Structure & Role of the Mammalian Nervous System

 The human nervous system consists of the:

o central nervous system (CNS) - the brain and the spinal cord
o peripheral nervous system (PNS) - all of the nerves in the body
 It allows us to
o Make sense of our surroundings and respond to them
o Coordinate and regulate body functions
 Information is sent through the nervous system as nerve impulses - electrical signals that
pass along nerve cells known as neurones
 A bundle of neurones is known as a nerve

Nervous System Diagram

The human nervous system

 Neurone Diagrams
 There are three main types of neurone: sensory, relay and motor
o Sensory neurones carry impulses from sense organs to the CNS (brain or spinal
cord)
o Relay neurones are found inside the CNS and connect sensory and motor
neurones
o Motor neurones carry impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands)
 Neurones have a long fibre (axon)
o This means that less time is wasted transferring the impulse from one cell to another
o The axon is insulated by a fatty sheath with small uninsulated sections along it
(called nodes)
o This means that the electrical impulse does not travel down the whole axon,
but jumps from one node to the next
 Their cell body contains many extensions called dendrites
 This means they can connect to many other neurones and receive impulses from them,
forming a network for easy communication

Identifying the Types of Neurone Diagram

Th
e three types of neurone
 
 Sensory neurones are long and have a cell body branching off the middle of the axon
 Relay neurones are short and have a small cell body at one end with many dendrites
branching off it
 Motor neurones are long and have a large cell body at one end with long dendrites
branching off it

Examiner Tip

A way to remember which neurone is which:

Sensory neurones connect a sense organ e.g. eye, nose, tastebuds to the CNS

Motor neurones result in a response, which is often movement; think of a moving motorbike

The Reflex Arc

Voluntary Responses

 A voluntary response is one where you make a conscious decision to carry out a particular action
therefore it starts with your brain
o An example is reaching out to pick up a cup of coffee
 An involuntary (or reflex) response does not involve the brain as the coordinator of the reaction
and you are not aware you have completed it until after you have carried it out
 Involuntary actions are usually ones which are essential to basic survival and are rapid, whereas
voluntary responses often take longer as we consider what the consequences might be before
doing it

Reflex Responses

 An involuntary (or reflex) response does not involve the brain as the coordinator of the reaction
and you are not aware you have completed it until after you have carried it out
 This is an automatic and rapid response to a stimulus such as touching something sharp or hot
 As it does not involve the brain, a reflex response is quicker than any other type of nervous
response
 This helps to minimise the damage to the body
 Reflex Arc Diagram

The reflex arc consists of a specific pathway from stimulus to response through the three
neurone types

Reflex Arc Example

A reflex
Example of a reflex arc

1. The pin (the stimulus) is detected by a pain/pressure/touch receptor in the skin

2. The sensory neurone sends electrical impulses to the spinal cord (the coordinator)
3. The electrical impulse is passed on to the relay neurone in the spinal cord
4. Relay neurones connect to motor neurones and pass the impulse on
5. The motor neurone carries impulse to a muscle in the leg (the effector)
o Note that effectors can be either muscles or glands
6. The muscle will contract and pull the foot up and away from the sharp object (the response)

The reflex pathway

Synapses

 Where two neurons meet, they do so at a junction called a synapse

 Synapses are junctions between neurones, so are important in the nervous system being a
connected network of neurones
 Nerve impulses can transmit across synapses and be directed along the appropriate route by
them e.g. to the correct part of the brain
o Think about the analogy of railway points that guide the trains onto the appropriate tracks
based on that train's destination.

Examiner Tip

Reflex actions are:

1. Automatic
2. Fast
3. Protective

A common exam question is to be asked to draw arrows on the neurones in the reflex arc diagram
to show the direction of movement of the impulse. Make sure you read questions carefully –
not all questions have a line underneath them to write an answer, so they can be easy to miss!

Structure of a Synapse
 The junction between two neurones is known as a synapse
 A synapse consists of:
o The synaptic cleft, also known as the synaptic gap
o The presynaptic knob; here vesicles are found which contain neurotransmitter
molecules
o The postsynaptic membrane, which contains receptor proteins

The junctions between neurones are known as synapses

 Sense Organs as Receptors
 Receptors are groups of specialised cells
 They detect a change in the environment and stimulate electrical impulses in
response
 Sense organs contain groups of receptors that respond to specific stimuli

Sense Organ What it is sensitive to Sense

Skin Heat and cold, pressure, pain Touch (pressure) and temperature
Tongue Chemicals in food and drink Taste
Nose Chemicals in the air Smell
Ear Sounds and movement Hearing and balance
Eye Light Sight

 Once the receptor cell in the sense organ has been stimulated, it generates an electrical
impulse
 This is passed on to a sensory neurone which carries the impulse to the central nervous
system
 Here a response will be decided on and the impulse will be passed to a motor
neurone (via a relay neurone)
 The motor neurone carries the impulse to the effector (muscle or gland)
 The effector carries out the response

Structure & Function of the Eye

 The eye is a sense organ containing receptor cells that are sensitive to light (rod cells) and colour (cone cells)

The eye diagram

 The eye is adapted to detect light stimuli

Function of the eye table

Structure Function

Cornea Transparent lens that refracts (bends) light as it enters the eye

Iris Controls how much light enters the pupil

Lens Transparent disc that can change shape to focus light onto the retina

Ciliary muscles and

Control the shape of the lens
suspensory ligaments

Retina Contains light receptors, some sensitive to light of different colours

Fovea Contains the greatest density of light receptors

Optic nerve Sensory neurone that carries impulses to the brain

The blind spot

 At the point where the optic nerve joins the retina, there are no light-sensitive rod and cone cells on that
part of the retina
 Light falling onto that part of the retina will not result in an image being detected
o the brain 'fills in' from surrounding light so we don't see a black hole where no light has fallen
 This causes a blind spot, where we cannot detect an object in our peripheral vision even if it is there
 The Pupil Reflex - Antagonistic Muscle Action
The pupil reflex

 This is a reflex action carried out to protect the retina from damage in bright light and to increase our ability
to see objects in dim light
o In bright light the pupil constricts (narrows) in order to prevent too much light entering the eye and
damaging the retina
o In dim light the pupil dilates (widens) in order to allow as much light into the eye as possible

Pupil reflex diagram

The pupil reflex protects the retina in bright light and maximises light reaching the retina in low light
Pupil reflex muscles diagram
 Pupil reflex table

Stimulus Radial muscles Circular muscles Pupil size Light entering eye

Bright light Relaxed Contracted Narrow Less

Dim light Contracted Relaxed Wide More

Accommodation
Accommodation: the function of the eye in focusing on near and distant objects

 The way in which the lens brings about fine focusing is called accommodation
 The lens is elastic and its shape can be changed when the suspensory ligaments attached to it
become tight or loose
 The changes are brought about by the contraction or relaxation of the ciliary muscles
 When an object is close up:
o The ciliary muscles contract (the ring of muscle decreases in diameter)
o This causes the suspensory ligaments to loosen
o This stops the suspensory ligaments from pulling on the lens, which allows the lens to become fatter
o Light is refracted more

Focusing on a near object diagram

The ciliary muscles contact and the suspensory ligaments loosen to allow the eye to focus on a near
object

 When an object is far away:

o The ciliary muscles relax (the ring of muscle increases in diameter)
 o This causes the suspensory ligaments to tighten
o The suspensory ligaments pull on the lens, causing it to become thinner
o Light is refracted less

Focusing on a distant object diagram

The ciliary muscles relax and the suspensory ligaments tighten to focus on objects that are far away

Focusing on distant and near objects table

Near objects Distant objects

Ciliary muscles Contracted Relaxed

Suspensory ligaments Loose Tight

Lens Fatter Thinner

Light refraction More Less

Hormones & Their Associated Glands

What is a Hormone?

 A hormone is a chemical substance produced by a gland and carried by the blood

 The hormone alters the activity of one or more specific target organs i.e. they are chemicals
which transmit information from one part of the organism to another and bring about a change
 The glands that produce hormones in animals are known collectively as the endocrine system
 The endocrine system diagram

The endocrine glands secrete hormones into the blood

Important hormones in the human body table

 Hormone Source Effect

Increases heart and breathing rate, dilates

Adrenaline Adrenal glands
pupils

Insulin Pancreas Lowers blood glucose levels

Glucagon Pancreas Raises blood glucose levels

Male sex hormone that develops

Testosterone Testes
secondary male sexual characteristics

Female sex hormone that develops

Oestrogen Ovaries
secondary female sexual characteristics

Female sex hormone that plays a role in

Progesterone Ovaries
the menstrual cycle

Female sex hormone that plays a role in

LH The pituitary gland
the menstrual cycle

Female sex hormone that plays a role in

FSH The pituitary gland
the menstrual cycle

Transport around the body

 Endocrine glands have a good blood supply as when they make hormones they need to get them
into the bloodstream (specifically the blood plasma) as soon as possible so they can travel around
the body to the target organs to bring about the response
 Hormones only affect cells with target receptors that the hormone can bind to. These are either
found on the cell membrane, or inside cells. Receptors have to be complementary to hormones for
there to be an effect.
 The liver regulates levels of hormones in the blood; transforming or breaking down any that are in
excess.
 Hormones travel in the blood to target organs

The Hormone Adrenaline

 Adrenaline is known as the 'fight or flight' hormone as it is produced in situations where
the body may be in danger
o Flight = remove oneself rapidly from a dangerous situation eg. run away
o Fight = if flight is not possible, resort to physical combat to overcome danger
 It causes a range of different things to happen in the body, all designed to prepare it for
movement (i.e. fight or flight)
 These include:
o Increasing blood glucose concentration to deliver more important glucose to
muscle cells for increased respiration
o Increasing pulse rate and breathing rate so glucose and oxygen can be delivered
to muscle cells, and carbon dioxide taken away, from muscles cells more quickly
o Diverting blood flow towards muscles and away from non-essential parts of the
body such as the alimentary canal; again to ensure the reactants of respiration are
as available as possible
o Dilating pupils to allow as much light as possible to reach the retina so more
information can be sent to the brain
 Examples of situations where these effects may occur are:
o Being faced with danger
o An adventurous activity e.g. riding a roller coaster
 o Extreme sport e.g. skydiving or bungee jumping
o Risky behaviour/activity e.g. parkour
o A scary incident e.g. a car accident

Homeostasis
 Homeostasis is defined as the maintenance of a constant internal environment
 Homeostasis means that internal conditions within the body (such as temperature, blood pressure,
water concentration, glucose concentration etc) need to be kept within set limits in order to ensure
that reactions in body cells can function and therefore the organism as a whole can live
 When one of these conditions deviates far away from the normal if not brought back within set limits
the body will not function properly and the eventual consequence without medical intervention will
be death

The Concept of Negative Feedback

 Negative feedback occurs when conditions change from the ideal or set point and returns conditions
to this set point
 It works in the following way:
o if the level of something rises, control systems are switched on to reduce it again
o if the level of something falls, control systems are switched on to raise it again
 Negative feedback mechanisms are usually a continuous cycle of bringing levels down and then
bringing them back up so that overall, they stay within a narrow range of what is considered
‘normal’

Negative Feedback Diagram

The negative feedback cycle

 The Skin & Homeostasis
 Control of body temperature is a homeostatic mechanism
 Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment
 This means that internal conditions within your body (such as temperature, blood pressure, water
concentration, glucose concentration etc) need to be kept within set limits in order to ensure that
reactions in body cells can function and therefore the organism as a whole can live
 The human body maintains the temperature at which enzymes work best, around 37°C
 If body temperature increases over this temperature, enzymes will denature and become less
effective at catalysing reactions such as respiration
 The brain is responsible for regulating body temperature through responses in specialist
structures within the skin
 Fatty tissue under the dermis acts as a layer of insulation to prevent too much body heat being lost
through the skin

The Structure of the Skin

A cross-section of human skin

 Maintaining a Constant Internal Temperature
Temperature Regulation & the Hypothalamus

 Regulation is controlled by the hypothalamus of the brain which contains receptors sensitive to the
temperature of the blood
 The skin also has temperature receptors and sends nervous impulses to the brain via sensory
neurones
 The brain responds to this information by sending nerve impulses to effectors in the skin
to maintain the temperature within a narrow range of the optimum, 37°C
 Fatty tissue under the dermis acts as a layer of insulation to prevent too much body heat being lost
through the skin

Negative feedback loop for thermoregulation

Ho
meostatic responses to changes in body temperature

Responses to changes in temperature

When we are hot When we are cold

Sweat is secreted by sweat glands, this cools the Skeletal muscles contract rapidly and we shiver. These
skin by evaporation. involuntary muscle contractions need energy from
respiration and some of this is released as heat
Heat energy from the body is lost when liquid
water in sweat becomes water vapour (a state
change)
 Hairs lie flat against the skin allowing air to freely Erect hairs trap a layer of air around the skin which
circulate, this increases heat transfer to the acts as an insulator, preventing heat loss by radiation.
environment by radiation.
Vasodilation occurs Vasoconstriction occurs

Vasoconstriction & Vasodilation

 When we are cold blood flow in capillaries slows down because arterioles leading to the skin
capillaries get narrower - this is known as vasoconstriction
 This reduces the amount of heat lost from blood by radiation as less blood flows through the
surface of the skin
 When we are hot blood flow in capillaries increases because blood vessels to the skin capillaries get
wider - this is known as vasodilation
 This cools the body as blood (which carries heat around the body) is flowing at a faster rate through
the skin’s surface and so more heat is lost by radiation

Vasodilation diagram

R
esponses in the skin when hot

Vasoconstriction diagram
 Responses in the skin when cold

Blood Glucose Control

The importance of blood glucose regulation

 Blood glucose concentration must be kept within a narrow range, so it’s another example of homeostasis
 Eating foods containing carbohydrate leads to an increase in blood glucose; in this situation blood glucose
levels must be brought back down to normal levels
o Excess glucose in the blood can lower blood water potential, causing water to move out of body
cells into the blood by osmosis
 Periods of fasting, or intense exercise, can lead to a decrease in blood glucose; here the blood glucose levels
must be increased back to normal levels
o Glucose is an essential reactant in respiration, so must be available to body cells at all times

Hormones and blood glucose regulation

 Blood glucose concentration is monitored and controlled by the pancreas

o The pancreas is an endocrine gland that makes and secretes hormones
o The pancreas has a separate role in the production of digestive enzymes
 Blood glucose levels are controlled by a negative feedback mechanism involving the production of
two hormones; insulin and glucagon
o A negative feedback mechanism works to reverse any changes, bringing levels back to within normal
limits, e.g.
 Reversing any changes in body temperature to bring core temperature back to normal
 Reversing changes in blood glucose to maintain normal blood glucose concentrations
 Any changes in blood glucose are detected by the pancreas, which then secretes either the hormones insulin
or glucagon in response to any changes:
o Insulin is produced when blood glucose rises
  Insulin stimulates liver cells and muscle cells to convert excess glucose into glycogen
 Glycogen can be stored inside cells
o Glucagon is produced when blood glucose falls
 Glucagon stimulates liver cells and muscle cells to convert stored glycogen into glucose
 Glucose can be released into the blood

Blood glucose regulation diagram

Blood glucose levels are regulated by the pancreas by the actions of the hormones insulin and glucagon.
Adrenaline may also be involved when blood glucose levels drop too far

Examiner Tip

The terms 'glucagon' and 'glycogen' are very often mixed up by students; remember that:

 Glucagon is a hormone
 Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide

Learn the differences between these terms so you do not get confused in the exam!

A silly tip to help you remember some key facts about insulin and glucagon is:
  Glucagon is produced when "glucose is gone"
 Insulin helps get glucose "In to the liver" (as glycogen)

Type 1 Diabetes
 Type 1 diabetes is a condition in which blood glucose levels cannot be regulated; this is because the insulin-
secreting cells in the pancreas are not able to produce insulin
o This is the result of an autoimmune condition in which the body's immune system attacks and
destroys cells in the pancreas
 Signs of type 1 diabetes include
o High blood glucose levels
o Glucose in the urine
 Treating type 1 diabetes involves injecting insulin
o Insulin causes the liver to convert glucose into glycogen, which reduces blood glucose levels
 People with type 1 diabetes need to monitor their blood glucose levels throughout the day as their levels
of physical activity and their diet affect the volume of insulin that should be injected
 A carefully regulated diet, and regulated exercise, can also help to control blood glucose levels

Examiner Tip

Type 2 diabetes is not in the specification, so you don't need to learn about it; you only need to know the
symptoms and treatment of type 1 diabetes.