NaCl follows the following steps:
Step I: Sodium atom loses its one valence electron and becomes cation.
Na (g) – e– (g) ⟶ Na+ (g)
(2, 8, 1) (2, 8)
Step II: Chlorine atom gains one electron and becomes anion.
Cl(g) + e– (g) ⟶ Cl– (g)
(2, 8, 7) (2, 8, 8)
–
Step III: Na+(cation) and Cl (anion) come close together and bound by electrostatic force of attraction to form NaCl.

Na + Cl Na+ + Cl– or Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl–

Q. What are the factors that govern the formation of ionic compounds?
Ans: The following factors affect the formation of ionic compounds.
1. Number of valence electrons
The atom A becoming cation (A+) should have 1, 2, or 3 valence electrons while the atom B becoming anion (B–)
should have 5, 6 or 7 valence electrons. In the periodic table, the elements of group IA, IIA and IIIA can act as an atom
A and the elements of group VA, VIA and VIIA can act as an atom B.
2. Ionization energy
The lower the value of ionization energy, the greater will be the ease of formation of cation. Hence low ionization
energy of atom A (metal atom) will favour the formation of cation.
A (g) + Ionization energy (energy required) ⟶ A+ (g) + e–
3. Electron affinity
The higher the value of the electron affinity, the greater is the ease of formation of the anion. Hence high electron
affinity of atom B (non-metal atom) will favour the formation of anion.
B (g) + e– ⟶ B– + electron affinity (energy released)
4. Lattice energy
The energy released when 1 mole of a crystal is formed from its gaseous ions is called the lattice energy of the crystal.
Hence, the higher the value of lattice energy of the resulting ionic compounds, the greater will be ease of formation of
ionic compound.
A+ (g) + B– (g) ⟶ A+ B– (s) + Lattice energy (energy released)
5. Electronegativity difference of A and B
The electronegativity difference of A and B is 2 or more than 2, favours the formation of ionic bond. Higher the
difference in electronegativity between atoms A and B, stronger will be ionic bond e.g.
i. Na = 0.9, Cl = 3.0, difference = 3 – 0.9 = 2.1
ii. Na = 0.9, F = 4.0, difference = 4 – 0.9 = 3.1
Here NaF bond is stronger than NaCl bond.
Q. Write down the Lewis structure of the following ionic compounds: MgO, MgCl2, Al2O3,AlCl3,Na3P
Ans: Lewis structure of MgO

–
×× + O Mg2+ O2 or MgO
Mg
2, 8, 2 2,6 2, 8 2, 8
Lewis structure of MgCl2

Cl
× –
× 2,8,7 Mg2+ Cl
Mg + +2 or MgCl2
× 2,8 2,8,8
2,8,2 Cl
2,8,7
Lewis structure of Al2O3
××
Al O
×
O 2Al3+ + 3O2– Al2O3
×
Al O
××
Lewis structure of AlCl3
Cl
×
Al × Cl Al3+ + 3Cl– AlCl3
×
Cl
Lewis structure of Na3P
× ×
Na P Na 3Na+ + P3– Na3P
×
Na
Q. Define electrovalency with example.
Ans: Electrovalency of an element is the number of electrons lost or gained by an atom of that element during the
formation of ionic bond between two atoms.
Example: Mg atom loses two electrons and O atom gains two electrons during the formation of ionic compound MgO.
Hence, electrovalency of Mg and O is 2.
Q. Explain the properties of ionic compounds.
Ans: Ionic compound has following properties.
1. Physical state
Ionic compounds are found in solid crystalline form at room temperature.
2. Electrical conductivity
Ionic compounds conduct electricity when they are in aqueous solution or in the fused (molten) state but they do not
conduct electricity when they are in solid state. In the solid state the ions are tightly held together in the crystal lattice
and hence ions are unable to move freely to conduct the electricity. In the molten state or in aqueous solution the ions
are free to move and hence conduct the electricity due to the migration of ions towards oppositely charged electrodes.
3. Hardness, volatility, and melting and boiling points
Ionic compounds are hard, low volatility and high melting and boiling points because it requires high amount of
energy to separate ions from crystal lattice.
4. Solubility
Ionic compounds are highly soluble in polar solvents like H2O, NH3 etc. but insoluble in non-polar solvents like C6H6,
CHCl3 etc.
5. Brittleness
Ionic solids are highly brittle i.e. a little external force is sufficient to break the crystal.
6. Nature of bond
Ionic bond is non-directional in nature due to the attraction of oppositely charged ions from all directions.
7. Nature of chemical reactions
 Ionic compounds show fast chemical reactions. It is due to the formation of new ionic compound as a result of
collision between anions and cations.

Q. Define covalent bond and covalency with examples

Ans: The bond formed by mutual sharing of electrons between combining atoms of same or different atoms is called
covalent bond. This type of bond is formed between two nonmetal atoms of different or same type. Compounds formed by
covalent bonds are called covalent compounds. If two atoms have been sharing one, two or three electrons each: single,
double or triple covalent bonds would be formed, these bonds are respectively represented by single line (–), double lines
(=) and triple lines (≡).
Covalency: The number of electrons contributed by an atom at its shared position during the covalent bond formation is
called its covalency. The covalency of hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N) and carbon (C) is 1, 2, 3 and 4
respectively. Some elements show variable conalency such as P shows 3 and 5 (in PCl3 and PCl5), S shows 2, 4, 6
(in H2S, SO2, SF6).
Examples of covalent compounds:
Formation of H2 Formation of Cl2
× × × × × ××
H + H× H × H or H–H ×Cl + Cl
× ×Cl Cl or Cl – Cl or Cl2
× × × ×

Formation of hydrogen molecule Formation of chlorine molecule.

Here, covalency of Cl = 1.
Formation of oxygen molecule Formation of N2 molecule
The two atoms of oxygen (2, 6) each having 6 electrons The two atoms of Nitrogen (2, 5) each having 5 electrons
in the valence shell achieve the octet by the sharing of in the valence shell, achieve the octet by sharing of 3
two electron from each. electron pairs between them. Thus, nitrogen atoms in
× × × ×
nitrogen molecule are held by a triple covalent bond.
×
×
O ×× + O ×O ×
O or O = O
× ×
×× × ××
Formation of oxygen molecule N + ×× N N × N ×× or N 
N
× ×
Here, covalency of oxygen = 2.
Formation of nitrogen molecule
Here, covalency of nitrogen = 3

Q. Write down the characteristics of covalent compounds.

Ans: Covalent compounds have following characteristics.
1. Physical state
Covalent compounds having low molecular weight exist as gases or liquid but they also exist as soft solids which have
high molecular weights. Example: chlorine (gas), molecular weight = 71; bromine (liquid), molecular weight = 160;
iodine (solid), molecular weight = 254.
2. Solubility
They are slightly soluble in water but highly soluble in organic solvents. Some of covalent compounds like alcohol and
amines are soluble in water due to hydrogen bonding.
3. Melting and boiling points
Gases and liquid form of covalent compounds have generally low melting and boiling points where as solid form of
covalent compounds have high melting and boiling points. Low melting and boiling point of covalent compounds are
due to the packing of crystals with weak van der Waal's forces.
4. Electrical conductivity
Covalent compounds are bad conductor of electricity as they don't dissociate into ions or they don't have free electrons
to conduct electricity. But covalent compounds having layer structure like graphite, CdI2, CdCl2, BN etc. can conduct
electricity due to the presence of free electrons which can move from layer to layer. Similarly certain covalent
compounds like HCl, HI etc. can conduct electricity in aqueous solution since they ionize in solution.
5. Neither hard nor brittle
Covalent compounds are neither hard nor brittle rather they are soft and waxy. But diamond (hardest substance), SiC
and AlN etc. are hard.
6. Chemical reactions
They show slow chemical reaction compared to ionic compounds. They have high dissociation energy and hence it
takes more energy and more time to break the old bonds to form the new bonds.
7. Isomerism
The bonds of covalent compounds are rigid and directional. Thus there is possibility of various arrangements in space
to show the phenomenon of isomerism.
8. Crystal structure
Covalent compounds generally, from three types of crystal structure.
a. The molecules are held together by Van der Waal's forces e.g. Sulphur (S8), P2O5, I2 etc.
b. Covalent networking to form giant molecules e.g. SiC, diamond, AlN etc.
c. Covalent networking to form layer like structure e.g. Graphite, BN, CdI2 etc.
Q.Differentiate between Ionic Bond and Covalent Bond.
Ans:
Ionic Bond S.N. Covalent Bond
This bond is formed by the transfer of one This bond is formed by the sharing of
or more electrons from one atom to other. 1. one or more electrons between the
bonded atoms.
This bond usually exists between metal This bond usually exists between non
2.
and non metal atoms. metal atoms.
This bond is non directional. 3. This bond is directional.
Consists of electrostatic force of cation Consists of a shared pair of electrons
4.
and anion. between atoms.
Properties of Compounds
Solids at room temperature. 1. Gases, liquids or soft solids.
High melting and high boiling points. 2. Low melting and low boiling points.
Soluble in water but insoluble in organic Insoluble in water but soluble in organic
3.
solvents. solvents.
Conduct electricity in fused as well as in Do not conduct electricity.
4.
aqueous solution.
Undergo ionic reactions which are very Undergo molecular reactions which are
5.
fast. very slow.
Does not show isomerism. 6. Show isomerism.

Q. Define Co-ordinate Covalent Bond (or Dative bond) with example.

Ans: Covalent bond formed by mutual sharing of two electrons in which both of the electrons are contributed by one of
the bonded atom is called co-ordinate covalent bond or simply co-ordinate bond or dative bond. The shared pair of
electron is called lone pair. The atom which contributes a pair of electron is called donor atom and the atom which accepts
the lone pair of electron is called acceptor atom. If an atom 'A' has one lone pair of electrons and atom ‘B’ is short of pair
of electrons than the nearest inert gas configuration then the atom A can donate its pair of electrons to atom B. The
coordinate covalent bond is denoted by an arrow (→) pointing it towards acceptor atom. Example: Let A is donor atom and
B is acceptor atom, then coordinate bond is represented by Lewis formula as,

×
A×× + B A × B or A B
Donar Acceptor
atom atom
Coordinate covalent bond
Q. Write down the Lewis structure of following compounds or ions: H3O+, NH4+ , addition compound of NH3 and
BF3, CaCO3.
Ans: H3O+ (Hydronium ion): In the formation of H3O+ ion oxygen atom of water donates one of its lone pairs of electrons
to H+ ion, to form a co–ordinate covalent bond.

+
 +
H O H

×  
 × × 
× ×
×
×
H H

 


O
H ×
O + H+ 
 ×  or
H H
H

NH4+ ion: Nitrogen atom of NH3 donates its lone pair of electrons to H+ ion forming ammonium ion.
+ +

H
H ×
H
×
×
H× N + H× H N H or H N H
×
H ×
H
H

Addition Compound of NH3 and BF3: Nitrogen of NH3 molecule has lone pair of electrons and can act as donor atom. As
addition compound is formed between NH3 and BF3, nitrogen atom donates its lone pair to electron deficient boron
atom of BF3.

H F H F
| | | |
H — N: + B — F H — N: B — F
| | | |
H F H F
Addition compound

Calcium carbonate(CaCO3)
Calcium loses 2 electrons as
Ca Ca++ + 2e–
At central carbon atom of carbonate ion, carbon atom gains 2 electrons as

C  + 2e –

 C ––
 
 
 
–




–– 


––
 O  –  O 

C 2– + 3 O 


  
 
–   C=O

 C=O

 or Ca2+ CO32-

 O  
 O  Ionic bond
 

Q. What are the characteristics of coordinate covalent compounds?

Ans: The characteristics of coordinate covalent compounds are:
1. Physical state: The compounds are gases, liquids or solids.
2. Solubility: They are generally insoluble in polar solvent but soluble in organic solvent.
3. Melting and boiling points: Their melting and boiling points are usually higher than covalent compounds and lower
than ionic compounds.
4. Electrical conductivity: These compounds are non-ionic in nature hence they don't conduct\ electricity.
5. Semi-polar character: These compounds are more polar than covalent compounds and less polar than ionic
compounds i.e. they are semi-polar nature.
6. Isomerism: Their bonds are rigid and directional hence they can undergo isomerism.
Lewis structure of some common compounds
Lewis structure of CaCl2 Lewis structure of KF
×× × + –
Cl + Ca + Cl Ca++ + 2Cl– CaCl2 K + F K + F KF
(2,8,8,1) (2,7) (2,8,8) (2,8)
(2,8,7) (2,8,8,2) (2,8,8) (2,8,8)

Lewis structure of Na2S Lewis structure of H2O

× × × ×
Na + S + Na 2Na+ + S 2 – Na2S H + O+ H H× O×H H–O–H H
(2,8,1) (2,8,6) (2,8) (2,8) (2,6)

Lewis structure of NH3 Lewis structure of H2O

× ×
H H + O+ H H× O×H H–O–H H
H
× (2,6)
× ×
3H + N
× H N H or H N H

Lewis structure of ethane (C2H6)

Lewis structure of CH4
H H H H H
H × ×
×
× ×
4H× + C H
×
C
×
H or H C H 2 C + 6H× H C C H or H C C H
× ×
×
H H H H H
H

Lewis structure of ethane (C2H6) Lewis structure of ethene molecule (C2H4)

H H
H H H H × × H H
× × × ×
× × 4H× + 2 C H C C H or C C
2 C + 6H× H C C H or H C C H
× × H H
H H H H

Lewis structure of ethene molecule (C2H4) Lewis structure of CO2

H H Carbon has four valence electrons.
× × H H
× × It shares two electrons with O atom as
4H× + 2 C H C C H or C C
H H
O + ××C ×× + O O ×
×
C ×
×
O or O C O

Lewis structure of SO2 Lewis structure of SO3

×× ×× ×× O
O + ×× S ×× + O O × S × O or O S O O O
× × + ××
×× ×
× × O × S O or O S O
O + × S× + O × ×
 2– Lewis structure of H2SO4
Lewis structure of SO4
2– O
× ×× O
× S×
×× × + 2e– ×S ×
× × ××
××
2– 2– H × O × S × O × H H O S O H
××
O O
O O O
+ ××
× × 2–
× × O × S × O or O S O
O + × S× + O × ×
××
+ ××
O O O

Lewis structure of CO (Carbon monoxide) Lewis Strucutre of N2O

××
× ×    
C + × × O C O××  N N O N N O
  

[I [II
] ]
Lewis structure of H3PO4 Lewis Strucutre of N2O
   
O O N
 N O N N O
  
××
[I [II
H × O × P × O × H H O P O H ] ]
×

O O
×
H H

Lewis Strucutre of NO (Odd-electron bond): Lewis Strucutre of NO2

Odd electrons are present either in nitrogen or oxygen.    
O 
O O  O
 
   
 N O  
 N O 
N  N 
N


N

  
 
[I [II O  O  O
 O 

   
] ]
[I] [II] [III] [IV
]
Lewis Strucutre of N2O3 Lewis Strucutre of N2O4
     
O O       
O  O
   
O O  

 
N N N N N N N N
  
 O    
 
O
  
O 
 

O 
O  O O O 
 


[I] [II
[I] [II]
]

Lewis Structure of P2O5 or P4O10

Lewis Strucutre of N2O5
   
   
O  O
 
O O  

 
N O N N O N
 


 
O
 O O 
O
  

[II]
[I
Lewis structure of Na2SO4
2–
Na2SO4 2Na+ + SO4 ,
2–
× ××
2Na 2Na+ + 2e–, ××S ×× + 2e– ×S ×
× ×
× ××

2– 2–
O O
O
+ ××
× × 2–
× × × S × or O S O
O + × S× + O O × × O 2Na+
××
+ ××
O O O

Lewis Structure of NH4Cl

+ H +
H
×
+ – – –
NH4Cl NH4 + Cl H× N H + Cl H N H Cl
×
H H

Q. Define resonance with example.

Ans: Resonance is the description of possible electronic structures of a molecule or ion by means of several ways of
distribution of valence electrons in each of the atoms. A double arrow ( ) is used between the two or more possible
resonance structures. In many molecules, the actual arrangement of electrons cannot be represented by a single Lewis
structure. In such cases, two or more structures of equivalent energy can be written.
In general the following rules are considered to write the resonance structure of a molecule:
a. Each structure should have same arrangement of atoms having same number of unpaired electrons.
b. The contributing structures should have nearly same energies.

O O
(I) (II)
Resonance structure Resonance hybrid
In the above example, the concept of resonance can explain the bond lengths between oxygen atoms, which is neither pure
single bond nor a pure double bond.
The resonance structures of some molecules and ions are given below.
a. Sulphur dioxide
 S S S

O O
(I) (II)
Resonance structure Resonance hybrid
b. Sulphur trioxide
O O O
O

O S O S O S O S O
Resonance structure Resonance hybrid
2–
c. Carbonate ion (CO3 )
–– –– –– ––
O O O O

C C C C

O O O O O O O O
Resonance structure of carbonate ion Resonance hybrid
–
d. Nitrate ion (NO3 )
– – – –
O N O O N O O N O O N O

O O O O
Resonance structure of nitrate ion Resonance hybrid
e. SO4– –
– – – 2–
O O O O O

S – S S S – S
O –
– –

Resonance structure of sulpahte ion Resonance hybird

f. PO4– – –
– – – 3–
O O O O O

P – P P
–
P – P
– – O –
– – –

Resonance structure of phosphate ion Resonance hybird

Q. Write down the postulates of VSEPR Theory.

Ans: This theory is based on the effect of electron pair repulsion on the bond angles. The postulates of VSEPR theory are:
1. If the central atom in a molecule is surrounded by only bonding electron pairs (bp's) and not by non-bonding electron
pairs or lone pairs (lp's), it will have regular geometry or shape. Example:
a. BeF2, HgCl2 (linear, bond angle 180º) b. BF3, BCl3 (Trigonal, bond angle 120º)
+
c. CH4, NH (Tetrahedral, bond angle 109º28')
4
2. If the central atom, in a molecule, is surrounded by both lp's and bp's, it will have distorted from its regular geometry.
This is because; the lp's repel adjacent electron pairs more strongly than bonding electron pairs.
The repulsion order among electron pairs is: (bp – bp) < (bp – lp) < (lp – lp)
Hence, the bond angle decreases in the order of
 
CH4 (109º28') > NH3 (107.8º) > H2O (104.5º)

3. Repulsion between bp of electrons is greater if the bond pair electron is near the central atom.
Example: Hydrides of group VIA with their bond angles:
H2O (104.5º) > H2S (92.5º) > H2Se(91º) > H2Te(89.5º)
It is known that the size of central atom goes on increasing from O to Te and its electronegativity goes on decreasing.
Therefore the bp of electron shifts more and more away from the central atom on moving from H 2O to H2Te.
Consequently the bond angle is decreasing from H2O to H2Te
4. If the electronegativity of the central atom decreases, bond angle decreases because bp of electrons shifts away from
the central atom. If the electronegativity of the surrounding atoms decreases but electronegativity of the central atom
remains same, the bond angle decreases because bp of electron shifts from the central atom.
Example: PI3 (102º) > PBr3(101.5º) > PCl3(100º)
Here, electronegativity value decreases from Cl to I.
5. According to the isoelectronic principle, the species having same number of valence electrons on central atom usually
have the same structure. Example:
a. BF–4, CH4, NH+4 ⟶ tetrahedral

b. CO–2 –
3 , NO3, SO3 ⟶ planner triangles

c. CO2, N–3, NO–2 ⟶ linear

Q. Explain the shape of following molecules according to VSEPR theory:

1. BeF2 molecule
The central atom Be in ground state = 1s22s22px0 180º

The central atom Be in excited state = 1s22s12p1x F – Be – F

There is no any lone pair of electrons in the valence shell of central atom Be and hence the force of repulsion among
the bonded electrons pairs would be equal. Therefore, two Be - F bonds get directed towards two side of Be atom
forming bond angle 180º as shown in figure.
2. BF3 molecule F
2
The central atom B in ground state: 1s 2s 2
2p1x 2p0y
The central atom B in excited state: 1s22s12p1x2p1y
120º
There is no any lone pair of the electrons in the valence shell of B
central atom B and hence the force of repulsion among three
bonded electron pairs would be equal. Therefore, three B-F F F
bonds get directed towards the corners of an equilateral triangle
Figure 5.1: Triangular structure of BF3
with bond angle 120º as shown in figure. Other example: BCl3,
BH3, GaCl3, AlCl3, SO3 etc.
3. CH4 molecule
The central atom C in the ground state = 1s22s22px12p1y2p0z
The central atom C in the excited state = 1s22s12p1x2p1y2p1z
There is no any lone pair of electrons in the valence shell of central atom C and hence the force of repulsion among
four bonded electrons pairs would be equal. Therefore, four C – H bonds get directed towards the four corners of
tetrahedral geometry forming with bond angle 109.5º as shown in figure.
H

H
H C H C
H H
H
Geometry (Regular)
Shape (Tetrahedral) H Figure 5.2: Structure of CH4 molecule
4. CH3Cl molecule
The structure of this molecule is same as CH4 molecule but instead of one C – H bond of CH4 molecule is replaced by
C – Cl bond as shown in figure.
 Cl

Cl
C
H C H H
H
H
Geometry (Regular) Shape (Tetrahedral) Cl Cl
H
Figure 5.3: Structure of CH3Cl molecule
5. PCl5 molecule 2.04 Å
2 2 6 2
The central atom P in the ground state: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3 90º
2 2 6 1 1 1 1 1
120º P Cl
The central atom P in the excited state: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3px 3py 3pz 3d
There is no any lone pair of electrons in the central atom P and hence the
force of repulsion among five P–Cl -bonds are equal. Thus PCl5 has a 2.19 Å
trigonal bipyramidal shape in which repulsion among bond pairs of electron Cl Cl
is minimum and stability is maximum as shown in figure. Figure 5.4. Structure of PCl5 (Trigonal bipyramidal)
In this geometry P-atom is situated at the centre of an equilateral triangle, therefore three P–Cl bonds get directed
towards the three corners of the triangle and known as equatorial bonds. Among the remaining two P-Cl bonds, one P-
Cl bond is situated above the triangle plane while other P-Cl bond is situated below the triangle plane which is known
as axial bonds.
In this geometry the bond length of equatorial bond is 2.04 Å which is slightly shorter than axial bonds whose bond
length is 2.19 Å. This is the due to the fact that each axial P-Cl bond faces repulsion from the equatorial P-Cl bonds at
90º and one axial P-Cl bond at 180º to it. But each equatorial P-Cl bond faces repulsion from two equatorial bonds at
120º to it and two axial bonds at 90º to it, due to this difference in bond length values, PCl5 molecule is considered as
irregular geometry.
6. SF6 molecule
The central atom S in the ground state: 1s22s22p63s23px23py13p1z
The central atom S in the excited state: 1s22s22p63s13px13py13pz13d1 3d1
Due to the presence of six unpaired electron in the valence shell of S-atom, it is capable
to form six -covalent bond with F-atom having 2p1z unpaired electron.
It has six bond pairs and no lone pair of electrons.
It has octahedral geometry in which sulphur atom is situated at the centre of the
square, four S-F bonds are along the four vertices of the square and one S-F bond is
above the plane and other S-F bond is below the plane. Thus all the bond angles are 90º.
In this structure, all S-F bonds are equivalent and experiences minimum repulsion between them which makes the
molecules most stable.
7. H2O molecule lp O

Lewis structure of H2O is H – O – H

In H2O, the central atom O is surrounded by two
bps and two lps of electrons. According to VSEPR theory, the (lp-lp) repulsion
expected geometry of H2O is tetrahedral since the oxygen atom O (maximum)
is surrounded by four pairs of electrons. But due to the presence lp
of two lps of electrons, which are situated at the two vertices of (lp-bp) repulsion
H 104.5º
tetrahedron, the geometry of H2O becomes angular (V-shaped (bp-bp) repulsin (medium)
H
or bent) as shown in figure. (minimum)
The bond angle H – O – H in water molecule is 104.5º which is Figure 5.5: Angular structure of H2O molecule
less than 109.5º as expected (for tetrahedral geometry).
Decrease in bond angle is due to the fact that the two lone pairs of electron force the two O – H bond pairs closer
together.
Some similar type of compounds and bond angles are given in the table.
Molecule H 2O H2S H2Se H2Te
Bond angle 104.5º 92.6º 91.0º 90º
 The decrease in bond angle of similar types of compounds is due to the decrease in the electronegativity of central
atom. As a result of decrease in electronegativity of central atom, the bps of electrons lie farther away and hence the
force of repulsion between the bps gets decreased and they attempt to come closer to each other to show the less value
bond angle.
8. NH3 molecule lp
Lewis structure of NH3 is H – N – H
|
H (lp-bp) repulsion
In NH3, the central atom N is surrounded by three bps Greater repulsion)
N
and one lp. According to VSEPR theory the central atom containing four
pairs of electrons should be of tetrahedral geometry. But one of the four
107.8º H
vertices of the tetrahedron is occupied by a lp and hence the geometry H
becomes trigonal pyramidal with bond angle 107.8º to H – N – H bond as H
in figure. (lp-bp) repulsion
Greater repulsion)
According to VSEPR theory, the order of repulsion between lp and bp is
Figure 5.6: Trigonal pyramidal of
lp – bp > bp – bp
NH3 molecule
Due to the greater magnitude of (lp – bp) repulsion than that of (bp – bp)
repulsion, the two
N – H bonding electron pairs are pushed closer to each other and the result is that bond angle
H – N – H decreases from 109.5º to 107º.
Other examples: PH3, PCl3, PF3 etc.
9. CO2 molecules
Central atom C in the ground state = 1s22s22p1x2p1y2p0z
Central atom C in the excited state = 1s22s121x2p1y2p1z
There is no any lone pair of electrons in the central atom C and hence the force of repulsion among 2 pair of bonded
electron would be equal. Therefore two C = 0 bonds get directed towards the two sides forming a linear structure with
bond angle 180º as shown in figure.
180º

:O C O:

Figure 5.7: Structure of CO2 molecule

Q. write down the postulates of Valence Bond Theory(VBT)

Ans: This theory was proposed by Heitler and London in 1927 and later developed by Pauling and Slater in 1931. The main
postulates of this theory are:
1. A covalent bond is formed by the overlapping of half-filled atomic orbitals of same or different type of atoms.
2. The half-filled atomic orbitals taking part must have electrons with opposite spin.
3. The direction of the bond is the same as the direction of the overlap of the half-filled atomic orbitals.
4. The valency of an element is the same as the number of half-filled orbitals present in it.
5. The strength of the bond formed depends upon the extent of overlap. Greater the overlapping, stronger is the bond
formed.
Now, let us consider the formation of hydrogen molecule on the basis of this theory.
When two isolated H-atoms (each having an electron in its 1s orbital) approach each other and begin to overlap their 1s
orbital resulting the formation of hydrogen molecule as shown in figure. During their overlapping the two electrons could
be present together in a region of space only if they have opposite spins, as prescribed by Pauli exclusion principle.

1s orbital 1s orbital Overlapping of 1s atomic orbitals to form H2

Q. Define hybridization and hybrid orbitals and state the rules for hybridization.
Ans: The mixing of the atomic orbitals belonging to the same atom but having slightly different energies so that a
redistribution of energy take place between them resulting in the formation of new orbitals of equal energy and identical
shapes is known as hybridization and the new orbitals so formed are known as hybrid orbitals.
Rules for Hybridization
1. Only those orbitals which have nearly equal energies and belong to the same atom or ion can undergo hybridization.
2. Number of hybrid orbitals formed is equal to the number of atomic orbitals mixed.
3. It is not necessary that all the half-filled orbitals must participate in hybridization. Similarly, it is not necessary that
only half-filled orbitals should participate in hybridization. Even completely filled orbitals with slightly different
energies can also take part in hybridization.
4. Hybridization never takes place in isolated atoms but it occurs only at the time of its bond formation.
5. The hybridized orbitals have equivalent energies and identical shape.
6. The geometry of a molecule can be predicted by knowing the kind of hybridization involved.
In order to understand the types of hybridization, the concept of two types of covalent bond should be known. Depending
upon the manner in which the two atomic orbitals overlap with each other, two types of covalent bonds are in existence;
Q. Define Sigma () bond and Pi () bond with examples.
Sigma () bond
A covalent bond formed between two atoms, by the overlap of their half-filled atomic orbitals along the line joining the
nuclei of both the atoms is called -bond. In other words -bond is formed by the head-to-head overlap of the half-filled
atomic orbitals of the two atoms.
Example:
a. Formation of -bond by s-s overlap: In this type there is head-to-head overlapping of two spherical shape of s-
orbitals which takes palce as in figure (a).
b. Formation of -bond by s-p overlap: In this type, there is head-to-head overlapping of spherical shape of s-orbital
with dumb-bell shape of p-orbital which takes place as in figure (b).
c. Formation of -bond by p-p overlap: In this type, there is head-to-head overlapping of two dumb-bell shape of p-
orbitals which takes place as in figure (c).

S S px px px
S -bond
-bond -bond
(a) (b) (c)
Pi (-bond)
A covalent bond formed between two atoms by the overlap of their singly filled p-orbitals along a line perpendicular to their
nuclear axis is called -bond. In other words -bond is formed by the side-to-side overlap of half-filled p-orbitals of the two
atoms.

Example: Side-to-side overlapping of two half-filled p-orbitals are given in the figure.
-bond

-bond
p-p side-to-side overlap
-bond)
Q. Differentiate between  and  bonds.
Difference between  and  bonds
Sigma bond S.N. Pi bond
It is a covalent bond formed by the head on It is a covalent bond formed by lateral
overlapping of half filled atomic orbitals. 1. overlapping of the half filled atomic
orbitals of atoms.
It is the stronger covalent bond. 2. It is a weaker covalent bond.
It is denoted by . 3. It is denoted by .
In sigma bonds, there is overlapping of pure In a  bond overlapping orbitals are
orbitals, hybrid orbitals and one hybrid and 4. always pure orbitals only. Pure orbitals
one pure orbital. are unhybridized orbitals.
It allows free rotation of orbitals. 5. There is no any free rotation of orbitals.
Atom with -bonds are less reactive. 6. Atoms with -bond are highly reactive.
It determines the shape of the molecule. It doesn't determine the shape of the
7.
molecule.
It is symmetrical around the bond axis. There is no symmetry in -bonds.
8.
e.g. CH4 C2H2
Q. Define sp-hybridization and write down its characteristics.
Ans: sp-hybridization
The mixing of one s-orbital and one p-orbital to form two hybrid orbitals is known as sp-hybridization.
180º
+
2px sp sp
2s
Characteristics of sp-hybrid orbitals
i. Two sp-hybrid orbitals so formed are symmetrical in shape and equivalent in erergy.
ii. Each sp-orbital has equal s- and p-characters i.e. 50% s-character and 50% p-character.
iii. These hybrid orbitals are collinear i.e. angle between the hybrid orbitals is 180º. It is also called linear hybridization.
iv. These are stronger than pure s-and pure p-orbital from which it is found after hybridization.
v. It is oval shaped. In sp-hybrid orbital one lobe is bigger while other is small. The bigger lobe is very large with respect
to p-orbital hence it has higher degree of overlapping. Thus it forms stronger bond.
–
Example: Formation of BeCl2, CO, CO2, C2H2, HCN, CN, N3, N2 etc.
Q. Explain the orbital picture of
a. BeCl2 b. C2H2

a. Formation of BeCl2: The central atom Be has electronic configuration 1s22s2. It doesn't have any unpaired electron to
form the bond with Cl-atom. Be-atom goes to the excited state having two unpaired electrons with configuration 1s22s12px1.
Now, Be-atom is in the position to form bond with Cl-atom.
It can be shown as follows:
Be in ground state ⟶ ⥮ ⥮
1s 2s 2p
Be in excited state ⟶ ⥮ ↿ ↿
1s 2s 2p

sp-hybridization
↿ ↿
sp sp
(Two sp-hybrid orbitals)
Cl-atom in the ground state ⟶ ⥮ ⥮ ⥮ ⥮ ⥮ ⥮ ⥮ ⥮ ↿
1s 2s 2p 3s 3px 3py 3pz
 Here, 3pz orbital is half-filled orbital and hence it can form a -bond with one of the
half-filled sp-hybrid orbitals as follows:

sp sp

X Cl + Be + X Cl

Z Z

Y Y
180º

Cl Be Cl Cl – Be – Cl
Here BeCl2 is a linear molecule with bond angle 180º.
b. Formation of C2H2 (Ethyne)
C-atom in the ground state ⟶ ⥮ ⥮ ↿ ↿
1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz
C-atom in excited state ⟶ ⥮ ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿
1s 2s 2p
sp-hybridization
↿ ↿ ↿ ↿
sp sp 2py 2pz
(Pure orbitals or unhybridised orbitals)

There are four unpaired electrons in each C-atom, two hybrid orbitals containing two unpaired electrons and two
pure orbitals (2py and 2pz) containing two unpaired electrons. Two hybrid orbitals of each C-atom, form -bond
with H-atom and other C-atom, whereas two pure orbitals of one C-atom form two -bonds with other C-atom as
shown in figure.
 
 
sp sp
sp 
H C C H H C C H H–CC–H
 

pz pz pz pz
py py py py
2
Q. Define sp -hybridization and write down its characteristics.
2. sp2 hybridization
The mixing of one s-orbital and two p-orbitals to form three sp2 hybrid orbital of the central atom of given molecule or
ion is known as sp2 hybridization.

sp2 120º
One + Two Three or or
2p sp2
1s
sp2 sp2
2
Characteristics of sp -hybrid orbitals
i. Three sp2-hybrid orbitals so formed are symmetrical in shape and equivalent in energy.
ii. These hybrid orbitals are plannar with bond angle 120º and hence sp2 hybridization is also called trigonal
hybridization.
iii. Each sp2-hybrid orbital has 33% s-character and 67% p-character.
 +
Examples: Formation of BCl3, BF3, C2H4, SO3 CH etc.
3
Q. Explain the orbital picture of
a. BCl3 b. C2H4
a. Formation of BCl3
` Central atom B in its ground state⟶ ⥮ ⥮ ↿
1s 2s 2p
Central atom B in its excited state ⟶ ⥮ ↿ ↿ ↿
1s 2s 2p
sp2-hybridization
↿ ↿ ↿
sp2 sp2 sp2

Now each of sp2-orbital of B-atom can overlap with 3pz orbital of three CI-atom forming three -bond

Cl


sp2 Cl
3pz
B +3 Cl z B B 120º

 Cl Cl
sp2 
sp2 Cl
Cl

b. Formation of C2H4
C-atom in its ground state ⟶ ⥮ ⥮ ↿ ↿
1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz
C atom in its excited state ⟶ ⥮ ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿
1s 2s 2p

sp2-hybridization
↿ ↿ ↿ ↿
sp2 sp2 sp2 2pz
(pure unhybrid orbital)
Hybrid orbitals
Here, each C-atom has three sp2-hybrid orbitals and one pure 2pz orbital. Two sp2-hybrid orbitals overlap with two
H-atom (1s), rest one sp2-hybrid orbital overlaps with sp2-hybrid orbital of other C-atom. The pure orbital 2p1z of
one carbon atom forms -bond with pure orbital of 2p1z of another carbon atom. In this way, there is carbon to
carbon double bond in ethene is more of one -bond and one -bond as shown in the figure.
 
sp2 sp2 sp2 
H H H H
1s H C C H 
C C C=C
 H H
sp2 sp2 1s H H
pz H pz
H
1s 1s
Figure 5.8: Orbital picture of ethene molecule
3
Q. Define sp -hybridization and write down its characteristics.
sp3-hybridization
In this type of hybridization one s-and three p-orbitals of the valence shell of central atom of the given molecule or ion
combine to form four sp3-hybrid orbitals as follows.
Y
Y Y Y
Z Z
Z
X + X + X X

Z
s-orbital
2px-orbital 2py-orbital 2pz-orbital

sp3 hybridization

109º28'
sp3 or

sp3 sp3
sp3
Figure 5.9: Formation of sp3- hybrid orbitals
Characteristics of sp3 -hybrid orbitals
i. All the four sp3 -hybrid orbitals are symmetrical in shape and equivalent in energy.
ii. These hybrid orbitals are directed towards the four corners of a regular tehrahedron and the angle between each
pair of them is 109º28'. It is also called tetrahedral hybridization.
iii. Each sp3 -hybrid orbital has 25% s-character and 75% p-character.
+ –
Example: CH4, C2H6, CCL4, SiH4, NH4, NH3, H2O, ClO4 etc
Q. Explain the orbital picture of
a. CH4
Ans: CH4 molecule
Each of the four sp3 hybrid orbitals is singly occupied and overlaps with 1s-orbitals (singly occupied) of four H-atoms
and forms four equivalent bonds in CH4 molecule resulting carbon at the centre of a regular tetrahedron and four
hydrogen atoms at the corner.
The covalent bonds formed by the overlap of sp3 orbitals and s-orbitals are sigma () bonds because the electron
density in each bond is symmetrical about the line joining the centers of two bonded atoms. Thus, all C – H bonds in
methane are sigma bonds. Methane has a tetrahedral structure and all the C – H bonds are identical. They are of same
length (1.09Aº ). The angle between any pairs of bonds (HCH) is 109.5º.

Central atom C in its ground state⟶ ⥮ ⥮ ↿ ↿

1s 2s 2p
Central atom C in its excited state ⟶ ⥮ ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿
1s 2s 2p
 sp3-hybridization
↿ ↿ ↿ ↿
sp3 sp3 sp3 sp3
1s
H H

sp3 109.5°
sp3 º C
sp3 H 1s 1.09A
C H
 H
1s H sp3 H
  H
1s
Figure 5.10: Covalent bonding in methane

Bond Characteristics
Chemical bonding refers to the formation of a chemical bond between two or more atoms, molecules or ions to give rise to a
chemical compound. Chemical bonds are those which keep the atoms together in the resulting compound. Each of particular
type of chemical bonding can be characterized by three parameters namely bond length, ionic character and dipole moment.
Q. Define bond length of various types.
Ans: Bond length is defined as the distance between the nuclei of two bonded atom. The bond length of homo-nuclear
diatomic molecule of X2 is calculated by using,
d(x – x) = 2r …… (i) Where r is the radius of nuclei X.
Example:
Homo-nuclear molecule Bond type Bond length (Å)
H2 H–H 0.74
Cl2 Cl – Cl 1.98
H3C – CH3 C–C 1.54
The bond length of hetero-diatomic molecule of type AB is calculated by using,
d(A – B) = rA + rB ……. (ii) Where, rA = radius of nucleus A and rB = radius of nucleus B
Homonuclear diatomic molecule Bond type Bond length (Å)
NH3 N–H 1.008
HCN CN 1.16
BCl3 B – Cl 1.72
This formula in equation (ii) holds good in most of the hetero-atomic molecule. However, the experimental value of d (A –
B) in case of many AB type molecules is slightly less than (rA + rB) value. The decrease in bond length is due to the ionic
character in A – B bond. When we consider the ionic character of the bond, then the formula in equation (ii) is modified as,
From equation (ii), d(A – B) = rA + rB – 0.09 (XA – XB) ……. (iii)
Where, XA and XB are the electronegatives of A and B respectively.
The validity of equation (iii) can be shown by calculating the N – C distance in (CH3)3N molecule using above equations,
d(N – C) = rN + rC = 0.75 + 0.77 = 1.52 Å
This value is not in agreement with the experimental value 1.477Å but it would be in the agreement with this value while
we use equation (iii) as,
d(N – C) = rN + rC – 0.09 (XN – XC)
= 0.75 + 0.77 – 0.09 (3 – 2.5) = 1.475Å
5.10.2 Ionic Character
In order to understand the ionic character of covalent molecules, one first understands the concept of polar and non-polar
covalent bond of the covalent molecules.
Q. Define Polar and Non-polar Covalent bonds with suitable examples.
Ans: Non-polar covalent bond: The covalent bond in which the shared pair of electrons are equally distributed between
 H, Cl –––
the participating atoms are known as non-polar covalent bonds . Example: H –––  Cl etc.
 

Polar covalent bond: The covalent bond formed between the two dissimilar type of atoms of a molecule (heteronuclear
diatomic molecule) in which the shared pair electrons are attracted towards highly electronegative atom is called polar
covalent bond. During the formation of polar covalent bond, the highly electronegative atom acquires a partial negative
charge (⸹–) and the other atom acquires a partial positive charge (⸹+). Example: H – Cl, H – Br, H – I, N – H, O – H etc
bonds are polar in nature.
In HCl molecule, Cl atom is more electronegative than H – atom and hence the shared pair electrons are drawn by Cl atom
towards itself consequently, partial negative (⸹–) and partial positive charge (⸹+) are developed on Cl and H atoms
respectively. Thus, HCl bond becomes polar in nature.
+ –
 
H ––– Cl or H – Cl Polar covalent bond
(ionic character)

Q. Explain the factors that determine the percentage ionic character in a covalent bond.
Ans: There are two factors that determines the percent ionic character of covalent bond
1. The electronegativity differences of the bonded atoms
2. Dipole moment of the polar molecules
1. Electronegativity differences of the bonded atoms
The amount of ionic character in a polar covalent bond depends upon the difference of electronegativity values of the
bonded atoms. Greater is the difference, grater is the percentage of ionic character in the polar covalent bond.
The percentage of ionic character of polar covalent compound can be calculated by using two equations.
a. Pauling equation: According to Pauling, percentage of ionic character of binary compound may be given as,
Percentage ionic character = [1 – e–0.25 (XA – XB)]%
Where, XA and XB are the electronegativities of A and B respectively.
b. Hannary-Smith equation: According the Hannary-Smith (1946) percentage ionic character of A – B molecule
is,
Percentage ionic character = [16(XA – XB) + 3.5 (XA – XB)2]%
The following points may be noted for % ionic character for the molecule.
+ –
 
 When XA – XB = 1.7, the amount of ionic character in A – B bond is 50% and that of covalent character is
also 50%.
+ –
 
 When XA – XB < 1.7 (0.1 to 0.8), the amount of ionic character in A – B bond is less than 50% i.e. the bond
is more covalent in character. Hence it is represented as A – B
– +
 
 When XA – XB > 1.7, the amount of ionic character in A – B bond is more than 50% i.e. the bond has it is
represented as A– B+ more ionic character.
Q. Calculate the % ionic character in KCl bond if electronegativity values of K and Cl are 0.8 and 3.0
respectively. Also predict the nature of KCl molecule.
Solution:
XA – XB = XCl – XK = 3 – 0.8 = 2.2
 % ionic character in K – Cl bond = [16 × 2.2 + 3.5 × (2.2)2]% = 52.14%
Since the ionic character so obtained is more than 50% i.e. KCl is an ionic molecule.
2. Dipole moment of the polar molecule
If the theoretical and experimental value of dipole moment () of any diatomic molecule is known, then % ionic
character can be calculated.
Experimental value of dipole moment
Percentage ionic character = × 100
Theoretical value of dipole moment
Q. Calculate the % ionic character of HCl molecule, if the distance between the charge is 1.7 × 10–8 cm
and experimental dipole moment is 1.03 D.
Solution:
 Charge (q) = 4.8 × 10–10 esu
Distance between charge (d) = 1.7 × 10–8 cm
Theoretical dipole moment = q × d = 4.8 × 10–10 × 1.7 × 10–8
= 6.12 × 10–18 esu. cm = 6.12 D
Experimental dipole moment
% ionic character = × 100
Theoretical dipole moment
1.03
= = 17%
6.12
Thus, the molecule is more covalent in character.

Q. Define dipole and dipole moment. At what condition the value of dipole moment is zero?
Ans: When two atoms linked by a chemical bond differ in their electronegativities, the more electronegative atom pulls
the electron pair towards itself creating a partial negative charge and other atom becoms a partial positive charge. A covalent
molecule with a partial positive charge at one end and a partial negative charge at the other end is called dipole and the
degree of polarity of that molecule is known as dipole moment. It is denoted by.
Mathematically,
Dipole moment () may be defined as the product of magnitude of electric charge (q) and the distance (d) between the
positive and negative centers.
Dipole moment = Electric charge × Distance between the atoms
= q × d
The dipole moment,  is generally expressed in terms of esu. cm or the Debye unit (D). Since the charge q is of the order of 10–10
esu and distance d is in of order 10–8 cm and hence dipole moment,  is in the order of 10–18 esu. cm which is called Debye
(D)
i.e., 1 D = 10–18 esu.cm
The dipole moment is a vector quantity and is represented by arrow ( ) pointing towards more electronegative element.
For example, when HCl molecule is formed, the shared pair of electrons is drawn near Cl atom, leaving a small positive
charge (⸹+) on the H atom and a small negative charge (⸹–) on the Cl atom. Hence molecule becomes dipole and has a
dipole moment.
–
H . . Cl H+ : Cl (dipolar) or H Cl.
The dipole moment of HCl is 1.03 D ( > 0). Hence it is polar in nature. Similarly dipole moment of CO2 molecule is zero
( = 0). Hence it is non-polar in nature. Thus the value of dipole moment can be utilized to predict the polarity of the
molecules.
Examples of some molecules with dipole moment zero
a. CO2 molecule: In CO2, both the carbon-oxygen bonds are polar. Since the molecule is linear, the dipole moment of C
= O bond on one side of the molecule is cancelled by that on the other side of the molecule to give net zero dipole
moment. Therefore, CO2 molecule is non-polar.

O = C = O (Resultant  = 0) F
b. BF3 molecule: In BF3 molecule, the bond moment of three B – F
bonds give a net sum of zero dipole moment since the resultant B + (resultant  = 0)
of any two is equal but opposite to the third. It makes BF3 a non-polar F F
molecule.
2. If the molecules are unsymmetrical such as H2O, NH3 etc, then the value of net dipole moment is not zero and hence
such molecules show polar character. Example
a. H2O molecule: Water molecules has a bent structure with bond O
angle equal to 104.5º. Therefore, its dipole moment is not zero. The bond moment
H H
of one O – H bond is not cancelled by another O – H bond. So, water molecules Resultant  = 1.84 D
has a dipole moment equal to 1.84D.
b.NH3 molecule: The ammonia molecule has pyramidal structure.
N
The individual bond moments of three N – H bonds give the resultant
H H
dipolement as 1.49D. Hence the NH3 molecule is polar in nature. H
Resultant  = 1.49 D
Q. Define van der Waal’s Force and explain its types.
Ans: van der Waals force can be defined as the very short lived intermolecular (or inter-atomic) attractive force which is
able to hold atoms, molecules or ions which are sufficiently come close to each other. van der Waal was able to explain the
cause to solidify and liquefy the non polar gases like H2, N2, O2, CH4 and inert gases at high pressure and low temperature.
Types of van der Waals Forces
There are four types of van der Waal Forces
1. Dipole-dipole interaction
This is strongest type of van der Waal forces and found in the polar molecules having permanent polarity in them.
When polar molecules come close to each other, they orient themselves in such a way that the positive end of one
dipole attracts the negative end of another dipole and vice-versa as shown in figure. This type of interaction occurs in
the HCl, H2O etc.
– + – – – +
+
+ – + – + –
– +
+
+ –
a. dipoles of polar b. Non-oriented
molecules dipole
c. oriented dipoles
Fig. Dipole-dipole interaction
+ – + – + –
H Cl H Cl H Cl
Figure 5.11: Dipole-dipole interaction of H – Cl molecule
2. Ion-Dipole interactions + –
This type of force of attraction can be observed between
– Cation + anion
the ions of ionic molecules and polar molecules like water,
NH3 etc. During interaction, the negative end of dipoles + – Na+ – + – + Cl– + –
is attracted towards the cation while the positive end
– dipoles +
is attracted towards the anion. Example: When an ionic
substance NaCl is dissolved in polar solvent water, the + –
negative end of dipole of water molecule surrounds the
Na+ ions (cation) and positive end of dipole of water
molecule surrounds the Cl– (anion) as shown in figure. Figure 5.12: Ion-dipole interaction
3. Dipole-induced dipole interaction
This type of interactions can be observed between dipoles of polar molecules and non polar molecules. When non-
polar molecules come close to polar molecules, the positive end of polar molecules attracts the mobile electrons of
non-polar molecules and thus polarity is induced in non-polar molecules as shown in figure. In doing so, both polar
and non-polar molecule appears as dipoles and there is attraction between positive ends of the polar molecule with
electron cloud of non-polar molecules. This type of attraction is also called Debye forces. Example: Oxygen in water,
Iodine in water.
+ – + – +  –
A B A B

Permanent dipole Non-polar Induced dipole

(polar)
Dipole-induced dipole interaction
+
– + –
H
O=O O
H
+
Induced dipole dipole
Figure 5.13: Dipole-induced dipole interaction of oxygen molecule in water
4. Instantaneous dipole and induced dipole interactions
This type of interaction can be observed in non-polar molecules such as diatomic gases like H2, O2, N2, Cl2 etc as well
as mono-atomic noble gases like He, Ne, Ar, etc.
There is symmetrical distribution of electron cloud in the non-polar atom or molecule. The symmetrically distributed
electron cloud in the non-polar atom or molecule becomes denser in one side of the atom or molecules than the other
side and thus the symmetry get disturbed for a moment. The displacement of electron cloud creates an instantaneous
dipole temporarily. When this instantaneous dipole comes close to the non-polar molecule or atom, it creates dipole in
the non-polar molecule or atom which is called induced dipole as shown in figure. The interaction between
instantaneous dipole and induced dipole is called instantaneous dipole and induced dipole interaction which is weakest
among the van-der Walls forces. Such type of interaction is also called London dispersion force.

+ + – + –

Non-polar molecule Instantaneous Induced

or atom dipole dipole
Figure 5.14: Instantaneous dipole and induced dipole interactions
Application of van der Waal Force
1. van der Waals force is responsible for the explanation of possibility of solidification and liquidification of inert gas and
some other gases.
2. Certain crystalline solids are soft and having low melting point which are due to the fact that the constituent particles
of crystalline solids are held together by weak van der Waal forces.
3. van der Waal force plays fundamental role in fields such as structural biology, polymer science, nanotechnology,
surface science etc.

Q. Define hydrogen bonding and explain the condition for the formation of
hydrogen bonding
Ans: The attractive electrostatic force between a hydrogen atom which is already covalently bonded with the strongly
electronegative atom (N, O, or F) of a molecule and another electronegative atom of some other molecule (same molecule
or different molecule) is known as hydrogen bond. Example:
Consider a polar covalent compound HF, in which F is more electronegative atom. F atom being highly electronegative
attracts the pair of bonding electron towards itself and develops partial negative charge (Fδ-) and H atom acquires partial
positive charge (Hδ+). The electrostatic force of attraction between partial positive charge (Hδ+) of one molecule of HF and
partial negative charge(Fδ-) of another molecule of HF is called hydrogen bond which is denoted by dotted line(…..) in the
given figure.
Hδ+ Fδ- ……… Hδ+ Fδ- …….Hδ+ Fδ-…….. Hδ+ Fδ-……

Hydrogen bond

Condition for the Formation of Hydrogen Bond

In order to form hydrogen bond the following conditions should be required:
1. Hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to highly electronegative atom (F or N or F).
2. The size of the highly electronegative element should be small. Example: N and Cl both have same electronegativity
value but Cl atom is not capable of forming hydrogen bonding due to its large size.

Q. Explain the types of hydrogen bond.

Ans: The hydrogen bonds are of two types:
1. Intermolecular hydrogen bond
Hydrogen bond formed between H atom of one molecule and N, O or F atom of another molecule of same or different
substance is known as intermolecular H– bond.
Example:
+ – + – + –
H  F H  F H  F
 Intermolecular H – bond in HF.
+ – + – + –
H  O H   H 

H H H
Intermolecular H – bond in H2O.
+ – – + – + –
H  O +
H  O H   H  

R R R R
Intermolecular H – bond in alcohol

H H

H N H O H N H O H N H

H H H H H
Hydrogen bond of ammonia with water
2. Intra-molecular hydrogen bond
Hydrogen bond formed between the H atom and the highly electronegative atoms like N, O, F present in the same
molecule, is called intra-molecular hydrogen bond. Examples: Ortho-nitrophenol, ortho hydroxy benzaldehyde, Ortho–
nitrobenzoic acid.
O
O O
H N
N O
O O H
C
H C
O O
H
O
O–nitrophenol O–hydroxy benzaldehyde O–nitro benzoic acid

Q. Explain the effect of hydrogen bond in some hydrogen bond containing molecules.
1. High melting and boiling points
The compounds having intermolecular hydrogen bonding show abnormally high melting and boiling points. It is due to
the facts that some extra energy is required to break these bonds and to separate the molecules. The boiling points of
some hydrides of same groups are given below.
Group VA GroupVA Group VIIA
PH3 = –85°C H2S = –61.8°C HCl = –85°C
NH3 = –33°C H2O = 100°C HF = 19.4°C
2. Association of molecules
The molecules of same substance may be joined by H- bonds to form the bigger aggregates. The formation of
aggregates i.e. bigger units is called association. Example: Two molecules of carboxylic acids exist as dimers because
of hydrogen bonding as follows.
O H O
R C C R
O H O

Figure 5.15: Carboxylic acid form dimer due to hydrogen bond.

Some facts about water molecule can be explained using association of molecules due to hydrogen bonding.
a. Ice is less dense than liquid water: The structure of ice forms the cage like structure due to association of
molecules with hydrogen bonding. There are large empty spaces in the cage structure and hence it takes large
volume and hence there is decrease in density. The cage like structure is not found in water therefore, ice is less
dense than liquid structure.
b. Density of water is maximum at 4°C: Ice has the open cage like structure with large vacant space between the
molecules. When heat is applied, the H-bonds start breaking and thus water molecules come closer and acquire
lesser volume. As a result, the density increases. This increase continues upto 4ºC. After 4ºC, the increase in
volume due to expansion of the liquid water becomes much more than the decrease in volume due to breaking of
H-bonds. The increases in volume decrease the density of water. It means, the density of water is maximum at
4ºC.
c. H2O is liquid while H2S is gas: H2O exists as a liquid under ordinary conditions while the hydrides of other
elements of the same group, i.e. H2S, H2Se and H2Te exist as gases under the same conditions.
Oxygen atom is more electronegative than S, Se and Te atoms. As a result, there is considerable H-bonding in
H2O molecules while it is absent is H2S, H2Se and H2Te molecules. Thus H2O molecules can associate to form a
polymerized molecule, (H2O)n while the other molecules cannot do so. Due to this reason water exists as a liquid
while H2S, H2Se and H2Te exists as gases  –  –
H–O H–O
H H
Hydrogen bond
3. Solubility
Hydrogen bonding also accounts for the unusual solubilites of some covalent compounds containing N, O and F. A
compound which can form hydrogen bond with a solvent is soluble in such solvent. For example, NH3, alcohol, amines
of low molecular weight are soluble in water as they can form intermolecular hydrogen bonding (denoted by dotted
line) with water.
–  –  –
H–O H–O H–O
C2H5 H C2H5
H-bonding of ethanol with water
4. Viscosity and surface tension
The molecules which are capable to form hydrogen bonding exist as associated molecules. Due to this reason, their
flow becomes comparatively difficult. It means they have higher viscosity and surface tension. Due to the presence of
intermolecular hydrogen bonding, glycerol, conc. H2SO4, honey etc are highly viscous.
Glycerol (CH2OH – CHOH – CH2OH) is more viscous than ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) because glycerol has three OH groups
in its molecule and hence can form more number of hydrogen bonds.
Effects of Intra-molecular Hydrogen Bonding
The intra-molecular hydrogen bonding decreases the boiling point and melting point of compound and also decreases its
solubility.
The intra-molecular hydrogen bonding prevents the association of molecules. In other words, the molecules are present in
discrete state and low energy is sufficient to overcome the intermolecular forces. Thus the boiling point decreases.
Similarly, the formation of internal hydrogen bond prevents hydrogen bonding between the compound and the solvent
which reduces solubility of compound in the given solvent. Some consequences of intra-molecular H-bonding are given
below.
1. The boiling point of O-nitrophenol is over than that of P-nitrophenol
This is due to intramolecular H-bonding in o-nitrophenol which prevents association of molecules. But in p-
nitrophenol, there is no intra-molecular H-bond and – OH groups are available to form intermolecular H-bond between
them. As a result, the boiling point of p-nitrophenol increases
Inter molecular
H-bonding
O–H O=N O
O
H
Intramolecular
H-bonding
N= O

O O N=O H–O
(a) o-nitrophenol (b) p-nitrophenol
2. The melting point of para-hydroxybenzoic acid is higher than that of ortho-hydroxybenzoic acid
In P-hydroxybenzoic acid, the association of molecules takes place through H-bonding and increases its melting point.
But intramolecular H-bonding occurs in case of O-hydroxybenzoic acid which gives discrete molecule and hence
decreases the melting point of the substance.
O
H
Intramolecular
H-bonding
C = O

OH
o-hydroxy benzoic acid

Q. What are the significance of hydrogen bonding?

Hydrogen bonds are essential to life on earth. It is useful to explain various processes occurring around us. Example:
i. Water is present in liquid state due to intermolecular H-bonding. Otherwise, it would have existed as a gas like H2S. In
such case, life would have been impossible.
ii. Hydrogen bonding accounts for the mechanism of polymerization and hence the formation of macromolecules.
iii. Wood fibers become more rigid due to H-bonding and hence they may be used to meet the requirements of housing,
furniture etc.
iv. Molecules of our food materials like sugars, carbohydrates also consist of H-bonding.
v. The rigidity and tensile strength of cotton, silk etc is due to the H-bonding in them.
vi. H-bonding also plays a significant role in biological processes. It exists in various tissues, organs, blood, skins and
bones in animals.

Q. What is metallic bonding? Explain the theory to hold metal atoms together in
the metallic bonding.
Ans: The bond which holds metal atoms together in the metallic kernel is called metallic bonding.
In order to explain the nature of bonding in metal crystals, Drude (1900) and Lorentz (1923) proposed a theory which
is called free electron theory or electron sea theory.
According to this theory, metallic crystal consists of three dimensional network of positively charged core (Kernels:
the nucleus and inner shells) which are immersed in a sea of mobile valence electrons. As metals have low ionization
energy, their valence electrons are held very loosely. It means they are almost like free electrons. Thus these valence
electrons can move from one place to another through the empty valence orbitals and are shared simultaneously by all
the atoms. The simultaneous force of attraction between mobile electrons and positively charged kernels which holds
the metal atoms together is called the metallic bond. Since the electrons are free to move in all directions like the
molecules of a gas, this model is called electron gas model.

+ + + + Kernel

+ + + Valence electrons

+ + + +

+ + +

Figure 5.16: Electron sea model for metals

Q. Explain the following characteristics properties of metals on the basis of free electron theory
a. Electrical conductivity b. Thermal conductivity c. Metallic lusters d. Malleability and ductility
Ans:
a. Electrical conductivity: The mobile electrons are free to move through the vacant space between metal ions.
When an electric field is applied across a metal, the mobile electrons move towards the positive electrode and the
new electrons from the negative pole take their positions. This constitutes the flow of current. Therefore metals
are good conductor of electricity.
b. Thermal conductivity: When a part of the metal is heated, mobile electrons absorb heat energy and increase their
vibrational motion. They collide with adjacent electrons and transfer the heat energy. Thus the heat is conducted
throughout the metal.

+ + + +
Heat energy Transfer of heat energy

+ + + +

Figure 5.17: Thermal conductivity of metals

c. Metallic lusters : When light falls on the surface of a metal, the mobile electrons absorb the photons of light. As
a result, the electrons start vibrating. The vibrating electrons emit electromagnetic radiations of same frequency as
incident light. Thus the incident light appears to be reflected from the surface of the metal and the surface gains
shining appearance which is known as metallic lustre.
d. Malleability and ductility: As the metallic bond is non-directional, metals can be twisted, drawn into wires or
beaten into sheets. This is because the position of kernels can be changed easily by applying any stress to adjust
into a new position as shown in figure.
 New position
Stress applied + + + + +
e– e– e– e – e – e–
+ + + + + +
e – e – e– e – e – e–
(a) Before stress applied (b) After stress applied
Figure 5.18: Illustration of malleable and ductile
Solved Questions
1. Why boiling point of H2O is higher than that of H2S?
Ans: In H2S, the H–bonding is not effective due to large size and small electronegativity of sulphur in comparison to
oxygen. Due to absence of H–bonding in H2S, its boiling point is low. On the other hand due to large difference
between electronegativities of oxygen and hydrogen atoms of H2O molecules, they form H–bonds with each other.
Due to H–bonding boiling point of water gets raised.
2. Explain why the dipole moment of NH3 is more than that of NF3?
 
Ans: In case of NH3, the dipole moments of three N–H bonds are in same
direction as that of lone pair. But in NF3, the dipole moments of three N–F
bonds oppose that of lone pair. Hence, dipole moment of NF3 is low.
N N
3. Why sodium chloride is a good conductor of electricity in fused state
but bad conductor of electricity in solid state? H H F F
+ – H F
Ans: In fused state Na ions and Cl ions are free to move and this conduct
electric current. But in solid state their ions are not free. They are held by strong electrostatic forces of attraction.
4. Explain why CO2 molecule has a zero dipole moment although C = O bond are polar?
Ans: In carbon dioxide molecule, there are two C = O bonds. Each C = O bond is polar.
But since the molecule is linear the dipole moment of one C=O bond cancel that of other
C = O bond giving net zero dipole moment.

O C O
Resultant dipole moment  = 0
5. What is octet rule?
Ans: Atoms with eight electrons in their outermost shell are most stable. For example, inert gases except helium have
octet. In order to become stable, most other atoms try to acquire octet. This tendency of atoms is the cause of
chemical combination. This rule is known as octet rule.
6. Write the lewis dot structures of the following:
a. MgCl2 b. Al2O3
Ans: a. MgCl2

Cl + Mg + Cl Cl– Mg++ Cl– or MgCl2

b. Al2O3
O
Al
O 2Al3+ + 3O2– or Al2O3
Al
O
7. Write down the Lewis structure of the compound formed by two elements A and B whose outermost electrons
are represented by 3s2 and 3s23p5 respectively.
Ans: The outermost electronic configuration of A is 3s2. It means it has 2 electrons in a valence shell and is metal.
Similarly the outermost electronic configuration of B is 3s23p5 having 7 electrons in its valence shell and is non-
metal. Here, metal atom (A) donates its two valence electrons to non-metal atom (B) to attain octet. Hence they form
ionic bond as shown below:
B ×A× B B– A++ B– or AB2
8. BF3 molecule is non-polar though it contains three polar B–F bond. Give reason
Ans: There are three electron pairs around B. So, it has trigonal planar structure.
F

B Net dipole moment () = 0

F F

Here the individual B – F bond is polar having certain dipole moment. But due to the planar structure of BF3, the
dipole moments of three B – F bonds cancel out each other. Hence the net dipole moment is zero. As a result, the BF3
as a whole is a non-polar molecule.

9. H2O is liquid but H2S is gas. Explain.

Ans: Water molecules are linked with each other by intermolecular hydrogen bonding which is stronger. But H2S cannot
form hydrogen bonding. There is weak van der Waal's force among the molecules of H2S. Thus the molecules of
water get associated due to the presence of inter-molecular hydrogen bond and exists as liquid but H2S exists as gas
due to the lack of such association among the molecules.
– + H2S
H O H O
van der Waal's force
H H
H2S
H – bonding
10. Write the Lewis structure of the following compounds:
a. CH3OH b. HNO3 c. CaCO3
Ans: a. CH3OH
H H
×
H × C × O× H or H C O H
×
H H
b. HNO3
O O
H O N H O N
O O
c. CaCO3
Ca Ca++ + 2e–
–
C + 2e C– – O ––
––
C +3 O O C

Ca++ + CO3– – CaCO3

11. Write the resonance structures of the following:
a. Ozone (O3) b. SO3 c. NO
Ans: a. Ozone (O3)
+
O 1.278Aº

O O–
116.8º
(I) (II)
Resonance structure Resonance hybrid
b. SO3

O O
O
S
S S S
O O O O
O O
Resonance hybrid
Resonance structure
c. NO
 ×
×N O ×N O Delocalisation of odd electron
× ×

12. How would you predict the molecular geometry of NH3 based on VSEPR model?
Ans: In NH3, central atom nitrogen has three bonding electron pairs and one lone pair of electron. According to VSEPR
theory, four electron pairs give a tetraheadral structure. But slight distortion from tetrahedral occurs due to the
presence of lone pair of electrons. According to VSEPR theory, lone pair-bond pair repulsion is more than bond-pair-
bond pair repulsion of electrons. As a result, the bond angle in H – N – H is found to be 107º instead of tetrahedral
bond angle 109º 28'

H N H
lp-bp lp-bp repulsion
H N
Lewis structure

107º H
H
H
13. Write any two important characters of tetrahedral hybridization.
Ans: Two important characters of tetrahedral hybridization are as follow:
a. It involves the sp3 hybridization which is formed by the combination of one s and 3p orbitals of an atom. It has
33.33% s-character and 66.67% of p-character.
b. The bond angle between two adjacent bonds is 109º28'. For example, methane molecule is tetrahedral in shape
with H – C – H bond angle 109º 28'.
14. Draw the orbital picture of ethyne (C2H2)
Ans: Carbon atom of ethyne involves sp-hybridization. It contains three sigma bonds and two Pi-bonds having the bond
angle 180º.
Electronic configuration of C = 1s22s22p2
In terms of box notation,
1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz
In ground state ⥮ ⥮ ↿ ↿

In excited state ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿

sp-hybridization
Sp Sp 2py 2pz
↿ ↿ ↿ ↿ Here 2py and 2pz are unhybrid orbitals
 2py 2py 2py
2pz 2pz 2pz

H H or H – C C–H
sp sp

Objective Questions
1. Which of the following statements regarding covalent is not true?
a. The electron are shared between atoms
b. The bond is non-directional
c. The strength of the bond depends upon the extent of overlapping
d. The bond formed may or may not be polar.
2. Which of the following compounds is capable of forming hydrogen bonding?
a. C6H5CH3 b. C6H5NO2
c. C2H5OH d. C6H5Cl
3. Which of the following contains both covalent and ionic bonds?
a. CHCl3 b. MgCl2
c. NH4Br d. HCl
4. The bond angle in water is 104.5° whereas in Hydrogen sulphide is 92.5° because
a. Size of oxygen smaller than that of sulphur
b. Electronegativity of sulphur is less than that of oxygen
c. Intermolecular hydrogen bond
d. Presence of d–orbital
5. Structure of NH3 molecule is
a. Tetrahedral b. Pyramidal
c. Angular d. Linear
6. H2O is liquid while H2S is gas because
a. the molecular weight of H2S is greater than that of H2O
b. of the hydrogen bonding in water molecules
c. of the electrostatic attraction in H2S molecules
d. H–O–H bond angle is greater than H–S–H bond angle
7. The number of π bonds in naphthalene are
a. 6 b. 3
c. 4 d. 5
(Hints: There are 5 double bonds in napthalene )
8. Which of the following is the weakest bond?
a. Electrovalent bond b. Covalent bond
c. metallic bond d. van Waal’s bond
9. Which contains both polar and non-polar bond?
a. NH4Cl b. HCN
c. H2O2 d. CH4
(Hints: In H2O2 ( H-O-O-H), O-O bond is non-polar and H-O bonds are polar.)
10. Which of following has least polarity in bond?
a. H-F b. H-Cl
c. H-O d. H-S
(Hints: The electronegativity value of an atom determines the polarity of bond(low value low polarity)
Electronegativity order is F˃Cl˃O˃S.
11. Which of the following substances has the least ionic character?
a. FeCl2 b. ZnCl2
c. CdCl2 d. MgCl2
 (Hints: Among Zn, Cd, and Hg, Zn has smaller in size so it has least ionic character and on comparing ionic size of
Fe and Zn , Zn has smaller size . Finally the electronegativity value of Mg is less than Zn. Higher the
electronegativity difference greater is the polarity).
12. Which of the following molecules contain no π Bond?
a. H2O b. SO2
c. NO2 d. CO2
(Hints: All contains double nod except H2O)
13. Which of the following has sp2 hybridization?
a. C2H6 b. C2H4
c. BeCl2 d. C2H2
14. According to VSEPR theory , the most probable shape of the molecule having 4 electron pairs in the outermost shell
of the central atom is
a. linear b. tetrahedral
c. hexahedral d. octahedral
15. In OF2, the number of bond pair and lone pair of electrons are respectively
a. 2, 6 b. 2, 8
c. 2, 10 d. 2, 4
16. In which of the following pairs hydrogen bonding is not possible?
a. NH3, NH3 b. NH3, CH4
d. H2O, CH3OCH3 d. CH3OH, CH3OCH3
(Hints: Hydrogen bonding is possible in O,F and N highly electronegative atom with hydrogen atom)
17. NH3 has high boiling point because it has
a. alkaline nature b. distorted shape
3
c. sp hybridization d. hydrogen bonding
18. Which of the following has zero dipole moment?
a. ClF b. PCl3
c. SiF4 d. CFCl3
(Hints: symmetrical structure has zero dipole moment)
19. Which has least bond angle?
a. NH3 b. BeF2
c. H2O d. CH4
(Hints: Bond angles: NH3 (107.5°), BeF2( 180°), H2O(104.5°) and CH4( 109°28’)]
20. Which of the following is soluble in water?
a. CS2 b. C2H5OH
c. CCl4 d. CHCl3
(Hints: All are organic compounds but C2H5OH can form hydrogen bonding with water)
21. The number of possible resonance structure of CO32- is
a. 2 b. 3
c. 4 d. 5
(Hints: negative charge in O can be interchanged into 3 ways)
22. The reason for double helical structure of DNA is due to
a. hydrogen bonding b. van der Wall’s forces
c. dipole- dipole interaction d. electrostatic attraction
23. Which of the following hydrogen bond is the strongest?
a. O–H…..F b. O–H…..H
c. F–H…...F d. O–H…..O
(Hints: Greater the difference between electronegativity of bonded atoms, stronger will be the bond, F-H…F is the
strongest bond.)
24. In a metallic crystal,
 a. both kernels as well as electrons move rapidly
b. the valence electrons remain within the field of influence of their kernels
c. the valence electrons constitute sea of mobile electrons
d. the valence electrons are delocalized between two kernels
25. A metallic bond is
a. ionic b. polar covalent
c. non-polar covalent d. electrostatic in nature

Answer Key
1. b 2. c 3. c 4. b 5. b 6. b 7. d 8. d 9. c 10. d
11. b 12. a 13. b 14. b 15. b 16. b 17. d 18. c 19. c 20. b
21. b 22. b 23. c 24. c 25. d

Exercise - 5
VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. Mention the requirement for a molecule to fulfill the formation of hydrogen bond.
2. Write any two applications of dipole moment
3. What is meant by intramolecular hydrogen bonding? Give an example of it.
4. Write the Lewis structure of
a. CH3OH b. CaCO3
5. What is meant by the term polar covalent bond? Name any one compound having polar covalent bond.

6. Write down Lewis structure of

–
a. HCO3 b. MgCl2
7. Write a covalent compound formed by nitrogen and hydrogen. What is its Lewis structure?
8. What is hydrogen bond? Give an example of intramolecular hydrogen bond.
9. Draw the Lewis structure of
a. H2SO3 b. N2O
10. Define dipole moment and give its an important application.
11. How would you explain the polarity of a molecule on the basis of a dipole moment?
12. H2O gets angular structure whereas CO2 gets linear, explain.
13. Define hydrogen bonding and write its two major effects on physical properties of the compounds.
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. What is metallic bonding? Explain the following physical properties of metal according to electron sea theory
a. Electrical conductivity, b. Malleable and ductile
c. Metallic luster
2. Define hydrogen bonding with example and also explain the effect of hydrogen bonding in solubility, viscosity and
surface tension.
3. Define hybridization and its rule.
4. What are the postulates of VSEPR theory and explain the geometry of NH3 according to VSEPR theory.
5. Differentiate between ionic bond and covalent bond with appropriate example.
6. Write down the postulates of electronic theory of valency.
7. Explain the factors that affects the formation of ionic bond.
8. Define resonance and give the resonance structure of
a. O3 b. NO3– c. SO2 d. SO4– –
9. Predict the shape of molecules of CH4 and PCl5 according to VSEPR theory.
10. Write down the postulates of valence bond theory.
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. Write notes on
a. Covalent bond b. VSEPR theory
c. Hydrogen bonding d. Hybridization
2. Explain the following
a. Metallic bonding and explanation of physical properties of metals.
b. Hydrogen bonding and its types with examples.
3. Give the Lewis structure of the following.
2–
AlCl3, H2SO4, NH4Cl, CO3 , C2H4
