UNIT AND DIMENSIONS

Unit :
Measurement of any physical quantity is expressed in terms of an internationally accepted certain
basic standard called unit.
Fundamental Units.

S.No. Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol

1 Length Metre m
2 Mass Kilogram Kg
3 Time Second s
4 Electric Current Ampere A

5 Temperature Kelvin K
6 Luminous Intensity Candela Cd
7 Amount of Substance Mole mol

Supplementary Units:

S.No. Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol

1 Plane Angle radian r
2 Solid Angle Steradian Sr
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Metric Prefixes :

S.No. Prefix Symbol Value

1 Centi c 10 H
2 Mili m 10 ®
3 Micro M 10 8
4 Nano n 10 s:
5 Pico P 10
6 Kilo K 10s
7 Mega M 10s

RECILINEAR MOTION

Average Velocity (in an interval) :

Total displacement rf - r.
Total time taken At

Average Speed (in an interval)

Total distance travelled

Average Speed = - ---- x , A.--------—----------
Total time taken

Instantaneous Velocity (at an instant):

Ar
- lim
At 0 A?

Average acceleration (in an interval):

Av vf - Vj
" At " At

Instantaneous Acceleration (at an instant):

dv
a
dT a At
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Graphs in Uniformly Accelerated Motion along a straight line (a 0)

x is a quadratic polynomial in terms of t. Hence x -1 graph is a parabola.

x-t graph
v is a linear polynomial in terms of t. Hence v-t graph is a straight line of slope a.

v-t graph

a-t graph is a horizontal line because a is constant.

a'
positive
acceleration
a

negative
acceleration
F
0

a-t graph

Maxima & Minima

dy d dy dy d dy
—=0&. dx
-r- < 0 at maximum and — = 0 ■v; > 0 at minima.
dx dx dx dx

Equations of Motion (for constant acceleration)

(a) v = u + at

111
(b) s = ut + — at® s = vt - — at® xfi = x. + ut + — at®

(c) v® = u® + 2as

(u + v)
(d) s= t
2

(e) Sr.i=U+ | (2n“1)

For freely falling bodies : (u = 0)

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(taking upward direction as positive)

(a) v= gt

(b) s = -1 gtB s = vt + gt® hrjii = h.

(c) v® = 2gs

(d) s.,= f(2n-1)

PROJECTILE MOTION & VECTORS

2usin0
Time of flight: T= g

u2sin20
Horizontal range : R=
g

u2sin20
Maximum height : H=
2g

Trajectory equation (equation of path) :

gx2 x
yy = x tan 0 —9 7— = x tan 0 (1 —)
2u2 cos2 0 R7
Projection on an inclined plane

Up the Incline Down the Incline

2u2 sinacos(a + p)
Range 2u2sinacos(oc-P)
geos2 p
gcos2p

2usina 2usina
Time of flight
gcosp gcosp
Angle of projection with
71 P
incline plane for maximum —+ —
range 42 42

u2 u2
Maximum Range
g(1 + sinp) g(t-sinp)
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aAB (acceleration of A with respect to B) = aA -aB

Relative motion along straight line - x.0 = x_. x^

CROSSING RIVER
A boat or man in a river always moves in the direction of resultant velocity of velocity of boat (or man) and
velocity of river flow.

1. Shortest Time: ] drift = x ic

Velocity along the river, v* = va.

Velocity perpendicular to the river, v(i= vrii
'¥
The net speed is given by vm, =

2. Shortest Path :
velocity along the river, va = 0

and velocity perpendicular to river

The net speed is given by vw =

at an angle of 90° with the river direction,

velocity vfl is used only to cross the river,

d
therefore time to cross the river, t = ~
vy

and velocity va is zero, therefore, in this case the drift should be zero.

9
vra
9 vmB
„ sin 9 = 0 or v_.
J
= vIII sin 0

or 0 = sin i _^R_

VmR

RAIN PROBLEMS

VRm vR vm or V&H
- 7VR+Vm

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

1. From third law of motion

Fab = -Fba Fab = Force on A due t0 B Fba = Force on B due to A

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2. From second law of motion

5. WEIGHING MACHINE:
A weighing machine does not measure the weight but measures the force exerted by object on its upper
surface.
6. SPRING FORCE F = -kx
x is displacement of the free end from its natural length or deformation of the spring where K = spring
constant.
7. SPRING PROPERTY K = constant
= Natural length of spring.
8. If spring is cut into two in the ratio m : n then spring constant is given by

n.£
C' ’m + n * m + n 4 =------ k£ = k^f =

For series combination of springs

For parallel combination of spring +k

9. SPRING BALANCE:
It does not measure the weight. It measures the force exerted by the object at the hook.
Remember : iiiiiiinniiinii

b as
a1 + a2
“ 2

11.

m-j + m2

12. WEDGE CONSTRAINT:

Contact
Plane
V3 = V, sinG
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7 Short Formula (Physics)

Components of velocity along perpendicular direction to the contact plane of the two objects is always
equal if there is no deformations and they remain in contact.

13. NEWTON SLAW FOR A SYSTEM

Fext =m1a1+m2a2+m3a3+.............

Fext = Net external force on the system.

mp mg, mK are the masses of the objects of the system and
a^.ag are the acceleration of the objects respectively.

14. NEWTON S LAW FOR NON INERTIAL FRAME :

Net sum of real and pseudo force is taken in the resultant force.
a = Acceleration of the particle in the non inertial frame

FPseudo = - m aFrame

(a) Inertial reference frame: Frame of reference moving with constant velocity.
(b) Non-inertial reference frame: Aframe of reference moving with non-zero acceleration.

Friction force is of two types.

(a) Kinetic (b) Static

KINETIC FRICTION : fk = pk N
The proportionality constant jik is called the coefficient of kinetic friction and its value depends on
the nature of the two surfaces in contact.

STATIC FRICTION :
It exists between the two surfaces when there is tendency of relative motion but no relative motion along the
two contact surfaces.
This means static friction is a variable and self adjusting force. However it has a maximum value
called limiting friction.
Lmax
= “s
J-kN

0 ^smax

M F (effort)

(friction)////////////////////
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WORK, POWER & ENERGY

WORK DONE BY CONSTANT FORCE :

W= F . S

WORK DONE BY MULTIPLE FORCES

IF = F, + Fg + F,+..............

W = pF]. S ...(i)

W= Ff • S + Fg- S + Fs- S +
or W = Wj + Wg + WK +

WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE

dw = F.ds
RELATION BETWEEN MOMENTUM AND KINETIC ENERGY

PK !--------
K = 77^ and P = ^2 m K ; P = linear momentum

POTENTIAL ENERGY

fUadU = - Vdr i.e. U2-U, =-[r,F dr =-W

J Uj| ra ’ J ra

U = -frFdr =-W

CONSERVATIVE FORCES
U
F= —
r

WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
W +W^ + W =AK
S ag
Modified Form of Work-Energy Theorem
Ws = - AU
+ Wss = AK + AU
= AE

POWER
- W
The average power ( P or p^) delivered by an agent is given by p or p^ = —

CIRCULAR MOTIO
1. Average angular velocity

^2 ~ AO
_ t2 - t-j _ aF
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CO
2. Instantaneous angular velocity
d6
ro= d?

<02 ~ ACO
3. Average angular acceleration
“ " “ t2 - AO

4. Instantaneous angular acceleration

5. Relation between speed and angular velocity v - rco and v = co r

dco dr
7. Tangential acceleration (rate of change of speed)
dt

8. Radial or normal or centripetal acceleration

9. Total acceleration
a = at + ar a = (a® + a®)IK

Where at = a r and ar = co v

10. Angular acceleration

dco
a = (Non-uniform circular motion)

v2 2 mv
12. Radius of curvature R = — = ——
ai F±

If y is a function of x. i.e. y = f(x)

dx2
13. Normal reaction of road on a concave bridge

mv2
N = mg cos 0 + -------

14. Normal reaction on a convex bridge

mv2
N = mg cos 0n ------
m

mg

•o
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15. Skidding of vehicle on a level road

16. Skidding of an object on a rotating platform

17. Bending of cyclist tan 0 = ~

v2
18. Bankinga of road without friction tan 0 = —
rg
_,.r r ■ x. v2 Li + tan0
19. Banking of road with friction — = --------------
rg 1-ptan0
= rg(p + tan0)
20. Maximum also minimum safe speed on a banked frictional road
(1-|itan0)

= rg(p-tane) 1/2
(1 + ptanO)
21. Centrifugal force (pseudo force) f = mco® r, acts outwards when the particle itself is taken as a frame.

22. Effect of earths rotation on apparent weight N = mg mRco® cos® 0 ;

where 0 latitude at a place

23. Various quantities for a critical condition in a vertical loop at different positions
(True for a string or on a smooth track.)

(1) (2) (3)

(for completing the circle) (for completing the circle) (for completing the circle)

24. Conical pendulum :

T cos 0 = mg
T sin 0 = mco® r

9Jl_cos0
Time period = “

25. Relations amoung angular variables : d0, co or a

Initial ang. velocity co = co^ + at
(Perpendicular
co Find angular velocity e = oV + at® to plane of paper
directed outwards
for ACW rotation)
co Const, angular acceleration co® = co^® + 2a 0
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0 Angular displacement

CENTRE OF MASS
Mass Moment :M =mr
CENTRE OF MASS OF A SYSTEM OF 'N' DISCRETE PARTICLES

mi >i n
m1r1 +m2r2 +.........+ mnrn i=1 1
— "M
m1 +m2 +......... + mn n 'em
M j=i

CENTRE OF MASS OF A CONTINUOUS MASS DISTRIBUTION

xdm ydm zdm

X™ = dm ’y™ = dm ’Z™ = dm

dm = M (mass of the body)

CENTRE OF MASS OF SOME COMMON SYSTEMS

A system of two point masses mf rf = mgrK
The centre of mass lies closer to the heavier mass.

Rectangular plate (By symmetry)

A triangular plate (By qualitative argument)

at the centroid : y =
®o

A semi-circular ring

A semi-circular disc yt
i
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4R

yt
A hemispherical shell ■

A solid hemisphere

A circular cone (solid)

h

A circular cone (hollow)

h
y«= 3

MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS AND CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM :

Velocity of centre of mass of system

dr. dr2 dr3 dr

m.1 — 2+ m —- + mo—-................. + m —-n
= dt dt 32 dtn dt = m1 v1 +m2 v2 + m3 vn3+ mnvn
Vcm M M

Pw =MvSii
Acceleration of centre of mass of system

dv-i dv2 dv3 dvn

mi^T + m2^T + m3^r.................................. + mn~dT _ m1a1+m2a2+m3a3..................... + mnan
=
cm M M

Net force on system Net External Force+Netinternal Force Net External Force
“ M " M “ M

Fext ” M a cm

IMPULSE
Impulse of a force F action on a body is defined as
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= Fdt j=p (impulse - momentum theorem)

tr
Important points :
1. Gravitational force and spring force are always non-impulsive.
2. An impulsive force can only be balanced by another impulsive force.

COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION (e)

Frdt
Impulse of reformation Velocity of separation along line of impact
e “ Impulse of deformation s Velocity of approach along line of impact
Fddt

(a) e = 1 Impulse of Reformation = Impulse of Deformation

Velocity of separation = Velocity of approach
Kinetic Energy may be conserved
Elastic collision.
(b) e = 0 Impulse of Reformation = 0
Velocity of separation = 0
Kinetic Energy is not conserved
Perfectly Inelastic collision.
(c) 0<e<1 Impulse of Reformation < Impulse of Deformation
Velocity of separation < Velocity of approach
Kinetic Energy is not conserved
Inelastic collision.
VARIABLE MASS SYSTEM :
If a mass is added or ejected from a system, at rate p kg/s and relative velocity vre, (w.r.t. the system),

then the force exerted by this mass on the system has magnitude p vre)

Thrust Force (Ft)

dm
Fttrel=dtvrpi ------

Rocket propulsion :
If gravity is ignored and initial velocity of the rocket u = 0;

, mo
V = V In — .
“m

1. RIGID BODY :
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If the above body is rigid

VA cos 01 = VB cos 02
VBA = relative velocity of point B with respect to point A.

A
Types of Motion of rigid body

Pure Translational Pure Rotational Combined Translational and

Motion Motion Rotational Motion

2. MOMENT OF INERTIA (I) :

Definition : Moment of Inertia is defined as the capability of system to oppose the change produced
in the rotational motion of a body.

Moment of Inertia is a scalar positive quantity.

1 = mr/ + m2 r22 +
= T1 + l2 + T3 +.............................................................................
SI units of Moment of Inertia is Kgm2.

Moment of Inertia of
2.1 A single particle : I = mr2
where m = mass of the particle
r = perpendicular distance of the particle from the axis about which moment of Inertia
is to be calculated
2.2 For many particles (system of particles) :
n
r2
I = miri
i=1

2.3 For a continuous object :

I = dmr2

where dm = mass of a small element

r = perpendicular distance of the particle from the axis

2.4 For a larger object :

I _ dleiement

where di = moment of inertia of a small element

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15 Short Formula (Physics)

3. TWO IMPORTANT THEOREMS ON MOMENT OF INERTIA :

3.1 Perpendicular Axis Theorem
[Only applicable to plane lamina (that means for 2-D objects only)].
Iz = Ix + Iy (when object is in x-y plane).

3.2 Parallel Axis Theorem

(Applicable to any type of object):

Iab = Jem + Md2

List of some useful formula :

Object Moment of Inertia

(Uniform)

Solid Sphere

(Uniform)

Hollow Sphere

MR® (Uniform or Non Uniform)

Ring.

(Uniform)
2
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Disc

MR® (Uniform or Non Uniform)

Hollow cylinder

(Uniform)

Solid cylinder

ML2
(Uniform)
3

ML2
(Uniform)
12

2m t 2

(Uniform)
3

Ma2
(Uniform)
12

Square Plate
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(Uniform)

Square Plate

M(a2+b2)
1= (Uniform)
12

M(a2+b2)
(Uniform)
12

4. RADIUS OF GYRATION :

5. TORQUE:

t =rF

5.5 Relation between Y & 'a (for hinged object or pure rotation)
Text hinge = ^Hinge a

Where = net external torque acting on the body about Hinge point
=
IHinge moment of Inertia of body about Hinge point
F— M a -| | — M | r-| ex,
^2t — 1^2821 — IV^^CX

T resultant ” ^1t **1 + ^2t **2 + ..................................................

= M.] a rd2 + M2 a r22 +
^resultant ) external — I Ct

12
Rotational Kinetic Energy = —.I.co
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P - Mvcm Fexterna| - MaCM

Net external force acting on the body has two parts tangential and centripetal.

v2
Fc = mac = m-— = mco2 rcM F( = ma( = mct rcM
'CM

6. ROTATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM :
For translational equilibrium.
SFX=O .............. (i)

and SFy=0 .............. (ii)

The condition of rotational equilibrium is
zrz =0
7. ANGULAR MOMENTUM (l)
7.1 Angular momentum of a particle about a point.
I_ = r p L = rpsin0

H = r± P
N =p - r
7.3 Angular momentum of a rigid body rotating about fixed axis :

Lh = IH«
Lh = angular momentum of object about axis H.
IH = Moment of Inertia of rigid object about axis H.
cd= angular velocity of the object.
7.4 Conservation of Angular Momentum
Angular momentum of a particle or a system remains constant if Text =0 about that point or axis
of rotation.

7.5 Relation between Torque and Angular Momentum

dL
" dt T

Torque is change in angular momentum

7.6 Impulse of Torque :

idt = AJ AJ d Change in angular momentum.

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19 Short Formula (Physics)

For a rigid body, the distance between the particles remain unchanged during its motion i.e. rP/Q =
constant

For velocities
VP = ^VQ2 + (cor)2 + 2 VQ corcosO

For acceleration :

0, co, a are same about every point of the body (or any other point outside which is rigidly attached to the
body).
Dynamics :

Tcm - 1cm a > Fext = Macm ^system = Mvcm ,

11
Total K.E. = — Mvcm2 + — Icmco2

Angular momentum axis AB = L about C.M. + L of C.M. about AB

I-AB _ 1cm 03 + rcm Mvcm

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

S.H.M.
F = kx
General equation of S.H.M. is x = A sin (cot + ()>); (cot + 4>) is phase of the motion and c|) is initial phase of the
motion.

Angular Frequency (co) :

Time period (T) :

Speed : V = COa/a2 -X2

Acceleration : a = - coBx

Kinetic Energy (KE): — mv® = mco® (AH xto) =-^ k (AK xB)
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1
Potential Energy (PE): — Kx®

111
Total Mechanical Energy (TME) = K.E. + P.E. = — k (A® x®) + — Kx® = — KA® (which is constant)

SPRING-MASS SYSTEM

77-. k
0000000000 m1m2
mi zz m2
(2) , where p = known as reduced mass
(m1+m2)

COMBINATION OF SPRINGS
Series Combination : 1/k^ = 1 /kf + 1/kK
Parallel combination : k - k. + kK

SIMPLE PENDULUM = (in accelerating Reference Frame); g ... is net acceleration

V 9eff.

due to psuedo force and gravitational force.

COMPOUND PENDULUM / PHYSICAL PENDULUM

Time period (T) : T=

where, I = + m^®; H is distance between point of suspension and centre of mass.

TORSIONAL PENDULUM

Time period (T) : T = 2tt where, C = Torsional constant

Superposition of SHM s along the same direction

x = A sin cot & x = A sin (cot + 6)
If equation of resultant SHM is taken as x = A sin (cot + c|))

A2sin0 A
& tan c|) =
A1 + A2cos0 A
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STRING WAVES
GENERAL EQUATION OF WAVE MOTION :

y(x,t) = f (t ± r)

where, y (x, t) should be finite everywhere.

x
f t + — represents wave travelling in ve x-axis.
v

x
f t- — represents wave travelling in + ve x-axis.

y = A sin (cot ± kx + <|))

TERMS RELATED TO WAVE MOTION (FOR 1 -D PROGRESSIVE SINE WAVE)

(e) Wave number (or propagation constant) (k) :

k = 2k/1 = (rad m j)

(f) Phase of wave : The argument of harmonic function (cot ± kx + c|)) is called phase of the wave.
Phase difference (A(|>): difference in phases of two particles at any time t.

Also.

SPEED OF TRANSVERSE WAVE ALONG A STRING/WIRE.

T = Tension
|i = mass per unit length

POWER TRANSMITTED ALONG THE STRING BY A SINE WAVE

Average Power (P) = 2k® f® A® |i v

(P)
Intensity I = — = 2rc®f®A®pv
s

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF WAVES

y. = A. sin (cot kfx)

yt = At sin(cot-k2x)
y =-A sin(cot + kx) 'f inc'dent from rarer to denser medium (vg < Vj)

yt=Atsin(cot k2x)
y -A sin(cot + kx) 'f incicJent from denser to rarer medium. (vK > Vj)

(d) Amplitude of reflected & transmitted waves.

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|k 1 ~k2| 2k1
A,
k1 + k2 k1 + k2

STANDING/STATIONARY WAVES
(b) yr = A sin (cot kx + 0f)
yg = A sin (cot + kx + 0J

y. + yK = 2 A cos kx + 2 1
sjn cot + 1 2

02 — 0-|
The quantity 2A cos kx +—-— represents resultant amplitude at x. At some position resultant

amplitude is zero these are called nodes. At some positions resultant amplitude is 2A, these are called
antinodes.
X
(c) Distance between successive nodes or antinodes = —.

(d) Distance between successive nodes and antinodes = X/4.

(e) All the particles in same segment (portion between two successive nodes) vibrate in same phase.
(f) The particles in two consecutive segments vibrate in opposite phase.
(g) Since nodes are permanently at rest so energy can not be transmitted across these.

VIBRATIONS OF STRINGS ( STANDING WAVE)

(a) Fixed at both ends :
1. Fixed ends will be nodes. So waves for which

are possible giving

where n = 1, 2, 3, ....

= n IT
f-_
n = no. of loops
2LV

(b) String free at one end :

X
1. for fundamental mode L = — = or X = 4L
4

3X 4L
First overtone L = —— Hence X = —
4 3

3 r
sofj = —J— (Firstovertone)
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Second overtone fK = ae sof = n + 2 ^,(20 + 1) Fr

' 2L 4L

HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

1 3 3
Total translational K.E. of gas = — M < VH> = — PV = — nRT
2 2 2

Important Points :

Most probable speed Vfl =

Degree of freedom :
Mono atomicf = 3
Diatomic f = 5
polyatomic f = 6
Maxwell s law of equipartition of energy :

1
Total K.E. of the molecule = — f KT

For an ideal gas :

Internal energy U = nRT

Workdone in isothermal process : W = [2.303 nRT log|S

Internal energy in isothermal process : AU = 0

Work done in isochoric process : dW = 0

Change in int. energy in isochoric process :

f
AU = n — RAT = heat given

Isobaric process:
Work done AW = nR(T(| T.)
change in int. energy AU = nCv AT
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heat given AQ = AU + AW

Specific heat : Cv = |R Cp = 1 + 1R
2 K

Molar heat capacity of ideal gas in terms of R :

Cp
(i) for monoatomic gas : n = 1.67
o v

cp

(ii) for diatomic gas :

^ = 1' 4
Cp
(iii)for triatomicgas : M = 1.33
ov

In general :
Y=
s 1+-
f
Cv

Mayers eq. for ideal gas only

Adiabatic process :

nR(Tj-Tf)
Work done AW = ——---------------
y-1
In cyclic process :
AQ = AW
In a mixture of non-reacting gases :

n-|M-| + n2M2
Mol. wt. = „,„
n1 + n2

niC + n2Cp^ +....................

Cp(mix) Pj

Y“n nlC
^v(mix) V; +n2CVg

Calorimetry and thermal expansion

Types of thermometers :

(a) Liquid Thermometer : T = D0 100

MOO “*0

(b) Gas Thermometer:

P-Po
Constant volume: T=5D 100 ; P = Ps + pgh
MOO -r0
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V
Constant Pressure : T= v v T.i:

(c) Electrical Resistance Thermometer:

r\t “ rvQ
T= R p 100
^100 ^0

Thermal Expansion :
(a) Linear :

AL
=
or L = LS(1 +aAT)
“ LoAT

(b) Area/superficial :

AA
or A = A,,, (1 + PAT)
P= A0AT

(c) volume/ cubical :

AV
r=
or V = V[t, (1 + y AT)
voat

I
3

Thermal stress of a material :

A£

Energy stored per unit volume :

1 1 AY
E=jK(AL)‘ or E = ^(AL)2

Variation of time period of pendulum clocks :

1
AT=- A0T

T <T -clock-fast : time-gain

T > T - clock slow : time-loss

CALORIMETRY:

Q
Specific heat S =
m.AT
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AQ
Molar specific heat C = ——
n.AT

Water equivalent = mWJSWJ

HEAT TRANSFER

dQ dT
Thermal Conduction :
ir= KA dx

Thermal Resistance :

Series and parallel combination of rod :

(i) Series : )

(ii) Parallel : )

for absorption, reflection and transmission

r+t+a=1

AU
Emissive power : E = ^AAt

dE
Spectral emissive power : E_ = —
dl

E of a body at T temp.
Emissivity: e = E of g b|ack body at T temp

E(body)
Kirchoff s law : a^g^y) = E (black body)

Wein s Displacement law : . T = b.

b = 0.282 cm-k
Stefan Boltzmann law :
u^T® s = 5.67 10®W/mKkE!
Au = u uffi = e cjA (Te T/)

dO
Newton’s law of cooling : — = k (0 0s) ; 0 = 0s+(0. 0s ) e
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ELECTROSTATICS

Coulomb force between two point charges F =--------- .3 .2 ' 4K8

47is0er | r | oe r I r |
The electric field intensity at any point is the force experienced by unit positive charge, given

by E = —
q0
Electric force on a charge 'q' at the position of electric field intensity [= produced by some

source charges is F = qE
Electric Potential
If (W g)r^ is the work required in moving a point charge q from infinity to a point P, the electric potential
of the point P is

\/ p)ext
p" q acc=0

Potential Difference between two points A and B is

V0 V3
Formulae of E and potential V

Point charge E= -^y- r = ^r, V = —

| r |z r3 f

X 2Kz
r
r
(ii) Infinitely long line charge 2 = ——
1
V = not defined, v,, v0= 2KX In (r? / r0)

<j
(iii) Infinite nonconducting thin sheet n ,

V = not defined, vb va = o (rB _ia)

Z£o
(iv) Uniformly charged ring
KQx
E™-- - (r*-+x«y]

KQ

7r2 +x2 ’ r
x is the distance from centre along axis.

(V) Infinitely large charged conducting sheet — n

£o

V = not defined, vb va = (rB _ia)

so

(Vi) Uniformly charged hollow conducting/ nonconducting /solid conducting sphere

(a) for E=^%r, r R, V = —

| r I* r

KQ
(b) E = 0 for r < R, V = —

(vii) Uniformly charged solid nonconducting sphere (insulating material)

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F kQ r KQ
(a) t - | r |2r for r R , v= —
r

e_kql ±l forr V=^(3R- fl

(b) R,
R3 3e0
(viii) thin uniformly charge ;d disc (su rface charge density is 0

Work done by external agent in taking a charge q from A to B is

(WJ0a=q(Va V0)or(WH,)0S = q(V0 Va).

The electrostatic potential energy of a point charge

U = qV

U = PE of the system =

Ul + 22+'" = (U[B + +........ + Ur«) + + U- +.............. + UJ + <U« + +........ + UJ -■

1
Energy Density = — sE®

KQ2
Self Energy of a uniformly charged shell = Use)f =---------------------
2R
3KQ^
Self Energy of a uniformly charged solid non-conducting sphere = Use)f =

Electric Field Intensity Due to Dipole

rx h the axis £ = —3— 2KP

(i) +on

(ii) on the equatorial position : E =

r°
(iii) Total electric field at general point O (r,0) is

E =^-Vl + 3cos20

Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole in External Electric Field :

U = -“.E
Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field :

torque t = ” E ; F = 0
Electric Dipole in Nonuniform Electric Field:

torque t = ~ E ; U = - p E, Net force |F| =

Electric Potential Due to Dipole at General Point (r, 0) :

v=^ = —
47C£s H 47t8s 8
The electric flux over the whole area is given by
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<l>= = E.dS = sEndS

Flux using Gauss's law, Flux through a closed surface

Electric field intensity near the conducting surface

o
=—n

Electric pressure : Electric pressure at the surface of a conductor is given by formula

a2 I *
P = ~— where a is the local surface charge density.
Z80
Potential difference between points A and B
B
E.dr
A

E = - i — V + j — V + k — V = - i — + j — + k— V
xxz xxz
V = grad V

URRENT ELECTRICIT

1. ELECTRIC CURRENT

Aq
Lav
v = TT and instantaneous current

i = Lim =
■ At o At dt

2. ELECTRIC CURRENT IN A CONDUCTOR

I = nAeV.

1 eE 2
2 m 1 eE
--------- T
T

I = neAVd
3. CURRENT DENSITY

4. ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

I = neAVd = neA — t =
d 2m
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V ne2T A A
E= SO
7 v= -7 V = V/R V = IR
7 1= ~2m~

2m 1
p is called resistivity (it is also called specific resistance) and p = n02^ = —, o is called conductivity.

Therefore current in conductors is proportional to potential difference applied across its ends. This
is Ohm's Law.

Units: R ohm(Q), p ohm-meter(Q-m) also called siemens, a Q_1m_1 ■

Dependence of Resistance on Temperature :
R = Ro (1 + a 0).
Electric current in resistance

5. ELECTRICAL POWER
P=VI
Energy = pdt

2 V2
P = l2R = VI = — .
R

9 v2
H = Vlt = I2 Rt = -----------------1
R
2
H = I2 RT Joule = 7^- Calorie
4.2
9. KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS
9.1 Kirchhoffs Current Law (Junction law)
Z Iin = 1 Iout
9.2 Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (Loop law)
Z IR + Z EMF =0 .

10. COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES :

Resistances in Series:
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + + Rn(this means Req is greater then any resistor) ) and
V = V, + v2 + v3 +.................................... + vn

R1 r2
V1
R1 + R2 + R1 + R2 +

2. Resistances in Parallel :

1_
Re/
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11. WHEATSTONE NETWORK : (4 TERMINAL NETWORK)

PR
When current through the galvanometer is zero (null point or balance point)~ , then PS = QR

13. GROUPING OF CELLS

13.1 Cells in Series :

Equivalent EMF Eeq = E1+E2 ++ Ep [write EMF's with polarity]

Equivalent internal resistance req = +r2+r3+r4+....+ rn

13.2 Cells in Parallel: eii. ri

—HI---- MMq
S2| . r2

—H i--- wwv—
£3, F
A' J—11-- B
: em. r"
*—2|l-- wvw—

15. AMMETER
A shunt (small resistance) is connected in parallel with galvanometer to convert it into ammeter. An
ideal ammeter has zero resistance

Rg

-o B

Whole system is
known as Ammeter

Ammeter is represented as follows -

AO---------------- ®------------------ OB

If maximum value of current to be measured by ammeter is I then

Ig ■ Rg = (I IG)S

_ In Rn
S = T t 1_1 $ = --------------- when I » IG.
g 1
where I = Maximum current that can be measured using the given ammeter.
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32 Short Formula (Physics)

16. VOLTMETER
A high resistance is put in series with galvanometer. It is used to measure potential difference across
a resistor in a circuit.

AO- —©—ww-- —O B
—» Whole system is known as voltmeter

AO------- 0-------------OB

^G> ^G R
AO------ (S)—WW--------OB

For maximum potential difference

V — IG . Rs + ^g

V
Rs - ig Rg If Rg << R$

17. POTENTIOMETER

Potentiometer wire
Resistance = R

VA Vb ——.R
R+r
Potential gradient (x) Potential difference per unit length of wire

_ Va-Vb £R
Y
X L R+r‘L
Application of potentiometer
(a) To find emf of unknown cell and compare emf of two cells.
In case I,
In figure (1) is joint to (2) then balance length =
£-| — x£-| ....(1 )
in case II,
In figure (3) is joint to (2) then balance length =
c2 = x^2 ■■■■(2)

£-, -£ -|
s2 /2

If any one of s1 or e2 is known the other can be found. If x is known then both e1 and c2 can be found

(b) To find current if resistance is known

Vc = X£1
IR1 =

x^d
1= K
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Similarly, we can find the value of R2 also.

Potentiometer is ideal voltmeter because it does not draw any current from circuit, at the balance
point.
(c) To find the internal resistance of cell.
Ist arrangement 2nd arrangement

£',r'
by first arrangement s = x^1 ...(1)
by second arrangement IR = x€2

s'
also I =
P+R
xld _ xl2
7+r “ ~R~

(d) Ammeter and voltmeter can be graduated by potentiometer,

(e) Ammeter and voltmeter can be calibrated by potentiometer.

18. METRE BRIDGE (USE TO MEASURE UNKNOWN RESISTANCE)

If AB = € cm, then BC = (100 cm.
Resistance of the wire between A and B , R €
[ v Specific resistance p and cross-sectional area A are same for whole of the wire ]
or R = a£ ...(1)
where a is resistance per cm of wire.

thick connecting
wires (strips)
of negligible
resistance

If P is the resistance of wire between A and B then

P£ P = o(£)
Similarly, if Q is resistance of the wire between B and C, then
Q 100 £
Q = o(100 £) ....(2)
Pf
Dividing (1) by (2), Q = 100^7

Applying the condition for balanced Wheatstone bridge, we get R Q = P X

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Since R and £ are known, therefore, the value of X can be calculated.

CAPACITANCE

1. (i) q V q = CV
q : Charge on positive plate of the capacitor
C : Capacitance of capacitor.
V: Potential difference between positive and negative plates.

(ii) Representation of capacitor: _| |_ , HF

QV
(iii) Energy stored in the capacitor: U = — CVH = — -
2. 20 2

(iv) Energy density =

sr= Relative permittivity of the medium. K= £r: Dielectric Constant

For vacuum, energy density =

(v) Types of Capacitors :

(a) Parallel plate capacitor

£q£|-A
C=
d

A: Area of plates
d : distance between the plates( « size of plate )
(b) Spherical Capacitor:
Capacitance of an isolated spherical Conductor (hollow or solid )
C= 4 71 £0£r R
R = Radius of the spherical conductor
Capacitance of spherical capacitor

(c) Cylindrical Capacitor : / » {a,b}

2tD£0
Capacitance per unit length =
Mb/a) F/m

(vi) Capacitance of capacitor depends on

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(a) Area of plates

(b) Distance between the plates
(c) Dielectric medium between the plates.

a V
(vii) Electric field intensity between the plates of capacitor E= =—
£o a

a: Surface change density

q2
(viii) Force experienced by any plate of capacitor: F - OA
ZA£0

2. DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGES ON CONNECTING TWO CHARGED CAPACITORS:

When two capacitors are Cg and CKare connected as shown in figure

+Q1 -|Q1
11
A C, B

+Q;
iiQ2
c C2 D
Initially

(a) Common potential:

C1V1+C2V2 Total charge

~ Total capacitance

(b) Q/=CiV=—(Q[ + Qg)

Oi + o2

Q , = c»v= +cu
s

(c) Heat loss during redistribution :

1 C1C2
AH =U2 (V[

The loss of energy is in the form of Joule heating in the wire.

3. Combination of capacitor :
(i) Series Combination

1 1 1 1

ci

(ii) Parallel Combination:

c^=ci + cB + cs

Qa :Q^ = Cj: CK: C

h-
‘v
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4. Charging and Discharging of a capacitor :

(i) Charging of Capacitor ( Capacitor initially uncharged ):
q = q0 ( 1 e ‘ /t)

qs = Charge on the capacitor at steady state

q,: = CV
t : Time constant = CR

(ii) Discharging of Capacitor :

q = qIe BS"
R
qs = Initial charge on the capacitor

| = q° e Sh
T

5. Capacitor with dielectric :

(i) Capacitance in the presence of dielectric :

Ke.A
C- * - KC„ 1
d
Cs = Capacitance in the absence of dielectric.

c> c>b Q V cy
(ii) 11 T,fi eo Kc0 d

E : — Electric field in the absence of dielectric

eo

E.riiS: Induced (bound) charge density.

1
(m) og = a(1 -).

6. Force on dielectric

F E.,;b(K-1)Va
(i) When battery is connected
2d

Q2 dC
(ii) When battery is not connected F = —

Force on the dielectric will be zero when the dielectric is fully inside.
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1. AC AND DC CURRENT:
A current that changes its direction periodically is called alternating current (AC). If a current maintains its
direction constant it is called direct current (DC).

t t
constant de periodic de

1
—.

: : !_t
variable de ac ac

3. ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE:

f2dt
Root Mean Square Value of a function, from ts to t^, is defined as frmg =

4. POWER CONSUMED OR SUPPLIED IN AN AC CIRCUIT:

2k

Pdt

Average power consumed in a cycle = = ~ V. Iw cos 0

device
co

V' Tm _
x x/
\[2 V2 COS Vrms Irms C^S (().

Here cosc|) is called power factor.

5. SOME DEFINITIONS:
The factor cos <|> is called Power factor.
I rm
sin (b *is called wattless current.

Impedance Z is defined as Z = y21 = —

^rms

coL is called inductive reactance and is denoted by XB

1
yy is called capacitive reactance and is denoted by Xs

6. PURELY RESISTIVE CIRCUIT:

V = Vsin cot
Vm sin cot
sin cot
R

R
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7. PURELY CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT:

Vm
I= —COS COt
/coC

Vm
= —— COS cot = I COS cot.
xc

1
Xs = oC and’s ca^ed capacitive reactance.

Is leads by vs by n/2 Diagrammatically (phasor diagram) it is represented as

Since (b
Y =90°,
’ <P> = m
V sI rm
cos
s Y6 = 0

MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT & MAGNETIC FORCE ON CHARGE/CURRENT

B _ }£o_ Q(v 0
1. Magnetic field due to a moving point charge
4k r3

de r
2. Biot-savart's Law

£
3. Magnetic field due to a straight wire (sin + sin 0g)
r

•P £
4. Magnetic field due to infinite straight wire
r
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5. Magnetic field due to circular loop

Ho NIR2
(ii) At Axis B = T (R2 + X2J3/2

6. Magnetic field on the axis of the solenoid

B = (cos 0(

7. Ampere’s Law

oB.d^ = pol

8. Magnetic field due to long cylinderical shell

B = 0, r < R

= —I,r R
2n r

9. Magnetic force acting on a moving point charge

a. F = q(v B)

(i) v±B

mvsin0
r=
qB

27imvcos0
Pitch =
qB
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10. Magnetic force acting on a current carrying wire F = l/ b)

11. Magnetic Moment of a current carrying loop M=N■I•A

12. Torque acting on a loop t =MB

Po m
13. Magnetic field due to a single pole B = a4~2
kr

p0 2M
14. Magnetic field on the axis of magnet B = 4 '"T
4k

Ho M
15. Magnetic field on the equatorial axis of the magnet B
4=k73
rd

pin M ,--------------------
16. Magnetic field at point P due to magnet B= 4773“ Vl + 3cos2e

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

1. Magnetic flux is mathematically defined as (|) = B.ds

2. Faraday s laws of electromagnetic induction

3. Lenz s Law (conservation of energy principle)

According to this law, emf will be induced in such a way that it will oppose the cause which has produced it.
Motional emf

4. Induced emf due to rotation

Emf induced in a conducting rod of length I rotating with angular speed co about its one end, in a uniform
perpendicular magnetic field B is 1/2 B co/®.
1. EMF Induced in a rotating disc :

Bcor2
Emf between the centre and the edge of disc of radius r rotating in a magnetic field B = —-—

5. Fixed loop in a varying magnetic field

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41 | Short Formula (Physics)

dB
If magnetic field changes with the rate —, electric field is generated whose average tangential value along a

B
circle is given by E=——

This electric field is non conservative in nature. The lines of force associated with this electric field are closed
curves.

6. Self induction

A(N(|))_ A(LI) LAI

8 "A“A“A•

. (N(|)) (LI) L I
Thex xinstantaneous emf is given as 8 =--------------------- =------------ =----------
Tl

Self inductance of solenoid = ps n® 7ir®A

6.1 Inductor

It is represent by

electrical equivalence of loop

A-i<nnr^-B
l4

Energy stored in an inductor = — LI ®

7. Growth Of Current in Series R L Circuit

If a circuit consists of a cell, an inductor L and a resistor R and a switch S connected in series and the switch

-Rt

is closed at t = 0, the current in the circuit I will increase as I = —(1-e L )

3. More time constant in the circuit implies slower rate of change of current.
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42 Short Formula (Physics)

8 Decay of current in the circuit containing resistor and inductor:

-Rt

Let the initial current in a circuit containing inductor and resistor be L(. Current at a time t is given as I = Iffi e L

Current after one time constant: I = Iffi _1 =0.37% of initial current.

9. Mutual inductance is induction of EMF in a coil (secondary) due to change in current in another coil (primary).
If current in primary coil is I, total flux in secondary is proportional to I, i.e. N (|> (in secondary) I.
or N (|) (in secondary) = M I.
The emf generated around the secondary due to the current flowing around the primary is directly proportional
to the rate at which that current changes.
10. Equivalent self inductance :

B
L Va-Vb
..(1)
Ldl dl/dt
dt

1. Series combination : L = L, + Lk ( neglecting mutual inductance)

L = L + Lg + 2M (if coils are mutually coupled and they have winding in same direction)
L = Lj + LK 2M (if coils are mutually coupled and they have winding in opposite direction)

1_11
2. Parallel Combination : i~|+| (neglecting mutual inductance)
L L1 l_2

For two coils which are mutually coupled it has been found that M

yjLJ-2 or M =k 7LiL2 where k is called coupling constant and its Magnetic

value is less than or equal to 1.

Eq l\L Ip
— = — = — where denotations have their usual meanings.
Ep N p Is ’ y

Ns> NP Es > EP for step up transformer.

coil coil
12. LC Oscillations

21
CO =--------------
LC

1. Reflection of Light
(b) i=r
1.3 Characteristics of image due to Reflection by a Plane Mirror:
(a) Distance of object from mirror = Distance of image from the mirror.
(b) The line joining a point object and its image is normal to the reflecting surface.
(c) The size of the image is the same as that of the object.
(d) For a real object the image is virtual and for a virtual object the image is real
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43 Short Formula (Physics)

2. Relation between velocity of object and image :

From mirror property : x. = - x , y. = y and z = z
Here x.n means x coordinate of image with respect to mirror.
Similarly others have meaning.
Differentiating w.r.t time , we get

W 'Vrr V[« V8tfiir V =V

3. Spherical Mirror

112 1
— +— = — = — Mirror formula
R
x co ordinate of centre of Curvature and focus of Concave mirror are negative and those for
Convex mirror are positive.
In case of mirrors since light rays reflect back in - X direction, therefore -ve sign of v indicates
real image and +ve sign of v indicates virtual image

(b) Lateral magnification (or transverse magnification) m= —

1

m =------- .

2
(d) On differentiating (a) we get— =---------------------- - .

(e) On differentiating (a) with respect to time we get — =-------------------- y—,where — is the velocity of image

along Principal axis and— is the velocity of object along Principal axis. Negative sign implies that

the image , in case of mirror, always moves in the direction opposite to that of object.This
discussion is for velocity with respect to mirror and along the x axis.
(f) Newton's Formula: XY = f®
X and Y are the distances ( along the principal axis ) of the object and image respectively from the
principal focus. This formula can be used when the distances are mentioned or asked from the focus.

1
(g) Optical power of a mirror (in Diopters) = ~

f = focal length with sign and in meters.

v2-v,
(h) If object lying along the principal axis is not of very small size, the longitudinal magnification = “ “
u2 Uj

(it will always be inverted)

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4. Refraction of Light

vacuum, p =

4.1 Laws of Refraction (at any Refracting Surface)

Sini
(b) ------- = Constant for any pair of media and for light of a given wave length. This is known as Snell's
Sinr

Law. More precisely,

2 1 ^1

1 2 ^2

4.2 Deviation of a Ray Due to Refraction

Deviation (5) of ray incident at i and refracted at r is given by 6 = |i-r|.
5. Principle of Reversibility of Light Rays
A ray travelling along the path of the reflected ray is reflected along the path of the incident ray. A refracted ray
reversed to travel back along its path will get refracted along the path of the incident ray. Thus the incident
and refracted rays are mutually reversible.
7. Apparent Depth and shift of Submerged Object
At near normal incidence (small angle of incidence i) apparent depth (d ) is given by:

n iK

n^RJ.ofmedium coincidence )
n j (RJ.of medium of refraction )

Apparent shift = d
nrel

Refraction through a Composite Slab (or Refraction through a number of parallel media, as seen
from a medium of R. I. ns)
Apparent depth (distance of final image from final surface)

1.2
— -+3+ .. + ---------- Observer Object
1 2 3

1 1 d n
Apparent shift = t8 1----------------------+ tK 1---------------------++ 1----------------------
n1rel n2rel

8. Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection ( T. I. R.)

C = sin 1 —

(i) Conditions of T. I. R.
(a) light is incident on the interface from denser medium.
(b) Angle of incidence should be greater than the critical
angle (i > c).
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9. Refraction Through Prism

9.1 Characteristics of a prism

8 = (i + e) - (rg + rs) and rf + rB = A

8 = i + e-A.
9.2 Variation of 5 versus i

(1) There is one and only one angle of incidence for which
the angle of deviation is minimum.
(2) When 8 = 8r. , the angle of minimum deviation, then i = e and r5 = r„, the
ray passes symmetrically w.r.t. the refracting surfaces. We can show by
simple calculation that 8 . = 2i . A
where i .IT
= angle
Til » of incidence for minimum deviation and r =A/2.
A + 8m

, where n(4 =

Also 8rn,ril = (n - 1) A (for small values of A)

(3) For a thin prism (A 1O88) and for small value of i, all values of

fiprism
8 where ref
n.
^surrounding

10. Dispersion Of Light

The angular splitting of a ray of white light into a number of components and spreading in different directions is
called Dispersion of Light. This phenomenon is because waves of different wavelength move with same speed
in vacuum but with different speeds in a medium.
The refractive index of a medium depends slightly on wavelength also. This variation of refractive index with
wavelength is given by Cauchy s formula.
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Cauchy's formula n (1) = where a and b are positive constants of a medium.

Angle between the rays of the extreme colours in the refracted (dispersed) light is called angle of dispersion.
For prism of small A and with small i : 9 = (nH n,)A
Deviation of beam(also called mean deviation) 5 = 8H=(nffl 1)A

nv nr
Dispersive power (co) of the medium of the material of prism is given by: co = n -j

nv ~nr 6 -5, _0_

For small angled prism (A 10®) with light incident at small angle i: n _1 =—----------------------------------- =§
yy

angular dispersion

’()

nv +nr
[ nQ = —-— if n0 is not given in the problem ]

6m-5a n«“ni nv + nr
co=—---- ------ = n 1 [take nffl=—~—if value of nfl is not given in the problem]
°g 0 £-
nra, nr(and nfflare R. I. of material for violet, red and yellow colours respectively.
11. Combination of Two Prisms
Two or more prisms can be combined in various ways to get different combination of angular dispersion and
deviation.
(a) Direct Vision Combination (dispersion without deviation)
The condition for direct vision combination is :

nv+nr
-1 A = A [ny-l] A= [ny-l] A
2

(b) Achromatic Combination (deviation without dispersion.)

Condition for achromatic combination is: (n-n)A=(n
v ra-n)A
r ' ra r
12. Refraction at Spherical Surfaces
For paraxial rays incident on a spherical surface separating two media:

n2 n -| n 2 n -j
vuR
where light moves from the medium of refractive index n. to the medium of refractive index nK.

Transverse magnification (m) (of dimension perpendicular to principal axis) due to refraction at spherical surface

v-R v/n2
is given by m = — =

13. Refraction at Spherical Thin Lens

A thin lens is called convex if it is thicker at the middle and it is called concave if it is thicker at the
ends.
For a spherical, thin lens having the same medium on both sides:

11 11
- - - = (nrrt - 1)----------------------------- where nrt =------------------------------------
1 2
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1 11
1)------------------
f: =-
12

1 1 1
- y Lens Maker's Formula

m=—

Combination Of Lenses:

1_1 1 1
F"fi+f2+f3‘"

MODERN PHYSICS

* Work function is minimum for cesium (1.9 eV)

he
* work function W = hv0 = 7

* Photoelectric current is directly proportional to intensity of incident radiation, (v constant)

* Photoelectrons ejected from metal have kinetic energies ranging from 0 to KEmax
Here KEmax = eVs Vs - stopping potential
* Stopping potential is independent of intensity of light used (v-constant)
* Intensity in the terms of electric field is

I -_ — 2
1 2 oF13 rc

* Momentum of one photon is —.

A

* Einstein equation for photoelectric effect is

he he
hv = w0 + kmax —= + eVs

12400
* Energy AE = 0) eV

* Force due to radiation (Photon) (no transmission)

When light is incident perpendicularly
(a) a = 1 r = 0

F = —, Pressure = —
c’ c
(b) r = 1, a = 0

2IA 21
F=
P=—
—’ c
(c) when 0 < r < 1 and a + r = 1
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IA
F = — (1 + r), P= |(1 +0

When light is incident at an angle 0 with vertical,

(a) a = 1, r = 0

IA cos0 p _ Fcos0 I
F= J = — cos2 0
c
(b) r=

2IAcos2 0 21cos2 0
F J P = ----------------
c c

(C) 0 < r < 1, a+r=1

Icos2 0
P (1 + r)
c
* De Broglie wavelength

h
X-—--
mv P 2km
* Radius and speed of electron in hydrogen like atoms.

_ n2

**n 30 a0 = 0.529 A

v0 = 2.19 x 106 m/s

v"=^v»

* Energy in nth orbit

En E1 ■ n2
E-j = 13.6 eV

* Wavelength corresponding to spectral lines

1 _1__________ 1_
X ” R n2 n|

for Lyman series =1 n2 = 2, 3, 4..

Balmer n1 = 2 n2 = 3, 4, 5..
Paschen n-! = 3 n2 = 4, 5, 6..
* The lyman series is an ultraviolet and Paschen, Brackett and Pfund series are in the infrared region.

* Total number of possible transitions, is —-—, (from nth state)

* If effect of nucleus motion is considered,

0 n2 m
rn = (0.529 A) — . —
nv 7 Z M-

En = ( 13.6 eV) \
n n2 m
Here p - reduced mass
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49 Short Formula (Physics) Resonance

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Mm
p= + mass of nucleus

* Minimum wavelength for x-rays

he 12400 A
^min = eV(5 = V0(volt)

* Moseleys Law

Vv = a(z b)
a and b are positive constants for one type of x-rays (independent of Z)
* Average radius of nucleus may be written as
R = R0A1/3, Ro = 1.1 x 10 15 M
A - mass number
* Binding energy of nucleus of mass M, is given by B = (ZMp + NMn M)C2
* Alpha - decay process

*X t~24 Y +42 He

Q-value is

Q = [m (zX)-m x)-m (2He)]c2

* Beta- minus decay

zX tiY + p-+v-

Q- value = [m(^X)-m(z+1Y)]c2

* Beta plus-decay

X tiY + P+ + v

Q- value = [m(^X)-m(^_1Y)-2me]c2

* Electron capture : when atomic electron is captured, X-rays are emitted.

zX + e tiY + V

Q-value = [m(^X)-m(z_1Y)]c2

* In radioactive decay, number of nuclei at instant t is given by N = No e xt , X-decay constant.

* Activity of sample : A = Ao e xt

* Activity per unit mass is called specific activity.

0.693
* Half life : T1/2 = ——
A

"l”l/2
* Average life : Tav = —

* A radioactive nucleus can decay by two different processes having half lives t-, and t2 respectively. Effective
111
half-life of nucleus is given by - = — + —.
t t1 t2
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WAVE OPTICS
Interference of waves of intensity I. and IB:

resultant intensity, I = + Ig + 2A/l1I2 cos CM) where, A<|) = phase difference.

For Constructive Interference:

For Destructive interference :

If sources are incoherent I = Ij + Ig , at each point.

YDSE:
Path difference, Ap = SKP SjP = d sin 0

dy
if d < < D
D
if y « D
for maxima, Ap = nX y = np n = 0, ±1, ±2

(2n-1)| n = 1,2,3
for minima Ap = Ap =
(2n + 1)y n = -1,-2,-3

(2n-1)| n=1,2,3

Y= P
(2n + 1)^ n = -1,-2,-3

XD
where, fringe width p = —

Here, X = wavelength in medium.

d
Highest order maxima : n. = r-

total number of maxima = 2n..w + rnf?»

1

d1
Highest order minima : nM = + 2

total number of minima = 2n . lii'fe®

/----- 2k
Intensity on screen : I = If + IB + 2A/I1I2 cos (A(|)) where, A(|) =—Ap

If = IK, I = 4If cos8 -f

»M

YDSE with two wavelengths Xj & XB:

The nearest point to central maxima where the bright fringes coincide:
y = nfPj = ngPK = Lem of ps and pK

The nearest point to central maxima where the two dark fringes coincide,
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11
y = (nf 2) P[ = 2) Pb
Optical path difference
AP . « = PAP
; S

2k 2k
A(|) = — Ap = .
A- '^vacuum

B
A = (g 1)1 ^=(p 1)ty
A?

YDSE WITH OBLIQUE INCIDENCE

In YDSE, ray is incident on the slit at an inclination of 0S to
the axis of symmetry of the experimental set-up

We obtain central maxima at a point where, Ap = 0.

or = 0S.
This corresponds to the point O in the diagram.
Hence we have path difference.

d(sin 0O + sin 0) - for points above O

Ap d(sin 0O - sin 0) - for points between O & O'

...(8.1)
d(sin0 - sin 0O) - for points below O'

THIN-FILM INTERFERENCE

for destructive interference

for interference in reflected light
for constructive interference

nl for constructive interference

for interference in transmitted light 2pd =
for destructive interference

GRAVITATION : Universal Law of Gravitation

m1m2
'2 or F = Gmim2
r r2
where G = 6.67 10" Nm® kg ® is the universal gravitational constant.
Newton's Law of Gravitation in vector form :

Gm1m2 Grrnm?
& F = ----------------------------------- r21
F12
2 f12 « r21 j-2 21
r

Now r12=-r21 , Thus F21 = m2 Comparing above, we get F12 = -F21

r2

F GM
Gravitational Field E = — = ~y
mr
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52 Short Formula (Physics) Resonance

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dV
Gravitational potential : gravitational potential, V = ——. E=
dr ’

-GM -GMr GM cosO

1. Ring.
M
V= ,2 2J/2 &E=,2 2\3/2r or E =
xor(a +r ) ' (a +rzf,z

Gravitational field is maximum at a distance, r = ± a/V2 and it is 2GM/3-V3 a2

2. Thin Circular Disc.

-2GM [ Ur 2GM . r 2GM

\2 “r & E = -5- 1- [1 - COS 0]
a a2
[rM
3. (a) Point P inside the sphere, r < a, then

GM 2 2\ GMr 3GM
V= -r ) & E = —, and at the centre V = and E = 0
2a3 a3 2a

GM
(b) Point P outside the sphere . r > a, then V = - &
r
4. Uniform Thin Spherical Shell

-GM
(a) Point P Inside the shell. r < a , then V & E=0
a

-GM
(b) Point P outside shell. r > a, then V &
r
VARIATION OF ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY :

GMe h -2
1. Effect of Altitude 1- — when h « R.
(R.*hF =9 \ -0 Rs

2. Effect of depth g, = g 1--^-

3. Effect of the surface of Earth

The equatorial radius is about 21 km longer than its polar radius.

GMe
We know, q’ =
a —Hence
n2 q r > g „ . a spate

SATELLITE VELOCITY (OR ORBITAL VELOCITY)

GMe 2 gRe 2
V“- (Re+h) - (Re+h)

When h « Rg then gR?

vs = 6^4 106 = 7.92 10® ms 1 = 7.92 km s1

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Time period of Satellite T=

Re g

-GMem GMem GM em
Energy of a Satellite U = K.E. = ——— ; then total energy E=
r 2Re
Kepler's Laws
Law of area :
The line joining the sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time.

l(rde) 1 de 1
area swept
Areal velocity = ------------------------- = ——— =— r® — = constant . Hence — r® co = constant,
time dt 2 dt 2

T2
Law of periods : —v = constant
R3

FLUID MECHANICS & PROPERTIES OF MATTER

FLUIDS, SURFACE TENSION, VISCOSITY & ELASTICITY :

f F A
Hydraulic press. p=—= —orF = — f.
a A a
Hydrostatic Paradox P0 = P_, = Ps
(i) Liquid placed in elevator: When elevator accelerates upward with acceleration a0 then pressure in the fluid,
at depth h may be given by,
p = ph [g + a0]

a0

and force of buoyancy, B = m (g + a0)

mg

(ii) Free surface of liquid in horizontal acceleration :

ao
tan 0 =
9

lap
Pi P2 = ao where Pt and p2 are pressures at points 1 & 2. Then h! h2
g
(iii) Free surface of liquid in case of rotating cylinder.

222
v cor
h= 2g = 2g

Equation of Continuity a-jV-j — a2v2

In general av = constant .
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Short Formula (Physics)

Bernoulli s Theorem

P 1
i.e. — + — v1 2 * + gh= constant.
P 2 a

2gh

(vi) Torricelli s theorem (speed of efflux) v= ,A2 = area of hole A-i = area of vessel.

restoring force
ELASTICITY & VISCOSITY : stress = area of the body A

change in configuration
Strain,
original configuration

AL
(i) Longitudinal strain = —

AV
(") „ = volume strain =

(iii) Shear Strain : tan <|) or <|) =

F/A FL
Young's modulus of elasticity Y =
AL/L " AAL

11 1
Potential Energy per unit volume = — (stress strain) = — (Y strain®)
2
Inter-Atomic Force-Constant k = Yrs.

dv dv
Newton s Law of viscosity, F A — or F = riA — 1
dx dx

2 r2(p-cr)g
Stoke s Law F = 6 n r| r v. Terminal velocity = — --------------------
y n
SURFACE TENSION

Total force on either of the imaginary line (F) AW

Surface tension (T) = Length of the l^e (7) :T=SA

Thus, surface tension is numerically equal to surface energy or work done per unit increase surface area.

4T
Inside a bubble : (p pj = — = pM ;

Inside the drop : (P

Inside air bubble in a liquid :(p pw) = — = p.

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2T cos0
Capillary Rise h=
rpg

(i) Longitudinal displacement of sound wave

= Asin (cot kx)
(ii) Pressure excess during travelling sound wave

£
P = -B— (it is true for travelling

= (BAk) cos(cot kx)

wave as well as standing waves)
Amplitude of pressure excess = BAk

(iii) Speed of sound C =

Where E = Ellastic modulus for the medium

p = density of medium

Y
for solid C=
Vp
where Y = young's modulus for the solid

B
for liquid C=
P
where B = Bulk modulus for the liquid

where Ms is molecular wt. of the gas in (kg/mole)

Intensity of sound wave :

<I> = 2^fWpv=^ <I> Pri;

(iv) Loudness of sound : L= 1OI°9io y dB

ro

where ls = 10 W/mK(This the minimum intensity human ears can listen)

T_ P
Intensity at a distance r from a point source = 1 - ^2
Interference of Sound Wave
if Pj = prrii sin (cot kx« + 0i)
P« = Pm® sin H kX® + 0a)

resultant excess pressure at point O is

P = Pj +
p = ps sin (cot kx + 0)
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P:i: = Vp™. +p“x +2PW,P1rBcOS<l>

where (|) = [k (Xj xB) + (0f 0K)]

and I = If + IB + 2A/l1 T2

(i) For constructive interference

(|> = 2nji and ps = prnj + pm(S (constructive interference)
(ii) For destructive interfrence
(|) = (2n+ 1) k and ps = | pni prn1s | (destructive interference)

271
If (|> is due to path difference only then <|) = — Ax.
A.
Condition for constructive interference : Ax = nX

X
Condition for destructive interference : Ax = (2n + 1) —.
2
(a) If P„f = P.(B and 6 = k, 3tt, ...
resultant p = 0 i.e. no sound
(b) If priil = pwK and (|) = 0,2k, 4k, ...
Ps ” 2Pn & I® ”
P® “ ^Piii
Close organ pipe :

v 3v 5v (2n + 1)v
f
n = overtone
“ 4?’ 4?’ 4?.................... 4?
Open organ pipe :

f v 2v 3v nV
“ 2? 2? 2?.................... H
Beats : Beatsfrequency = |f. fj.
Doppler s Effect

v - v®
The observed frequency, f =f
v-vj

V-V
and Apparent wavelength X = X
v