OL Edexcel Notes (1)
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Notes
Dr.Youssef Ahmed
011283960039
+966569065252
Edexcel OL notes 2023 – 2024 Dr.Youssef Ahmed
Chapter Topics page
1 Numbers 1 – 178
a- Directed numbers
b- fractions
c- significant figures
d- LCM & HCF
e- Rational numbers & recurring decimals
f- Bounds
g- Standard form
h- Ratio
i- Percentage
j- Compound interest
k- units conversion (speed, distance & time)
l- Sets & Venn diagram
m- Surds
WhatsApp +201128360039 IGCSE & IAL maths instructor
1
DIRECTED NUMBERS
The positive and negative numbers are called integers.
They can be shown on a number line.
NEGATIVE NUMBERS POSITIVE NUMBERS
2
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
7 ºC
To find the difference between a temperature of 4 ºC and a temperature of
−3 ºC, you find the gap between these two numbers on the number line.
The difference is 7 ºC.
The number line can be used for adding and subtracting numbers.
Examples
1 Use a number line to work out −3 + 5
−3 + 5 = 2
3
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 Use a number line to work out −1 − 4
−1 − 4 = −5
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Adding and subtracting directed numbers
The rules for adding and subtracting directed numbers are:
4
Change 3 5 to 35 2
Change 3 5 to 3 5 8
Change 3 5 to 3 5 8
Change 3 5 to 35 2
Examples
1 Work out 2 4
2 4 2 4
2 4 6
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5
2 Work out 1 4
1 4 1 4
1 4 5
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Examples
3 Work out 1 3
1 3 1 3
1 3 4
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
6
4 Work out 2 6
2 6 2 6
2 6 4
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Multiplying and dividing directed numbers
The rules for multiplying and dividing directed numbers are:
Multiplication Division
7
+ × + = + + ÷ + = +
+ × − = − + ÷ − = −
− × + = − − ÷ + = −
− × − = + − ÷ − = +
If the two signs are the same, the answer will be positive.
If the two signs are different, the answer will be negative.
Examples
1 Work out 2 4
the two signs are the same so the answer is positive
2 4 8
8
2 Work out 3 8
the two signs are different so the answer is negative
3 8 24
Examples
3 Work out 5 2
the two signs are different so the answer is negative
5 2 10
9
4 Work out 4 7
the two signs are the same so the answer is positive
4 7 28
Examples
5 Work out (3)2 3 3
the two signs are the same so the answer is positive
3 3 9
10
6 Work out (2)3 2 2 2
first work out −2 × −2 = 4
2 2 2 4 2 8
the two signs are different so the answer is negative
(2)3 8
FOUR RULES FOR
11
FRACTIONS
The language of fractions
4 numerator
5 denominator
12
5 improper fraction
3
3
2 mixed number
4
To simplify a fraction you divide the numerator and denominator by a
common factor. 2
6 =
3
8 4
13
2
This can be shown on a diagram:
=
Examples
1 Simplify 6
9
3
14
6 = 2
9 3
3
2 Simplify 14
35
7
15
14 = 2
35 5
7
3 Simplify 36
42
6
16
36 = 6
42 7
6
4 Change 5 to a mixed number.
4
note: 4 quarters make one whole one
17
5 1
= 1
4 4
5 Change 8 to a mixed number.
3
note: 3 thirds make one whole one
18
8 2
= 2
3 3
Adding and subtracting fractions
To add or subtract fractions a common denominator is needed first.
Example
1 2
19
1 Calculate
5 3
first write both fractions with a common denominator of 15
1 3 2 10
and
5 15 3 15
1 2 3 10 13
So
5 3 15 15 15
4 1
2 Calculate
7 2
first write both fractions with a common denominator of 14
4 8 1 7
and
7 14 2 14
20
4 1 8 7 1
So
7 2 14 14 14
2 1
3 Calculate 2 1
5 4
first write both fractions with a common denominator of 20
2 8 1 5
and
5 20 4 20
21
2 1 8 5 13
So 2 1 2 1 3
5 4 20 20 20
Multiplying and dividing fractions
Example
1 2
1 Calculate
5 3
22
multiply the numerators, multiply the denominators
1 2 1 2 2
5 3 53 15
3 1
2 Calculate 1 2 first change to improper fractions
4 5
3 7 1 11
1 and 2
4 4 5 5
3 1 7 11
1 2 multiply the numerators, multiply the denominators.
23
4 5 4 5
7 11
45
77 change to a mixed number
20
17
3
20
5 3 3 5
3 Calculate dividing by is the same as multiplying by
8 5 5 3
5 3 5 5
multiply the numerators, multiply the denominators.
8 5 8 3
55
24
83
25 change to a mixed number
24
1
1
24
1 3
4 Calculate 1 2 first change to improper fractions
2 4
1 3 3 11
1 and 2
2 2 4 4
1 3 3 11 11 4
1 2 dividing by is the same as multiplying by
2 4 2 4 4 11
25
3 4
multiply the numerators, multiply the denominators.
2 11
34
2 11
12 simplify
22
6
11
26
SIGNIFICANT
FIGURES AND
27
DECIMAL PLACES
Decimal places
It is often useful to give an answer to a number of decimal places.
If you are asked to round a number to 2 decimal places you must have
exactly 2 digits after the decimal point.
28
The following rules are used:
1. Count along the digits to the required number of decimal places.
2. Look at the next digit
• If it is less than 5, leave the digit before it as it is.
• If it is 5 or more, you must round up the digit before it.
Examples
1 Write 5.3472 correct to 2 decimal places.
5.3472 the next digit is 7 so you must round up
29
5.3472 = 5.35 to 2 d.p.
Examples
2 Write 36.4319 correct to 2 decimal places.
36.4319 the next digit is 1 so the digit
before it will not change
30
36.4319 = 36.43 to 2 d.p.
Examples
3 Write 0.0088 correct to 2 decimal places.
0.0088 the next digit is 8 so you must round up
31
0.0088 = 0.01 to 2 d.p.
Examples
4 Write 126.2043 correct to 2 decimal places.
126.2043 the next digit is 4 so the digit
before it will not change
32
126.2043 = 126.20 to 2 d.p. note: you must keep the 0 in your answer
Examples
5 Write 27.998 correct to 2 decimal places.
27.998 the next digit is 8 so you must round up
33
27.998 = 28.00 to 2 d.p.
Examples
6 Write 49.3254 correct to 3 decimal places.
49.3254 the next digit is 4 so the digit
before it will not change
34
49.3254 = 49.325 to 3 d.p.
Examples
7 Write 7.8798 correct to 3 decimal places.
7.8798 the next digit is 8 so you must round up
35
7.8798 = 7.880 to 3 d.p.
Significant figures
You may also be asked to round to a number of significant figures.
To round a number to a given number of significant figures use the
following rules:
36
1. Count along the digits to the required number of significant figures.
(The most significant figure is the first non-zero figure.)
2. Look at the next digit
• If it is less than 5, leave the digit before it as it is.
• If it is 5 or more, you must round up the digit before it.
Examples
1 Write 53872 correct to 2 significant figures.
53872 the next digit is 8 so you must round up
37
53872 = 54000 to 2 s.f.
Examples
2 Write 76408 correct to 1 significant figure.
76408 the next digit is 6 so the digit
before it will not change
38
76408 = 80000 to 1 s.f.
Examples
3 Write 6.439 correct to 3 significant figures.
6.439 the next digit is 9 so you must round up
39
6.439 = 6.44 to 3 s.f.
Examples
4 Write 0.00342 correct to 2 significant figures.
0.00342 the next digit is 2 so the digit
before it will not change
40
0.00342 = 0.0034 to 2 s.f.
Examples
5 Write 0.00899 correct to 2 significant figures.
0.00899 the next digit is 9 so you must round up
41
0.00899 = 0.0090 to 2 s.f.
Estimating
It is important that you know how to check if your answer to a calculation
is a sensible answer.
To estimate the answer to a calculation use the
following steps:
42
1. Round each of the numbers to 1 significant figure.
2. Do the calculation using your rounded numbers.
Examples
1 Estimate the answer to 5.78 2.14
5.78 6 2.14 2
5.78 2.14 6 2 12
43
2 Estimate the answer to 28.217 2.97
28.217 30 2.97 3
28.217 2.97 30 3 10
Examples
3 Estimate the answer to 42.8 4.11
3.22 5.96
42.8 40 4.11 4
3.22 3 5.96 6
44
42.8 4.11 40 4
3.22 5.96 36
36
18
2
Examples
4 Estimate the answer to 389 813.7
(40.6)2
389 400 813.7 800 40.6 40
45
10 20
389 813.7 400 800
2
(40.6) 40 40
200
46
MULTIPLES, FACTORS,
PRIMES, SQUARES AND
47
CUBES
Factors
The whole numbers that divide exactly into 20 are called factors of 20.
So 4 is a factor of 20 because 20 ÷ 4 = 5.
Examples
48
1 34 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
From the set of numbers above write down the numbers that are
factors of 48.
The numbers that are factors of 48 are 3, 4, 6, 8 and 12.
List all the factors of 36.
List all the factor pairs.
36 = 1 × 36
36 = 2 × 18
49
36 = 3 × 12
36 = 4 × 9
36 = 6 × 6
Write the factors in order.
Factors of 36 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36
Find the highest common factor (HCF) of 27 and 90.
List all the factors of each number.
Factors of 27 = 1 3 9 27
50
Factors of 90 = 1 2 3 5 6 9 10 15 18 30 45 90
Select the common factors.
The highest common factor of 27 and 90 is 9.
Multiples
The multiples of 8 are 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, ...
The multiples of 13 are 13, 26, 39, 52, ...
Examples
51
1 2 4 7 10 15 20 29 34 44 52 74
From the set of numbers above write down the numbers that are
multiples of 4.
The numbers that are multiples of 4 are 4, 20, 44 and 52.
Find the lowest common multiple (LCM) of 6 and 15.
List the multiples of each number.
Multiples of 6 = 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72…
52
Multiples of 15 = 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165…
Select the common multiples.
The lowest common multiple of 6 and 15 is 30.
Primes
A prime number is a number that has exactly two factors.
7 is a prime number because it has exactly two factors (1 and 7).
Examples
53
1 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
From the set of numbers above write down the numbers that are
prime.
The numbers that are prime are 23 and 29.
List all the prime factors of 84.
List all the factors of 84.
Factors of 84 = 1 2 3 4 6 7 12 14 21 28 42 84
54
Select the factors that are prime.
The prime factors of 84 are 2, 3 and 7.
Write 42 as the product of its prime factors.
42
42 can be written as 6 × 7.
6 7
6 can be written as 2 × 3.
55
2 3
42 = 2 × 3 × 7
Write 120 as the product of its prime factors.
120
120 can be written as
10 × 12.
10 12
10 can be written as 2 × 5.
56
12 can be written as 3 × 4.
2 5 3 4
4 can be written as 2 × 2.
2 2
120 = 2 × 5 × 3 × 2× 2 = 23 × 3 × 5
Find the highest common factor (HCF) and lowest common
multiple (LCM) of 42 and 120.
From example 3: 42 = 2 × 3 × 7
From example 4: 120 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 5
Write the prime factors on the diagram.
57
7 2 3 2 2 5
Prime factors of 42 Prime factors of 120
The HCF is the product of the numbers in the intersection = 2 × 3 = 6.
The LCM is the product of all the numbers on the diagram
= 7 × 2 × 3 × 2 × 2 × 5 = 840.
Square numbers
1×1=1 2×2=4 3×3=9 4 × 4 = 16
The numbers 1, 4, 9, 16… are called square numbers.
4 × 4 can be written as 42.
58
Example
15 32 49 53 62 71 81 94 100
From the set of numbers above write down the numbers that are
square numbers.
The numbers that are square numbers are 49, 81 and 100.
Cube numbers
1×1×1=1 2×2×2=8 3 × 3 × 3 = 27
The numbers 1, 8, 27, 64… are called cube numbers.
4 × 4 × 4 can be written as 43.
59
Example
17 24 25 125 200 216
From the set of numbers above write down the numbers that are cube
numbers.
The numbers that are cube numbers are 1, 125 and 216.
60
RATIONAL AND
IRRATIONAL
61
NUMBERS
RECURRING
62
DECIMALS
Recurring decimals contain digits that are repeated over and over again.
0.2222222222…
2.43535353535…
0.142142142142…
6.801980198019…
are all examples of recurring decimals
63
Dots are used to show how the decimals recur.
0.2222222222... 0.2
2.43535353535... 2.435
0.142142142... 0.142
6.801980198019... 6.8019
Changing recurring decimals to fractions
1 Change 0.7 to a fraction.
let x 0.777777... multiply both sides of the equation by 10
64
10x 7.777777... write x 0.777777... underneath
x 0.777777... subtract the two equations
9x 7 divide both sides by 9
7
x
9 If 1 digit recurs multiply by 10.
If 2 digits recur multiply by 100.
7 If 3 digits recur multiply by 1000.
Answer: 0.7
9
Changing recurring decimals to fractions
2 Change 0.47 to a fraction.
let x 0.474747... multiply both sides of the equation by 100
65
100x 47.474747... write x 0.474747... underneath
x 0.474747... subtract the two equations
99x 47 divide both sides by 99
47
x
99 If 1 digit recurs multiply by 10.
If 2 digits recur multiply by 100.
47 If 3 digits recur multiply by 1000.
Answer: 0.47
99
Changing recurring decimals to fractions
3 Change 0.125 to a fraction.
let x 0.125125125... multiply both sides of the equation by 1000
66
1000x 125.125125... write x 0.125125... underneath
x 0.125125... subtract the two equations
999x 125 divide both sides by 999
125
x
999 If 1 digit recurs multiply by 10.
If 2 digits recur multiply by 100.
125 If 3 digits recur multiply by 1000.
Answer: 0.125
999
Changing recurring decimals to fractions
4 Change 0.947 to a fraction.
let x 0.9474747... multiply both sides of the equation by 100
67
100x 94.7474747... write x 0.9474747... underneath
x 0.9474747... subtract the two equations
99x 93.8 divide both sides by 99
93.8 938 469
x
99 990 495 If 1 digit recurs multiply by 10.
If 2 digits recur multiply by 100.
469 If 3 digits recur multiply by 1000.
Answer: 0.947
495
The set of real numbers can be divided into two sets:
RATIONAL NUMBERS and IRRATIONAL NUMBERS
68
Numbers that can be written Numbers that cannot be
in the form a . written in the form a .
b b
Rational numbers include:
3
all fractions eg
5
8
all integers eg 8
1
4 14
all mixed numbers eg 2
69
5 5
23
all terminating decimals eg 0.23
100
2
all recurring decimals eg 0.6
3
5
some square roots eg 25 5
1
3 2
some cube roots eg 8 2
1
Irrational numbers include:
some square roots eg 3
3
some cube roots eg 5
70
some trig ratios eg sin20
1 Which of these numbers are irrational numbers?
1
2.1 cos 40 33 5 3.8 sin30
4
Answer: cos 40 , 33 and
71
2 Write each of these numbers in the correct place on the Venn diagram.
4 2 4
36 4.9
9 3 9
Rational numbers
72
4.9
4 Integers
9 4
36 2
9
3
3 Is x rational or irrational for this triangle?
x cm
10 cm
24 cm
73
Using Pythagoras x 2 10 2 24 2
x 2 100 576
x 2 676
x 26
Answer: x is rational
4 Is x rational or irrational for this triangle?
12 cm
4 cm
x cm
74
Using Pythagoras x 2 4 2 122
x 2 16 144
x 2 128
x 11.317085...
Answer: x is irrational
UPPER AND LOWER
75
BOUNDS
If the length of a nail is given as 6 cm correct to the nearest cm, you
can find the lower bound and upper bound for the length of the nail.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
lower bound upper bound
76
The lower bound is halfway between 5 cm and 6 cm.
Lower bound = 5.5 cm
The upper bound is halfway between 6 cm and 7 cm.
Upper bound = 6.5 cm
The range of possible values for the length of the nail can be written as:
5.5 cm ≤ length < 6.5 cm
1 The mass of a baby is 3.7 kg correct to one decimal place.
Write down the upper and lower bounds for the mass of the baby.
You need to think of the numbers (to 1 d.p.)
3.6 3.7 3.8 directly below 3.7 and directly above 3.7.
These are 3.6 and 3.8.
Lower Upper bound
77
bound
The lower bound is halfway between 3.6 and 3.7.
Lower bound = 3.65 cm
The upper bound is halfway between 3.7 and 3.8.
Upper bound = 3.75 cm
2 A rectangle has sides of length 4.3 cm and 6.6 cm each correct to the
nearest milllimetre.
Calculate the upper and lower bounds for the perimeter of the rectangle.
For the lower bound use: For the upper bound use:
6.55 cm 6.65 cm
78
4.25 cm 4.35 cm
Lower bound = 6.55 + 4.25 + 6.55 + 4.25 = 21.6 cm
Upper bound = 6.65 + 4.35 + 6.65 + 4.35 = 22 cm
3 The lengths of two planks of wood correct to the nearest centimetre, are
149 cm and 233 cm.
149 cm
Plank A
233 cm
Plank B
79
a Calculate the upper bound for the total length of the two planks of wood.
Upper bound = upper bound for plank A + upper bound for plank B
= 149.5 + 233.5 = 383 cm
b Calculate the upper bound for the difference in length for the two planks
of wood.
Upper bound = upper bound for plank B – lower bound for plank A
= 233.5 − 148.5 = 85 cm
80
81
STANDARD FORM
To write a number in standard form it must be written in the form:
A ×10n
82
where 1 ≤ A < 10 and n is an integer
very large numbers
It is a useful way of writing:
very small numbers
Which of these numbers are written in standard form?
6.4 × 105 10 × 105 0.77 × 103
70 × 106 52 × 105 8 × 108
83
3.02 × 104 6.6 0.2 × 10-3
64 × 105 2.8 × 10-3 1 × 109
5 × 1021 6.4 . 105 3.7 × 100
Very large numbers
1 Write these numbers in standard form.
a 6300 = 6.3 × 103 Remember:
101 = 10
84
b 700 000 = 7 × 105 102 = 100
103 = 1000
104 = 10 000
c 20 500 = 2.05 × 104 105 = 100 000
106 = 1 000 000
d 55 000 000 = 5.5 × 107
e 5088 = 5.088 × 103
2 The circumference of the Earth is approximately 40 000 km.
Write this number in standard form.
40 000 km = 4 × 104 km
85
3 The distance of Saturn from the Earth is approximately 13 000 000 000 km.
Write this number in standard form.
13 000 000 000 km = 1.3 × 1010 km
86
4 In the human brain there are approximately 100 000 000 000 neurons.
Write this number in standard form.
100 000 000 000 = 1 × 1011
87
5 The distance of the Sun from the Earth is approximately 149.6 million km.
Write this number in standard form.
149.6 million km = 149.6 × 1 000 000 km
88
= 149 600 000 km
= 1.496 × 108 km
6 a = 3.6 × 104 b = 4 × 103
Calculate the following giving your answer in standard form.
a a+b b a×b c a÷b
a a+b = (3.6 × 104) + (4 × 103)
89
= (36 × 103) + (4 × 103)
= 40 × 103
= 4 × 104
To use a calculator to calculate (3.6 × 104) + (4 × 103):
x
If you are using the 10 key press the following buttons:
3 . 6 10 x 4 + 4 10 x 3 =
90
If you are using the EXP key press the following buttons:
3 . 6 EXP 4 + 4 EXP 3 =
6 a = 3.6 × 104 b = 4 × 103
Calculate the following giving your answer in standard form.
a a+b b a×b c a÷b
b a×b = (3.6 × 104) × (4 × 103)
91
= 3.6 × 4 × 104 × 103
= 14.4 × 107
= 1.44 × 108
Now check your answer using a calculator.
6 a = 3.6 × 104 b = 4 × 103
Calculate the following giving your answer in standard form.
a a+b b a×b c a÷b
c a÷b = (3.6 × 104) ÷ (4 × 103)
92
= (3.6 ÷ 4) × (104 ÷ 103)
= 0.9 × 101
= 9 × 100
Now check your answer using a calculator.
Very small numbers
1 Write these numbers in standard form.
a 0.04 = 4 × 10-2 Remember:
10-1 = 0.1
93
b 0.0008 = 8 × 10-4 10-2 = 0.01
10-3 = 0.001
10-4 = 0.0001
c 0.000 025 = 2.5 × 10-5 10-5 = 0.000 01
10-6 = 0.000 001
d 0.000 000 09 = 9 × 10-8
e 0.004 04 = 4.04 × 10-3
2 The mass of a bacterium is approximately 0.000 000 000 000 95 kg.
Write this number in standard form.
0.000 000 000 000 95 = 9.5 × 10-13
94
3 The mass of a hydrogen atom is approximately 1.67 × 10-24 g.
Write this number as an ordinary number.
1.67 × 10-24 g =
95
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 67 g
4 a = 8 × 10-2 b = 4 × 10-3
Calculate the following giving your answer in standard form.
a a+b b a×b c a÷b
a a+b = (8 × 10-2) + (4 × 10-3)
96
= (80 × 10-3) + (4 × 10-3)
= 84 × 10-3
= 8.4 × 10-2
Now check your answer using a calculator.
4 a = 8 × 10-2 b = 4 × 10-3
Calculate the following giving your answer in standard form.
a a+b b a×b c a÷b
b a×b = (8 × 10-2) × (4 × 10-3)
97
= 8 × 4 × 10-2 × 10-3
= 32 × 10-5
= 3.2 × 10-4
Now check your answer using a calculator.
4 a = 8 × 10-2 b = 4 × 10-3
Calculate the following giving your answer in standard form.
a a+b b a×b c a÷b
c a÷b = (8 × 10-2) ÷ (4 × 10-3)
98
= (8 ÷ 4) × (10-2 ÷ 10-3)
= 2 × 101
Now check your answer using a calculator.
99
RATIO
Simplifying ratios
Ratios are used to compare one quantity with another quantity.
If there are 6 red sweets and 2 green sweets then the ratio of red
to green can be written as
red : green = 6 : 2
Rearranging the sweets shows
100
that for every 3 red sweets
there is 1 green sweet.
red : green = 3 : 1
Ratios are simplified in a similar way to fractions.
6:2 Divide both sides of the ratio
÷2 ÷2
=3:1 by the common factor 2.
A ratio in its simplest form (lowest terms) has
integer values that cannot be cancelled further.
Examples
1 Simplify these ratios.
a 49 : 28 b 36 : 48
49 : 28 36 : 48
÷7 ÷7 ÷ 12 ÷ 12
=7:4 =3:4
101
2 Simplify these ratios.
a 0.6 : 0.7 b 1.2 : 3.4
0.6 : 0.7 1.2 : 3.4
× 10 ×10 × 10 × 10
=6:7 = 12 : 34
÷2 ÷2
= 6 : 17
3 Simplify these ratios.
a 3 : 1 b 2 : 4
4 2 3 5
3 1 2 4
: :
×4 4 2 ×4 × 15 3 5 × 15
=3:2 = 10 : 12
÷2 ÷2
=5:6
102
4 Simplify these ratios.
a 9 cm : 2 m b 3 kg : 200 g
9 cm : 2 m 3 kg : 200 g
= 9 : 200 = 3000 : 200
÷ 100 ÷ 100
= 30 : 2
÷2 ÷2
= 15 : 1
Dividing quantities in a given ratio
Paulo wants to share $20 between Alano and Bernardo in the ratio 3 : 2.
This means that the $20 is divided into 3 + 2 = 5 parts.
Each part is worth $20 ÷ 5 = $4.
Alano receives 3 parts. Bernardo receives 2 parts.
103
$4 $4 $4 $4 $4
Alano receives $12. Bernardo receives $8.
Example
Paulo wants to share $54 between Alano, Bernardo and Carlos in the
ratio 2 : 1 : 3. How much does each receive?
Total number of parts = 2 + 1 + 3 = 6
104
Value of 1 part = $54 ÷ 6 = $9
Alano Bernardo Carlos
$9 $9 $9 $9 $9 $9
Alano receives $18. Bernardo receives $9. Carlos receives $27.
INCREASE AND
DECREASE IN A
105
GIVEN RATIO
If you want to increase $85 in the ratio 7 : 5 there are two possible methods.
Method 1 Method 2
7
5 parts = $85 $85 $119
106
5
1 part = $85 ÷ 5 = $17
7 parts = 7 × $17 = $119
So answer is $119
Example
1 Decrease 120 kg in the ratio 19 : 20.
Method 1 Method 2
19
20 parts = 120 kg 120 114 kg
107
20
1 part = 120 kg ÷ 20 = 6 kg
19 parts = 19 × 6 kg = 114 kg
So answer is 114 kg
Example
2
15 cm
20 cm
A photo measures 20 cm by 15 cm. The photo is enlarged in the ratio 8 : 5.
a Calculate the measurements of the enlarged photo.
108
b Write down and simplify the ratio
area of enlarged photo : area of original photo
8 8
a 20 32 cm 15 24 cm
5 5
note:
b area of original photo = 15 x 20 = 300 cm2
82 : 52 = 64 : 25
area of enlarged photo = 32 x 24 = 768 cm2
area of enlarged photo : area of original photo = 768 : 300 = 64 : 25
Example
3 A company sells regular size
boxes of washing powder. washing washing
They decide to make a large powder 24 cm
size box by increasing the powder
dimensions in the ratio 5 : 4.
REGULAR
a Calculate the measurements 8 cm LARGE
20 cm
of the large box.
109
b Write down and simplify the ratio
volume of large box : volume of regular box
5 5 5
a 20 25 cm 8 10 cm 24 30 cm
4 4 4
b volume of regular box = 20 x 8 x 24 = 3840 cm3 note:
53 : 43 = 125 : 64
volume of large box = 25 x 10 x 30 = 7500 cm3
volume of large box : volume of regular box = 7500 : 3840 = 125 : 64
Example
4 This tablecloth shrinks when it is washed.
The length decreases in the ratio 74 : 75.
The width decreases in the ratio 89 : 90. width =
180 cm
a Calculate the measurements of the
tablecloth after it is washed.
length = 225 cm
b Write down and simplify the ratio
area of tablecloth before washing : area of tablecloth after washing
110
74 89
a length 225 222 cm width 180 178 cm
75 90
b area before washing = 180 x 225 = 40 500 cm2
area after washing = 222 x 178 = 39 516 cm2
area before washing : area after washing = 40 500 : 39 516
= 3375 : 3293
111
PERCENTAGES 1
Percentage means parts of 100.
57
57% ( 0.57)
100
112
To change a fraction or decimal to a percentage, multiply by 100.
Example
113
Write a 17 b 0.7 as percentages.
20
17 17
a 100 85%
20 20
b 0.7 0.7 100 70%
To change a percentage to a fraction or a decimal, divide by 100.
Example
114
Write a 52% as a fraction b 16.5% as a decimal.
52 13
a 52%
100 25
b 16.5% 16.5 100 0.165
This diagram might help you to remember how to convert
between decimals, fractions and percentages.
× 100
115
decimal
percentage
or fraction
÷ 100
Examples
1
COMMISSION FOR
SALESMEN:
6.25% of all
sales
116
Raju sells computers.
Last year he sold computers worth $124 580.
How much commission did he earn?
6.25
6.25% of $124580 124580
100
$7786.25
Examples
2
ALL WAGES TO BE
INCREASED BY
15%
117
What would be the new wage of someone who presently earns $650 a week?
15
15% of $650 650 Quicker method:
100
(1 0.15) 650
$97.50
1.15 650
New wage $650 $97.50 $747.50
$747.50
Examples
3
SALE
all marked prices now
24% off
118
The marked price on a calculator is $15.75.
Calculate the sale price of the calculator.
24
24% of $15.75 15.75 Quicker method:
100
(1 0.24) 15.75
$3.78
0.76 15.75
Sale price $15.75 $3.78 $11.97
$11.97
Examples
4
CARS FOR SALE!
4% cash
discount
119
A car is priced at $5995.
Helen pays cash for the car and receives a 4% cash discount.
How much does she pay?
4
4% of $5995 5995 Quicker method:
100
(1 0.04) 5995
$239.80
0.96 5995
Cash price $5995 $239.80 $5755.20
$5755.20
120
121
PERCENTAGES 2
Expressing one quantity as a percentage of a second quantity
To write one quantity as a percentage of a second quantity:
1. Write the first quantity as a fraction of the second quantity
2. Multiply by 100 to change the fraction into a percentage.
1 Write 42 as a percentage of 75.
122
42 42
STEP 1: STEP 2: 100 56%
75 75
2 There are 30 students in a class. Six of the students are left-handed.
What percentage of the students are left-handed?
6 6
STEP 1: STEP 2: 100 20%
30 30
Percentage increase and percentage decrease
increase decrease
% increase = 100% % decrease = 100%
original value original value
1 John’s income increases from $20 000 a year to $23 000 a year.
123
Calculate the percentage increase in his income.
STEP 1: Increase = 23 000 – 20 000 = 3000
increase
STEP 2: % increase = 100%
original value
3000
100%
20000
= 15%
2 The population of a village decreases from 785 to 634.
Calculate the percentage decrease in the population.
STEP 1: Decrease = 785 – 634 = 151
decrease
STEP 2: % decrease = 100%
original value
124
151
100%
785
= 19.2%
Percentage profit and loss
profit loss
% profit = 100% % loss = 100%
original cost original cost
1 A car salesman buys a car for $15 000 and sells it for $17 000.
125
Calculate the percentage profit.
STEP 1: Profit = 17 000 – 15 000 = 2000
profit
STEP 2: % profit = 100%
original cost
2000
100%
15000
= 13.3%
2 Cara buys a bike for $250 and then sells it one year later for $180.
Calculate the percentage loss.
STEP 1: Loss = 250 – 180 = 70
loss
STEP 2: % loss = 100%
original cost
126
70
100%
250
= 28%
127
PERCENTAGES 3
Reverse percentages
Sometimes you are told the final value after a percentage change and you have
to find the original value.
This process is referred to as carrying out a reverse percentage.
128
Reminder:
If a value is increased by 16% the multiplying factor is 1.16 (1+ 0.16)
If a value is decreased by 16% the multiplying factor is 0.84 (1 − 0.16)
Example
1 Find the original price of the house.
HOUSE FOR SALE
new price 88% of original price
new price 0.88 original price Price reduced by 12%.
129
Now $227 040.
new price
original price
0.88
227 040
0.88
original price = $258 000
check: 258 000 x 0.88 = 227 040
Example
2 Find the original value of the car.
Value after first year
= $16 400
new value 82% of original value
new value 0.82 original value Car depreciated by
130
18% in the first year.
new value
original value
0.82
16400
0.82
original value = $20 000
check: 20 000 x 0.82 = 16 400
Example
3 Find the height of the plant yesterday.
Plant increases in
height by
new height 104% of original height 4% in one day.
It now has a height
new height 1.04 original height of
131
41.6 cm.
new height
original height
1.04
41.6
1.04
original height 40 cm
check: 40 x 1.04 = 41.6
Simple interest
With simple interest, the interest earned is not reinvested.
This means that the amount earned each year is unchanged.
132
Example
1
Amount invested = $250
Simple interest rate = 4%
Calculate the value of the investment after 3 years.
133
Interest earned in first year 4% of $250
0.04 250
$10
Interest earned in 3 years 3 $10 $30
Value of investment after 3 years $250 $30 $280
Example
2
Amount invested = $1350
Simple interest rate = 2.5%
Calculate the value of the investment after 4 years.
134
Interest earned in first year 2.5% of $1350
0.025 1350
$33.75
Interest earned in 4 years 4 $33.75 $135
Value of investment after 4 years $1350 $135 $1485
Compound interest
With compound interest, the interest earned is reinvested.
This means that the amount earned each year increases.
135
Example
1
Amount invested = $800
Compound interest rate = 5%
Calculate the value of the investment after 2 years.
136
Value of investment after 1 year 800 1.05 Quick method:
$840
800 1.05 2
Value of investment after 2 years 840 1.05
$882
$882
Example
2
Amount invested = $600
Compound interest rate = 2%
Calculate the value of the investment after 3 years.
137
Value of investment after 1 year 600 1.02 Quick method:
$612
600 1.023
Value of investment after 2 years 612 1.02
$636.72
$624.24
Value of investment after 3 years 624.24 1.02
$636.72 (to the nearest cent)
Example
3
Amount invested = $1200
Compound interest rate = 3.5%
Calculate a the value of the investment after 8 years
b the amount of interest earned in the 8 years.
138
a Value of investment after 8 years 1200 1.0358
$1580.17 (to the nearest cent)
b Interest earned 1580.17 1200
$380.17 (to the nearest cent)
COMPOUND INTEREST
AND EXPONENTIAL
139
GROWTH AND DECAY
Compound interest formula
If $P is invested at a rate of r% per year compound interest, then the the value
of the investment after n years is given by the compound interest formula:
140
n
æ r ö
Value of investment = P ´ ç 1+
è 100 ÷ø
Example
1 Adam invests $500 at a rate of 1.8% per year compound interest.
Calculate the amount Adam has after 12 years.
Give your answer in dollars correct to the nearest cent.
n
æ r ö
Value of investment = P ´ ç 1+
è 100 ÷ø
141
12
æ 1.8 ö
= 500 ´ ç 1+
è 100 ÷ø
= 500 ´ 1.1812
= $3643.80
Example
2 Amelia invests $800 for 7 years at a rate of r % per year compound interest.
At the end of the 7 years she has a total amount of $1243.19 correct to the
nearest cent. Find the value of r.
n
æ r ö
Value of investment = P ´ ç 1+
è 100 ÷ø
7
æ r ö
divide both sides by 800
142
1243.19 = 800 ´ ç 1+
è 100 ÷ø
7
æ r ö
1.5539... = ç 1+ take the 7th root of both sides
è 100 ÷ø
7 r
1.5539... = 1+
100
r
1.065 = 1+ subtract 1 from both sides
100
r
0.065 = multiply both sides by 100
100
Hence, r = 6.5
Example
3 Farhat and Mustafa both invest $5000.
Farhat invests her $5000 in a bank that pays x% per year simple interest.
Mustafa invests his $5000 at a rate of 3% per year compound interest.
After 10 years their investments are worth the same amount.
Calculate the value of x.
10
x æ 3 ö
143
Farhat = 5000 + 5000 ´ ´ 10 Mustafa = 5000 ´ ç 1+
100 è 100 ÷ø
10
x æ 3 ö
5000 + 5000 ´ ´ 10 = 5000 ´ ç 1+ divide both sides by 5000
100 è 100 ÷ø
1+ 0.1x = 1.0310
1+ 0.1x = 1.3439... subtract 1 from both sides
0.1x = 0.3439... multiply both sides by 10
x = 3.44 to 3 s.f.
Exponential growth and decay
When the growth rate of an exponential function is
positive, it is called exponential growth.
Some possible examples of exponential growth are
value of an investment
population growth
144
bacteria growth
When the growth rate of an exponential function is
negative, it is called exponential decay.
Some possible examples of exponential decay are
population decrease
value of a car
radioactive decay
Temperature cooling
The formula that is used for solving exponential growth and decay problems is:
n
æ r ö
Final value = x0 ´ ç 1+
è 100 ÷ø
145
Where x0 is the initial value, r is the rate of growth and n is the time interval.
Note For exponential growth: r > 0
For exponential decay: r < 0
Example
1 At the start of an experiment there are 2000 bacteria.
The number of bacteria increases at a rate of 18% per hour.
Work out the number of bacteria after 6 hours.
n
æ r ö
Number of bacteria = x0 ´ ç 1+ use x0 = 2000, r = 18 and n = 6
è 100 ÷ø
6
æ 18 ö
146
= 2000 ´ ç 1+
è 100 ÷ø
= 2000 ´ 1.186
= 5399.1...
= 5400 to 3 s.f.
Example
2 Amy buys a car for $7500.
Each year the value of the car decreases by 12% of its value at the beginning
of that year. Find the value of the car after 5 years.
n
æ r ö
Value after 5 years = P ´ ç 1+ use P = 7500, r = −12 and n = 5
è 100 ÷ø
147
5
æ -12 ö
= 7500 ´ ç 1+
è 100 ÷ø
= 7500 ´ 0.885
= $3957.99
148
SPEED, DISTANCE
149
AND TIME
Changing units of time
1 Write 24 minutes as a fraction of an hour.
24
24 minutes = hour to change minutes into hours divide by 60
60
150
2
hour
5
2 Write 54 minutes as a decimal of an hour.
54
54 minutes = hour to change minutes into hours divide by 60
60
9 to change a fraction to a decimal divide the
hour
10 numerator by the denominator
0.9 hours
7
3 Change of an hour into minutes.
12
7 7
hour = 60 minutes to change hours into minutes multiply by 60
12 12
151
35 minutes
4 Change 0.3 hours into minutes.
0.3 hour = 0.3 60 minutes to change hours into minutes multiply by 60
18 minutes
Speed
Speed is a measure of how fast an object is travelling.
When the speed is constant, the formula connecting speed, distance and time is:
152
distance
speed =
time
If the distance is measured in metres and the time is measured in seconds
then the speed is measured in metres per second (m/s or ms−1).
If the distance is measured in kilometres and the time is measured in hours
then the speed is measured in kilometres per hour (km/h or kmh−1).
1 A car takes 3 hours 20 minutes to travel
300 km at constant speed.
Find the speed of the car in km/h.
distance
speed = You must first change 20 minutes into hours.
time
300 20 1
153
20 minutes = hour = hour
1 60 3
3
3
90 km/h
2 A car is travelling at 54 km/h.
Change the speed of the car into m/s.
54 kilometres/hour = 54 000 metres/hour
54 000
metres/minute
60
154
900 metres/minute
900
metres/second
60
15 m/s
The formula distance can be rearranged to give
speed =
time
distance
distance = speed × time or time =
speed
The following triangle is a useful memory aid for remembering the
155
three formulae.
To find the formula for finding T put your
finger over the letter T.
D
D This gives you T = .
S
To find the formula for finding D put your
S×T finger over the letter D.
This gives you D = S T.
A bird flies for 48 km at a speed of 6 m/s.
Calculate the time taken in hours and minutes.
change 48 km into m 48 km = 48 000 m
distance
time =
speed
156
48 000
6
8000 seconds divide by 60 to change into minutes
1
133 minutes 120 minutes = 2 hours
3
1
2 hours 13 minutes
3
Average speed
You can calculate the average speed for a journey using:
157
total distance travelled
average speed =
total time taken
A car travels at 75 km/h for 3 hours and then at 60 km/h
for 30 minutes.
a Calculate the total distance travelled.
b Calculate the average speed for the whole journey.
a distance = speed × time
158
distance = 75 3 distance = 60 0.5
225 km 30 km
Total distance = 225 + 30 = 255 km
total distance travelled
b average speed =
total time taken
255
3 0.5
72.9 km/h (to 3 s.f.)
SETS AND VENN
159
DIAGRAMS
The language of sets
The universal set ( ) contains all
Monday
the elements being considered in a Wednesday
particular problem. A
Tuesday
Let = {days in the week}
and A = {Tuesday, Thursday}. Thursday
These can be shown on a Venn diagram.
160
Friday Saturday
The set A has been shaded on the diagram. Sunday
The number of elements in set A is denoted by n(A). n(A) = 2
The symbol means ‘is a member of’. Tuesday A
The symbol means ‘is not a member of’. Wednesday A
The symbol (or { }) is used to represent the empty set.
161
VENN DIAGRAMS
The complement of set A is the set of all elements not in A.
The complement of set A is denoted by A.
A A
162
shaded region = A shaded region = A
The intersection of sets A and B is the set of elements that are in both A and B.
The intersection of A and B is denoted by A B.
A B
163
shaded region = A B
The union of sets A and B is the set of elements that are in A or B or both.
The union of A and B is denoted by A B.
A B
164
shaded region = A B
When the expressions are more complicated you may need to use some
diagrams for your working out before deciding on your answer .
165
Example
1 On a Venn diagram shade the region A B.
A B A B
166
shaded region = A shaded region = B
A B is the region that is in both A and B
A B
A B =
Example
2 On a Venn diagram shade the region A B.
A B A B
167
shaded region = A shaded region = B
A B is the region that is in A or B or both
A B
A B =
Example
3 On a Venn diagram shade the region (A B) .
A B
168
shaded region = A B
(A B) is the region that is not in A B
A B
(A B) =
Example
4 On a Venn diagram shade the region A B.
A B A B
169
shaded region = A shaded region = B
A B is the overlap of A and B
A B
A B =
Example
5 On a Venn diagram shade the region (A B) (A B) .
A B A B
170
shaded region = (A B) shaded region = (A B)
(A B) (A B) is the region that is in (A B) or (A B) or both
A B
(A B) (A B) =
Example
6 On a Venn diagram shade the region A B C.
A B C is the overlap of all three sets.
A B
171
A B C =
C
Example
7 On a Venn diagram shade the region A B C.
A B
172
A B C =
C
Example
8 On a Venn diagram shade the region A (B C).
A B A B
173
C C
shaded region = A shaded region = B C
A B
A (B C) is
the set A plus A (B C) =
the overlap of
sets B and C
C
Example
9 On a Venn diagram shade the region (A B) C.
A B A B
174
C C
shaded region = A B shaded region = C
A B
(A B) C is
the overlap of (A B) C =
the set (A B)
and the set C
C
Example
10 On a Venn diagram shade the region (A B) (A C).
A B A B
175
C C
shaded region = A B shaded region = A C
(A B) (A C) A B
is the set (A B)
(A B) (A C) =
plus
the set (A C)
C
Numbers
176
10. Surds
10. Surds
What on earth is a surd and why do we need them?…
Let’s get it out of the way before we start… yes, I know, “surd” sounds a little bit like a
rude word, and my pupils never tire of reminding me of that every lesson…
What are they?... Surds are just numbers left in square-root form, like 3 or 7
But why do we need them?... Because such numbers are irrational, and if we tried to
write them out as decimals, they would go on forever!
177
The Two Important Rules of Surds
Everything we are going to look at in this section is based around these two crucial rules:
Rule 1 Rule 2
a b ab a a a
If you have a surd and you multiply it by If you multiply a surd by itself, then the answer
another surd, then the answer is just the same is just the original number before it was
as the surd of the original two numbers (a and square-rooted
b) multiplied together e.g.
e.g.
7 5 7 5 35 8 8 8 8 64 8
1. Simplifying Single Surds
Okay, this is probably the nicest type of surd question you could get asked.
You need to make the number under the square root sign as small as possible
And it’s nice and easy so long as you know your square numbers!
Method
1. Split up the number being square-rooted into a product of at least one square number
2. Use Rule 1 to simplify your answer
Remember: Square Numbers: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100…
Example 1 Example 2
Simplify: Simplify:
178
50 45
Okay, so we need to split up 50. We ask Okay, so this time we need to split up 45. We
ourselves: “which square number is a factor ask ourselves: “which square number is a
of 50?” factor of 45?”
Well, if you look along the list above, you should Well, if you look along the list above, you should
notice that… 25 is! notice that… 9 is!
So, using So, using
50 25 2 Rule 1… 50 25 2 45 9 5 Rule 1… 45 9 5
Now, because we’ve chosen a square number, Now, because we’ve chosen a square number,
that’s going to simplify nicely… that’s going to simplify nicely…
25 5 So… 50 5 2 5 2 9 3 So… 45 3 5 3 5
2. Simplifying more than one Surd (Multiplying)
Again this is fairly easy so long as you could understand the previous section
Method
1. Deal with each surd individually
2. Split up the numbers being square-rooted into a product of at least one square number
3. Use Rule 1 to simplify your answers
4. When simplifying the whole answer, treat your whole numbers and surds separately
Remember: Square Numbers: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100…
Example Simplify: 90 20
179
Okay, let’s deal with each surd individually and split them up exactly like we did in the previous section:
90 9 10 90 9 10 90 3 10 3 10
20 4 5 20 4 5 20 2 5 2 5
So… 90 20 3 10 2 5
To simplify further we multiply our whole number and our surds separately
3 2 6 and… 10 5 50 So… 3 10 2 5 6 50
And if you wanted to be really clever, we can simplify even further…
50 25 2 5 2 So… 6 50 6 5 2 30 2
3. Simplifying more than one Surd (Dividing)
Good News: Do these in exactly the same way as the Multiplying ones!
Example Simplify: 60 20
12
Okay, let’s deal with each surd individually and split them up because we’re good at that!...
60 4 15 60 4 15 60 2 15 2 15 So…
20 4 5 20 4 5 20 2 5 2 5 60 20 2 15 2 5
12 4 3 12 4 3 12 2 3 2 3 12 2 3
180
Let’s sort out the multiplication on the top line like we did before…
2 2 4 and… 15 5 75 So… 2 15 2 5 4 75
But we can be clever again and go a wee bit further…
75 25 3 5 3 So… 4 75 4 5 3 20 3
So (after what seems like ages) we are left with:
60 20 20 3 But wait a minute! We can use
division to simplify, just 20 2 10 and… 3 3 1
12 2 3 like we used multiplication…
20 3
So… 10 1 10
2 3
4. Simplifying more than one Surd (Adding and Subtracting)
Just like when we are adding and subtracting fractions, there is a little twist!...
Twist
We can only add and subtract surds of the same type
So… we must use our simplifying skills to change them into the same type!
Example 1 Simplify: 12 27
Now, one thing is for certain: the answer is definitely NOT: 39 No way! No such rule! Don’t forget!
We need to simplify the surds to see if that helps
So…
12 4 3 12 4 3 12 2 3 2 3
27 9 3 27 9 3 27 3 3 3 3 12 27 2 3 3 3
181
Look, our surds are now of the same type! They are both: 3
So we can now just add our whole numbers, because 2 lots of something, plus 3
lots of something must equal 5 lots of something! So we have our answer… 2 3 3 3 5 3
Example 2 Simplify: 63 28
Now, one thing is for certain: the answer is definitely NOT: 35 No way! No such rule! Don’t forget!
We need to simplify the surds to see if that helps
So…
63 9 7 63 9 7 63 3 7 3 7
28 4 7 28 4 7 28 2 7 2 7 63 28 3 7 2 7
Look, our surds are now of the same type! They are both: 7
So we can now just subtract our whole numbers, because 3 lots of something, minus
2 lots of something must equal 1 lot of something! So we have our answer…
3 7 2 7 7
5. Rationalising the Denominator!
Warning: This is hard, and should only be attempted by the very brave…
What does Rationalising the Denominator mean?...
Basically, it is considered a bit untidy in the fussy world of mathematics to have a surd on the
bottom of a fraction (the denominator). So, if we can get rid of all the surds off the bottom of
a fraction, we get rid of all the irrational numbers, and so we rationalise the denominator!
Method
Multiply the top and the bottom of the fraction by the same carefully chosen expression!
2
Example 1 – Single Surd Rationalise the denominator of:
3
182
Okay, so we don’t like the look of that 3 on the bottom
What could we multiply it by to make it disappear?... Well, using Rule 2… how about by itself!
Be careful: Remember, whatever we multiply the bottom of the fraction by, we must also do to the top,
otherwise the value of the fraction changes, so we will have changed the question!
2 3 Using our Rules of Fractions, we 2 3 2 3
just multiply the tops together, And using Rule 2…
3 3 and then the bottoms together
3 3 3
2 2 3 And if you check them on the
So, we are left with our answer! calculator, you will see they give
3 3 the same answer!
5
Example 2 – Surd with Other Numbers Rationalise the denominator of: 3 2
Trick
For questions like this, the thing you multiply both the top and the bottom of the fraction by
is just the expression on the bottom, but with the sign changed!
Why, I hear you ask?... Well, it’s all to do with the difference of two squares…
Okay, so let’s multiply the top and the bottom of the fraction by… change the sign… 3 2
5 3 2 Again, we multiply tops and bottoms together, but we also use
3 2 3 2 our methods of expanding brackets (see the Algebra section)
183
Tops 5 (3 2) 15 5 2
Bottoms Use FOIL (3 2) (3 2) 93 2 3 2 2
Now look what happens when we 92 7
collect up our terms and simplify
The middle two terms cancel out, and we are left with a very nice (and rationalised) denominator!
And if you check them on the
5 15 5 2 calculator, you will see they give
So… our answer must be… the same answer!
3 2 7
Good luck with
your revision!
184
Edexcel OL notes 2023 – 2024 Dr.Youssef Ahmed
Chapter Topic page
2 Algebra and graphs 180 – 500
a- Algebraic expressions
b- Expanding brackets
c- Factorizing
d- Subject of the formula
e- Algebraic fractions
f- Solving linear equations
g- solving quadratic equations by factorization
h- solving quadratic equations by using the formula
i- simultaneous equations
j- Non-linear simultaneous equations
k- solving linear inequalities
l- Quadratic inequalities
m- solving quadratic equations by completing the square
n- Linear programming
o- Arithmetic sequence
p- Variation
q- Indices
r- Graphs
1- Quadratic
2- Cubic
3- Exponential
4- Reciprocal
5- using graphs to solve equations
6- D/T graphs
7- V/T graphs
s- Functions
t- Coordinate geometry
u- Calculus
WhatsApp +201128360039 IGCSE & IAL maths instructor
185
186
SIMPLIFYING
ALGEBRAIC
187
EXPRESSIONS
You can simplify algebraic expressions by collecting like terms.
188
Examples
1 Simplify
a 8ab 3ab 5ab
b 5pq 2pq 3qp 4pq
189
c 7y 4 2y 8 7y 4 2y 8
5y 4
d 2x 3x 5 4x 7 2x 3x 5 4x 7
5x 12
e x 2 3x 7 x 2 8x 10 x 2 3x 7 x 2 8x 10
2x 2 5x 3
Simplifying algebraic expressions with brackets
2(x 4) means 2 lots of (x 4) or 2 (x 4)
x 4
The area of rectangle A = 2 x 2x
2 A B The area of rectangle B = 2 4 8
Total area = 2x + 8
190
The diagram shows that 2(x 4) 2x 8
When you multiply out the brackets you must multiply each term inside the
bracket by the term outside the bracket.
2 (x 4) 2x 8
Examples
1 Expand
a 3 (x 5) 3x 15
b 7 (x 2) 7x 14
191
c 5 (2y 4) 10y 20
d x (x 6) x 2 6x
e 3 (5 7x) 15 21x
Examples
2 Expand and simplify
a 3 (x 5) 2 (x 3) 3x 15 2x 6
5x 9
192
b 7 (2 x) 3 (2x 3) 14 7x 6x 9
23 13x
2
c x (x 4) 2 (3x 1) x 4x 6x 2
x 2 2x 2
EXPANDING DOUBLE
193
BRACKETS
The area of a rectangle that has sides of length (x + 5) and (x + 2)
can be found by splitting the rectangle into four parts.
x+5 x 5
x x2 5x
194
x+2
2 2x 10
So (x 2)(x 5) x 2 5x 2x 10
x 2 7x 10
You can multiply double brackets without using a diagram.
To expand double brackets you multiply each term in the first
bracket by each term in the second bracket.
Use the mnemonic FOIL to help you.
195
F L
F first
O outside 2
I inside
(x 2)(x 5) x 5x 2x 10
L last I 2
O x 7x 10
2
(x 3)(x 7) x 7x 3x 21
196
x 2 10x 21
2
(x 1)(x 6) x 6x x 6
197
x 2 7x 6
2
(x 2)(x 4) x 4x 2x 8
198
x 2 2x 8
2
(x 3)(x 8) x 8x 3x 24
199
x 2 5x 24
2
(x 2)(x 9) x 9x 2x 18
200
x 2 11x 18
2 2
x 5 (x 5)(x 5) x 5x 5x 25
201
2
x 10x 25
2 2
2x 1 (2x 1)(2x 1) 4x 2x 2x 1
202
2
4x 4x 1
2
(3x 4)(2x 3) 6x 9x 8x 12
203
6x 2 x 12
204
205
SOLVING PROBLEMS
x+7
1 The shaded area is 40 cm2.
Find x. x x+3
x
rectangle – square = 40
(x 7)(x 3) x 2 40 expand the brackets
206
x 2 3x 7x 21 x 2 40 simplify
10x 21 40 take 21 from both sides
10x 19 divide both sides by 10
x 1.9
2 Find x for this right angled triangle. x+1
6
Use Pythagoras x
x 2 62 (x 1)2
x 2 36 (x 1)(x 1) expand the brackets
207
x 2 36 x 2 x x 1
x 2 36 x 2 2x 1 take x2 from both sides
36 2x 1 take 1 from both sides
2x 35 divide both sides by 2
x 17.5
3 Write down and simplify an expression for
the surface area of the cuboid. x+2
x
x+5
surface area = sum of areas of the six faces
2x(x 2) 2x(x 5) 2(x 5)(x 2) expand the brackets
208
2x 2 4x 2x 2 10x 2(x 2 2x 5x 10)
2x 2 4x 2x 2 10x 2(x 2 7x 10)
2x 2 4x 2x 2 10x 2x 2 14x 20 simplify
6x 2 28x 20
EXPANDING MORE
THAN TWO
209
BRACKETS
Consider expanding (2x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3).
To expand three brackets, you must first expand a pair of brackets to
create a ‘new’ bracket and then you must expand the third bracket with
your ‘new’ bracket.
It does not matter which pair of brackets that you multiply first.
(2x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) expand the second and third brackets
210
= (2x + 1)(x2 + 3x + 2x + 6) simplify
multiply each term in the second bracket by 2x
= (2x + 1)(x2 + 5x + 6)
and then each term in the second bracket by 1
= 2x3 + 10x2 + 12x + x2 + 5x + 6
= 2x3 + 11x2 + 17x + 6
Alternatively, the expansion of (2x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) can be shown
in table form:
x +3 x2 +5x +6
x +x2 +3x 2x +2x3 +10x2 +12x
211
+2 +2x +6 +1 +x2 +5x +6
x2 + 5x + 6 2x3 + 11x2 + 17x + 6
Example
1 Expand and simplify (x − 5)(x − 2)(x + 1).
(x − 5)(x − 2)(x + 1) expand the second and third brackets
= (x − 5)(x2 + x − 2x − 2) simplify
multiply each term in the second bracket by x
= (x − 5)(x2 − x − 2)
212
and then each term in the second bracket by −5
= x3 − x2 − 2x − 5x2 + 5x + 10
= x3 − 6x2 + 3x + 10
Example
2 Expand and simplify (2x + 3)2(x − 5).
(2x + 3)2(x − 5)
= (2x + 3)(2x + 3)(x − 5) expand the first and second brackets
= (4x2 + 6x + 6x + 9)(x − 5) simplify
213
= (4x2 + 12x + 9)(x − 5) multiply each term in the first bracket by x
and then each term in the first bracket by −5
= 4x3 + 12x2 + 9x − 20x2 − 60x − 45
= 4x3 − 8x2 − 51x − 45
Example
3 a Show that (x − 3)(x + 1)(x − 2) = x3 − 4x2 + x + 6.
b Solve the equation x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 = 0.
c Sketch the graph of y = x3 − 4x2 + x + 6.
a (x − 3)(x + 1)(x − 2) = (x − 3)(x2 − x − 2)
= x3 − x2 − 2x − 3x2 + 3x + 6
= x3 − 4x2 + x + 6
214
b x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 = 0
(x − 3)(x + 1)(x − 2) = 0
x − 3 = 0 or x + 1 = 0 or x − 2 = 0
x = 3 or x = − 1 or x=2 y = x3 − 4x2 + x + 6
y
c When x = 0, y = 03 −4× 02 +0+6=6 6
The curve crosses the axes at
(−1, 0), (2, 0), (3, 0) and (0, 6).
−1 O 2 3 x
215
FACTORISING 1
Expand 3(2x 5) 6x 15
Factorising is the reverse of expanding.
216
expand
3(2x 5) 6x 15
factorise
Examples
1 Factorise 5x 10
First find the HCF of 5x and 10.
x 2
The HCF is 5.
217
5 5x 10
Answer: 5x 10 5(x 2)
Examples
2 Factorise 2x 6
First find the HCF of 2x and 6.
x 3
The HCF is 2.
218
2 2x 6
Answer: 2x 6 2(x 3)
Examples
3 Factorise 6x 9
First find the HCF of 6x and 9.
2x 3
The HCF is 3.
219
3 6x 9
Answer: 6x 9 3(2x 3)
Examples
4 Factorise x 2 3x
First find the HCF of x2 and 3x.
x 3
2 The HCF is x.
220
x x 3x
Answer: x 2 3x x(x 3)
Examples
5 Factorise 8x 2 20x
First find the HCF of 8x2 and 20x.
2x 5
2 The HCF is 4x.
221
4x 8x 20x
Answer: 8x 2 20x 4x(2x 5)
Examples
6 Factorise 15x 2 y 9xy 12x 2 y 3
First find the HCF of 15x2y,
9xy and 12x2y3.
2
5x 3 4xy
2 2 3 The HCF is 3xy.
222
3xy 15x y 9xy 12x y
Answer: 15x 2 y 9xy 12x 2 y 3 3xy(5x 3 4xy 2 )
Examples
7 Factorise x(x 3) 2(x 3)
First find the HCF of x(x + 3) and
2(x + 3).
x 2
The HCF is (x + 3).
223
x 3 x(x 3) 2(x 3)
Answer: x(x 3) 2(x 3) (x 3)(x 2)
Examples
8 Factorise 2x 10 xy 5y
Factorise the first two terms and then
2(x 5) y(x 5) the last two terms.
(x 5)(2 y ) The HCF of the two terms is (x − 5).
224
Factorisation can be used to simplify algebraic expressions.
225
Examples
1 Simplify x 2 3x
x
x 2 3x
factorise the numerator
226
x
1x (x 3)
divide numerator and denominator by x
x1
x3
Examples
2 Simplify 15x 10
20
15x 10
factorise the numerator
227
20
15 (3x 2)
divide numerator and denominator by 5
204
3x 2
4
Examples
3 Simplify xy
8x 8y
xy
factorise the denominator
228
8x 8y
1 xy
divide numerator and denominator by (x + y)
8 (x y )
1
1
8
Examples
4 Simplify x 2 2xy
4x 2 8xy
x 2 2xy
factorise the numerator, factorise the denominator
229
4x 2 8xy
1 1
x (x 2y )
divide numerator and denominator by x and (x + 2y)
4x (x 2y )
1 1
1
4
230
REARRANGING
231
FORMULAE 1
Example
1 Rearrange the formula ax b c to make x the subject.
ax b c take b from both sides
ax c b divide both sides by a
232
cb
x
a
Example
2 Rearrange the formula x(p q) 2 to make x the subject.
x(p q) 2 divide both sides by (p − q)
2
x
233
pq
Example
2x
3 Rearrange the formula pq to make x the subject.
5
2x
pq multiply both sides by 5
5
2x 5pq divide both sides by 2
234
5pq
x
2
Example
xp
4 Rearrange the formula t to make x the subject.
p
xp
t multiply both sides by p
p
x p pt add p to both sides
235
x pt p
Example
3x 5a
5 Rearrange the formula c to make x the subject.
b
3x 5a
c multiply both sides by b
b
3x 5a bc add 5a to both sides
236
3x bc 5a divide both sides by 3
bc 5a
x
3
Example
ab
6 Rearrange the formula c to make x the subject.
x
ab
c multiply both sides by x
x
a b cx divide both sides by c
237
ab
x
c
Example
2a 3bx
7 Rearrange the formula d to make x the subject.
5c
2a 3bx
d multiply both sides by 5c
5c
2a 3bx 5cd take 2a from both sides
238
3bx 5cd 2a divide both sides by 3b
5cd 2a
x
3b
Example
x2
8 Rearrange the formula c b to make x the subject.
a
x2
c b multiply both sides by a
a
ac x 2 ab take ab from both sides
239
x 2 ac ab square root both sides
x ac ab
Example
9 Rearrange the formula ax b cd to make x the subject.
ax b cd square both sides
ax b c 2d 2 take b from both sides
240
ax c 2d 2 b divide both sides by a
c 2d 2 b
x
a
Example
10 Rearrange the formula 3 x y 5z to make x the subject.
3 x y 5z square both sides
9(x y) 25z 2 divide both sides by 9
241
25z 2
xy take y from both sides
9
25z 2
x y
9
242
REARRANGING
243
FORMULAE 2
1 Make x the subject of the formula ax – bx = c
ax bx c factorise
x(a b) c divide both sides by (a – b)
244
c
x
ab
2 Make x the subject of the formula ax + b = 5x + 4
ax b 5x 4 collect xs on one side
ax 5x 4 b factorise
245
x(a 5) 4 b divide both sides by (a – 5)
4b
x
a5
3 Make x the subject of the formula a(x − 5) = b(x + 2)
a(x 5) b(x 2) expand the brackets
ax 5a bx 2b collect xs on one side
246
ax bx 2b 5a factorise
x(a b) 2b 5a divide both sides by (a – b)
2b 5a
x
ab
4 Make x the subject of the formula f 2xy
xy
2xy
f multiply both sides by x − y
xy
f (x y ) 2xy expand the brackets
247
fx fy 2xy collect the xs on one side
fx 2xy fy factorise
x(f 2y ) fy divide both sides by (f – 2y)
fy
x
f 2y
x
5 Make x the subject of the formula b
cx
x square both sides
b
cx
2 x
b multiply both sides by c − x
cx
248
b2 (c x) x expand the brackets
b 2c b 2 x x collect the xs on one side
b 2c x b 2 x factorise
b2c x(1 b2 ) divide both sides by (1 + b2)
b 2c
x
1 b 2
a
6 Make x the subject of the formula bc
x
a
bc multiply both sides by x
x
a bx cx collect the xs on one side
249
a cx bx factorise
a x(c b) divide both sides by (c – b)
a
x
cb
250
MANIPULATING
ALGEBRAIC
251
FRACTIONS
Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions
Reminder: Similarly:
1 2 x 2x the common denominator is 20
4 5 4 5
5 8 5x 8x 1 5 2 8
252
and
20 20 20 20 4 20 5 20
58 5x 8x
20 20
13 13x
20 20
Examples
1 Simplify 3x x
5 3
3x x the common denominator is 15
5 3
9x 5x 3 9 1 5
253
and
15 15 5 15 3 15
9x 5x
15
4x
15
Examples
2 Simplify x 4 x 3
3 4
x4 x3 the common denominator is 12
3 4
4(x 4) 3(x 3) 1 4 1 3
254
and
12 12 3 12 4 12
4(x 4) 3(x 3) expand the brackets
12
4x 16 3x 9
12
7x 7
12
Examples
3 Simplify y 3 y 4
5 6
y 3 y 4 the common denominator is 30
5 6
6(y 3) 5(y 4) 1 6 1 5
255
and
30 30 5 30 6 30
6(y 3) 5(y 4) expand the brackets and be careful with signs
30
6y 18 5y 20
30
y 38
30
Solving equations involving algebraic fractions
Example 1 Solve 2x x
1
3 2
Method 1 Method 2
2x x common denominator is 6 2x x multiply by 6
1 1
3 2 3 2
256
4x 3x 2 2x 3 x
cancel
1 6 6 6 1
6 6 3 2
x
1 4x 3x 6
6
x6 x6
Example 2 Solve x 5 x 1
3
4 2
Method 1
x 5 x 1 common denominator is 4
3
4 2
x 5 2(x 1) expand brackets
3
257
4 4
x 5 2x 2 collect like terms
3
4
3x 3 multiply both sides by 4
3
4
3x 3 12 subtract 3 from both sides
3x 9 divide both sides by 3
x3
Example 2 Solve x 5 x 1
3
4 2
Method 2
x 5 x 1 multiply both sides by 4
3
4 2
(x 5) 2 (x 1) cancel
4 4 43
258
4 2
(x 5) 2(x 1) 12 expand brackets
x 5 2x 2 12 collect like terms
3x 3 12 subtract 3 from both sides
3x 9 divide both sides by 3
x3
Example 3 Solve x 1 3(x 2)
1
7 14
Method 1
x 1 3(x 2) common denominator is 14
1
7 14
2(x 1) 3(x 2) expand brackets
1
259
14 14
2x 2 3x 6 collect like terms
1
14
8 x multiply both sides by 14
1
14
8 x 14 add x to both sides
8 14 x take 14 from both sides
x 6
Example 2 Solve x 1 3(x 2)
1
7 14
Method 2
x 1 3(x 2) multiply both sides by 14
1
7 14
2 (x 1) 3(x 2)
14 14 14 1 cancel
260
7 14
2(x 1) 3(x 2) 14 expand brackets
2x 2 3x 6 14 collect like terms
8 x 14 add x to both sides
8 14 x take 14 from both sides
x 6
FURTHER
ALGEBRAIC
261
FRACTIONS
5 6
1 Write as a single fraction.
x2 x
5 6
the common denominator is x(x − 2)
x2 x
5x 6(x 2) 5 5x and 6 6(x 2)
x(x 2) x(x 2) x 2 x(x 2) x x(x 2)
262
5x 6(x 2)
x(x 2)
5x 6x 12
x(x 2)
11x 12
x(x 2)
3 2
2 Write as a single fraction.
x4 x3
3 2
the common denominator is (x – 4)(x + 3)
x4 x3
3(x 3) 2(x 4) 3 3(x 3)
(x 4)(x 3) (x 3)(x 4) x 4 (x 4)(x 3)
263
3(x 3) 2(x 4) and
(x 4)(x 3) 2 2(x 4)
3x 9 2x 8 x 3 (x 3)(x 4)
(x 4)(x 3)
x 17
(x 4)(x 3)
x 3
3 Solve .
x 5 x 1
x 3 there is a single fraction on each
side so you can cross multiply
x 5 x 1
x(x 1) 3(x 5) expand the brackets
x 2 x 3x 15 rearrange to the form ax2 + bx + c = 0
264
x 2 2x 15 0 factorise
(x 5)(x 3) 0
x50 or x30
x5 or x 3
x x
4 Solve . 1
x4 x3
x x
1 the common denominator is (x – 4)(x − 3)
x4 x3
x(x 3) x(x 4)
1
(x 4)(x 3) (x 3)(x 4)
x(x 3) x(x 4)
265
1
(x 3)(x 4)
x 2 3x x 2 4x
1
(x 3)(x 4)
x (x 3)(x 4)
x x 2 7x 12
x 2 8x 12 0 x60 or x20
(x 6)(x 2) 0 x6 or x2
266
SOLVING LINEAR
267
EQUATIONS
Example
1 Solve 2x 3 11
2x 3 11 take 3 from both sides
2x 3 3 11 3
268
2x 8 divide both sides by 2
2x 8
2 2
x4
Example
2 Solve 3x 2 16
3x 2 16 add 2 to both sides
3x 2 2 16 2
269
3x 18 divide both sides by 3
3x 18
3 3
x6
Example
3 Solve 2(3x 1) 4x 5
2(3x 1) 4x 5 expand the brackets
6x 2 4x 5 take 4x from both sides
6x 2 4x 4x 5 4x
270
2x 2 5 add 2 to both sides
2x 2 2 5 2
2x 7 divide both sides by 2
2x 7
2 2
1
x3
2
Example
4 Solve 12(x 1) 2(2x 9)
12(x 1) 2(2x 9) expand the brackets
12x 12 4x 18 take 4x from both sides
8x 12 18 add 12 to both sides
271
8x 30 divide both sides by 8
30
x
8
3
x3
4
Example
5 Solve 2(3x 1) (2x 5) 15
2(3x 1) (2x 5) 15 expand the brackets
6x 2 2x 5 15 simplify
4x 7 15 take 7 from both sides
272
4x 8 divide both sides by 4
x2
Example
5 Solve 7x 5 41 3x
7x 5 41 3x add 3x to both sides
10x 5 41 add 5 to both sides
10x 46 divide both sides by 10
273
46
x
10
x 4.6
Example
6 Solve 5 2(x 1) 3x 7
5 2(x 1) 3x 7 expand the brackets
5 2x 2 3x 7 simplify
3 2x 3x 7 add 2x to both sides
274
3 5x 7 add 7 to both sides
10 5x divide both sides by 5
x2
Example
7 The three angles of the triangle are shown in terms of x. NOT TO
70 3x
a Find the value of x. SCALE
b Write down the size of each angle in the triangle.
5x 20 x 24
a 5x 20 70 3x x 24 180 simplify
275
3x 114 180 take 114 from both sides
3x 66 divide both sides by 3
x 22
b 5x 20 5 22 20 110 20 130
70 3x 70 3 22 70 66 4 Angles are:
130o, 4o and 46o
x 24 22 24 46
Example 4(x 1)
8 Find the length of a side of this square.
All lengths are in cm.
2(3x 2)
2(3x 2) 4(x 1) expand the brackets
276
6x 4 4x 4 take 4x from both sides
2x 4 4 add 4 to both sides
2x 8 divide both sides by 2
x4
Length of side = 4(x 1) 4 (4 1) 4 5 20 cm
Example
7x 9
9 Find the length of the rectangle.
All lengths are in cm.
5(7 3x)
7x 9 5(7 3x) expand the brackets
277
7x 9 35 15x add 15x to both sides
22x 9 35 add 9 to both sides
22x 44 divide both sides by 2
x2
Length of rectangle = 7x 9 7 2 9 14 9 5 cm
Example
10 Expression A is 7 more than expression B.
Find the value of x.
A B
7(x 4) 3(x 5)
7(x 4) 7 3(x 5) expand the brackets
278
7x 28 7 3x 15 simplify
7x 21 3x 15 take 3x from both sides
4x 21 15 take 21 from both sides
4x 36 divide both sides by 4
x 9
Example
x
11 Solve 5 10
3
x
5 10 add 5 to both sides
3
x
15 multiply both sides by 3
279
3
x
3 3 15
3
x 45
Example
x4
12 Solve 3
7
x4
3 multiply both sides by 7
7
x4
7 73
280
7
x 4 21 take 4 from both sides
x 17
Example
2x 3
13 Solve 6
5
2x 3
6 multiply both sides by 5
5
2x 3 30 add 3 to both sides
281
2x 33 divide both sides by 2
1
x 16
2
Example
5
14 Solve 37
x
5
37 take 3 from both sides
x
5
4 multiply both sides by x
282
x
5 4x divide both sides by 4
5
x
4
1
x 1
4
Example
5
15 Solve 6
x2
5
6 multiply both sides by (x + 2)
x2
6(x 2) 5 expand the brackets
283
6x 12 5 take 12 from both sides
6x 7 divide both sides by 6
7
x
6
1
x 1
6
Example
15 Solve x6 x4
3 5
x6 x4
multiply both sides by 15
3 5
5 (x 6) 3 (x 4)
15 15 expand the brackets
284
3 5
5x 30 3x 12 take 3x from both sides
2x 30 12 add 30 to both sides
2x 42 divide both sides by 2
x 21
There is a quicker method for doing the last example.
The quick method can be used when there is a ‘single’ fraction on each side of
the ‘=‘ sign.
x6 x4
‘cross multiply’
3 5
5(x 6) 3(x 4) expand the brackets
285
5x 30 3x 12 take 3x from both sides
2x 30 12 add 30 to both sides
2x 42 divide both sides by 2
x 21
Example
16 Solve 8 x 2x 2
2 5
8 x 2x 2
‘cross multiply’
2 5
5(8 x) 2(2x 2) expand the brackets
286
40 5x 4x 4 add 5x to both sides
40 9x 4 take 4 from both sides
36 9x divide both sides by 9
x4
Example
17 Solve 3(x 1) 2x 1
4 3
3(x 1) 2x 1
‘cross multiply’
4 3
3 3(x 1) 4(2x 1) expand the brackets
287
9x 9 8x 4 take 8x from both sides
x 9 4 add 9 to both sides
x5
288
SOLVING QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS BY
289
FACTORISATION
If a × b = 0 then a = 0 or b = 0
290
This very important result is used for solving quadratic equations.
1 Solve x 2 3x 0
x 2 3x 0 factorise
x(x 3) 0
x0 or x30
291
x0 or x3
check: 02 – 3 × 0 = 0
32 – 3 × 3 = 0
2 Solve x 2 5x 0
x 2 5x 0 factorise
x(x 5) 0
x0 or x50
292
x0 or x 5
check: 02 + 5 × 0 = 0
(−5)2 + 5 × (−5) = 0
3 Solve x 2 5x 6 0
x 2 5x 6 0 factorise
(x 2)(x 3) 0
x20 or x30
293
x2 or x3
check: 22 − 5 × 2 + 6 = 0
32 − 5 × 3 + 6 = 0
4 Solve x 2 5x 14 0
x 2 5x 14 0 factorise
(x 7)(x 2) 0
x70 or x20
294
x 7 or x2
check: (−7)2 + 5 × (−7) − 14 = 0
(2)2 + 5 × 2 − 14 = 0
5 Solve 2x 2 5x 3 0
2x 2 5x 3 0 factorise
(2x 1)(x 3) 0
2x 1 0 or x30
295
1
x or x 3
2
check: 2 × (½)2 + 5 × (½) − 3 = 0
2 ×(−3)2 + 5 × (−3) − 3 = 0
296
PROBLEMS INVOLVING
QUADRATIC
297
EQUATIONS
x x+1
1 The two rectangles have the same area.
Find x.
x+3
x(2x 2) (x 3)(x 1) 2x + 2
2x 2 2x x 2 x 3x 3
x 2 2x 3 0 factorise
298
check:
(x 3)(x 1) 0
3 4
x30 or x 1 0
area area
x3 or x 1 6
8 = 24 = 24
x must be positive, so x = 3
2 The triangle is right-angled.
Find x.
2x + 1
x−1
using Pythagoras
2x
(2x)2 (x 1)2 (2x 1)2
4x 2 x 2 x x 1 4x 2 2x 2x 1
299
x 2 6x 0 check:
x(x 6) 0 factorise
5 13
x0 or x60
12
x0 or x6
5 2 122 13 2
x must be positive, so x = 6
300
SOLVING QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS USING THE
301
FORMULA
Quadratic equations of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 can be solved
using the formula:
b b 2 4ac
x
2a
302
1 Solve the equation x2 + 2x − 5 = 0.
Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places.
b b 2 4ac
a=1 b=2 c = −5 and x
2a
2 22 4 1 5
x
2 1
303
2 4 20
x
2
2 24
x
2
2 24 2 24
x or x
2 2
x 1.45 or x 3.45
2 Solve the equation 3x2 − 8x + 2 = 0.
Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places.
b b 2 4ac
a=3 b = −8 c=2 and x
2a
(8) (8)2 4 3 2
x
23
304
8 64 24
x
6
8 40
x
6
8 40 8 40
x or x
6 6
x 2.39 or x 0.28
3 Solve the equation x(x + 1) + (x – 1)(x + 2) = 3.
Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places.
x 2 x x 2 2x x 2 3 expand the brackets
2 write in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0
2x 2x 5 0
b b 2 4ac
a=2 b=2 c = −5 and x
2a
305
2 22 4 2 5
x
22
2 4 40
x
4
2 44
x
4
2 44 2 44
x or x
4 4
x 1.16 or x 2.16
4 The area of the rectangle is 30 cm2.
Find the base of the rectangle.
x+3
x(x 3) 30 expand the brackets and write
in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0
x 2 3x 30 0 x
2
b b 4ac
a=1 b=3 c = −30 and x
2a
306
3 3 2 4 1 30
x
2 1
3 9 120
x
2
3 129
x
2
3 129 3 129
x or x The length of
2 2
the base must
x 4.18 or x 7.18 be positive, so x
= 4.18
SIMULTANEOUS
307
EQUATIONS 1
Solving simultaneous equations graphically
Solve the simultaneous equations y 2x 2 and y x 1.
y
y 2x 2
x 0 1 2 4
y -2 0 2 ×
× ×
308
2
y x 1
×
x 0 1 2 × x
-4 -2 2 4
y 1 2 3
-2×
The lines intersect at the
point (3, 4).
-4
So x = 3 and y = 4. y x 1
y 2x 2
Solving simultaneous equations using the elimination method
1 Solve the simultaneous equations 3x 2y 17 and x 2y 7.
3x 2y 17 (1)
x 2y 7 (2)
Equation (1) – equation (2) 2x 10
309
x5
Substitute x = 5 in equation (1) and then solve to find y.
15 2y 17
2y 2 Check:
(3 × 5) + (2 × 1) = 17
y 1 5 + (2 × 1) = 7
The solution is x = 5 and y = 1.
2 Solve the simultaneous equations 3x 4y 1 and 2x 4y 14.
3x 4y 1 (1)
2x 4y 14 (2)
Equation (1) + equation (2) 5x 15
x3
310
Substitute x = 3 in equation (2) and then solve to find y.
6 4y 14
4y 8 Check:
(3 × 3) − (4 × 2) = 1
y2 (2 × 3) + (4 × 2) = 14
The solution is x = 3 and y = 2.
3 Solve the simultaneous equations 2x 3y 5 and 5x 2y 22.
2x 3y 5 (1) multiply by 2
5x 2y 22 (2) multiply by 3
4x 6y 10 (3)
15x 6y 66 (4)
311
Equation (3) + equation (4) 19x 76
x4
Substitute x = 4 in equation (1) and then solve to find y.
8 3y 5
3y 3 Check:
(2 × 4) + (3 × -1) = 5
y 1 (5 × 4) − (2 × -1) = 22
The solution is x = 4 and y = −1.
312
SIMULTANEOUS
313
EQUATIONS 2
Substitution method
In the substitution method you make x or y the
subject of one of the equations and then
substitute into the other equation.
314
1 Solve these equations. x=y+2 (1)
x + 4y = 7 (2)
from equation (1) xy 2
substitute for x in equation (2) y 2 4y 7
5y 2 7
315
5y 5
y 1
substitute y = 1 into equation (1) x 1 2
x3
x 3, y 1
2 Solve these equations. 2x + 3y = 18 (1)
x – 2y = 2 (2)
make x the subject of equation (2) x 2 2y (3)
substitute for x in equation (1) 2(2 2y ) 3y 18
4 4y 3y 18
316
4 7y 18
7y 14
y2
substitute y = 2 into equation (3) x 24
x6
x 6, y 2
3 Solve these equations. 4x − 3y = 1 (1)
3x + y = 17 (2)
make y the subject of equation (2) y 17 3x (3)
substitute for y in equation (1) 4x 3(17 3x) 1
4x 51 9x 1
317
13x 52
x4
substitute x = 4 into equation (3) y 17 12
y 5
x 4, y 5
318
NON LINEAR
SIMULTANEOUS
319
EQUATIONS
Consider the graphs of y = x2 − 4 and y = 2x − 1.
y = x2 − 4
y
y = 2x − 1
(3, 5)
O x
320
(−1, −3)
The coordinates of the points of intersection are (−1, −3) and (3, 5).
It follows that x = −1, y = −3 and x = 3, y = 5 are the solutions of the
simultaneous equations y = x2 − 4 and y = 2x − 1.
The solutions can also be found algebraically:
y = x2 − 4 ------------(1)
y = 2x − 1 ------------(2)
Substitute for y from equation (1) into equation (2):
2x − 1 = x2 − 4
x2 − 2x − 3 = 0
(x + 1)(x − 3) = 0
321
x+1=0 or x−3=0
x = −1 or x=3
Substituting x = −1 into equation (2) gives y = −2 − 1 = −3
Substituting x = 3 into equation (2) gives y = 6 − 1 = 5
The solutions are: x = −1, y = −3 and x = 3, y = 5
Example
1 a Find the axis crossing points for the graph of y = x2 − 4x − 12.
b Sketch the graph of y = x2 − 4x − 12 and find the coordinates of the vertex.
a y = x2 − 4x − 12
When x = 0, y = −12
When y = 0, x2 − 4x − 12 = 0
(x + 2)(x − 6) = 0
322
x+2=0 or x − 6 = 0
x = −2 or x=6
Axis crossing points are (0, −12), (−2, 0) and (6, 0).
SOLVING LINEAR
323
INEQUALITIES
> means ’is greater than’ ≥ means is greater than or equal to’
< means ‘is less than’ ≤ means ‘is less than or equal to’
324
You solve a linear inequality in a similar way to solving linear equations.
3x 2 12 take 2 from both sides
3x 10 divide both sides by 3
325
10 change the improper fraction to a mixed number
x
3
1
x3
3
You need to be careful if you multiply or divide an inequality by a negative number.
You must reverse the inequality sign.
eg −2 < 5 multiplying both sides by −1 gives 2 > −5
Inequalities can be shown on a number line.
x 3
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
x4
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
326
x 1
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
x 2
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
Examples
1 Solve 2x 5 3 and show your answer on a number line.
2x 5 3 add 5 to both sides
2x 8 divide both sides by 2
327
x4
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
Examples
2 Solve 7 2x 5 and show your answer on a number line.
7 2x 5 take 7 from both sides
2x 2 divide both sides by −2 (remember to reverse the inequality sign)
328
x 1
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
Examples
3 Solve 3x 4 2(x 3) and show your answer on a number line.
3x 4 2(x 3) expand brackets
3x 4 2x 6 take 2x from both sides
329
x 4 6 add 4 to both sides
x 2
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
Examples
4 Solve 4 3x 1 16 and show your answer on a number line.
4 3x 1 16 take 1
3 3x 15 divide by 3
330
1 x 5
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
Examples
5 Solve x 2x 1 7 and show your answer on a number line.
split the inequality into two parts and solve separately
x 2x 1 take 2x from both sides 2x 1 7 take 1 from both sides
2x 6
331
x 1 multiply both sides by −1 divide both sides by 2
x 1 x3
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
The numbers that satisfy both inequalities are 1 x 3
This can be shown on a number line as:
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
SOLVING QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS BY
COMPLETING THE
341
SQUARE
Completing the square
If you expand the expressions (x + b)2 and (x – b)2 you
should obtain the results:
(x b)2 x 2 2bx b2 and (x b)2 x 2 2bx b2
342
Rearranging these gives you the following important results:
x 2 2bx (x b)2 b 2
x 2 2bx (x b)2 b 2
This is known as completing the square.
1 Complete the square for the expression x2 − 8x.
824
x 2 8x (x 4)2 42
343
(x 4)2 16
check: (x 4)(x 4) 16 x 2 4x 4x 16 16
x 2 8x
2 Complete the square for the expression x2 + 6x.
623
x 2 6x (x 3)2 32
344
(x 3)2 9
check: (x 3)(x 3) 9 x 2 3x 3x 9 9
x 2 6x
3 Complete the square for the expression x2 − 12x.
12 2 6
x 2 12x (x 6)2 62
345
(x 6)2 36
check: (x 6)(x 6) 36 x 2 6x 6x 36 36
x 2 8x
4 Complete the square for the expression x2 + 5x.
5 2 2.5
x 2 5x (x 2.5)2 2.52
346
(x 2.5)2 6.25
check: (x 2.5)(x 2.5) 6.25 x 2 2.5x 2.5x 6.25 6.25
x 2 5x
5 Complete the square for the expression x2 + 4x + 12.
422
x 2 4x 12 (x 2)2 22 12
347
(x 2)2 4 12
(x 2)2 8
check: (x 2)(x 2) 8 x 2 2x 2x 4 8
x 2 4x 12
6 Complete the square for the expression x2 − 8x − 5.
824
x 2 8x 5 (x 4)2 42 5
348
(x 4)2 16 5
(x 4)2 21
check: (x 4)(x 4) 21 x 2 4x 4x 16 21
x 2 8x 5
You can solve quadratic equations
by completing the square.
349
1 Solve the equation x2 − 8x − 5 = 0.
x 2 8x 5 0 add 5 to both sides
x 2 8x 5 complete the square
(x 4)2 16 5 add 16 to both sides
350
(x 4)2 21 square root
x 4 21 add 4 to both sides
x 4 21
x 4 21 or x 4 21
x 8.58 or x 0.58 (to 2 d.p.)
2 Solve the equation x2 + 10x − 7 = 0.
x 2 10x 7 0 add 7 to both sides
x 2 10x 7 complete the square
(x 5)2 25 7 add 25 to both sides
351
(x 5)2 32 square root
x 5 32 take 5 from both sides
x 5 32
x 5 32 or x 5 32
x 0.66 or x 10.66 (to 2 d.p.)
352
LINEAR
353
PROGRAMMING
Reminder:
You can represent an inequality on a graph.
There are some important rules to follow.
• If the inequality is ≥ or ≤ the boundary line for the
354
region is shown by a solid line.
• If the inequality is > or < the boundary line for the
region is shown as a broken (dashed) line.
• You are expected to shade the unwanted region. (This
will leave the required region clear.)
Examples y x3
1 x≥3 y>2 x+y≤8 10
a Show the points with integer
coordinates that satisfy all 8
three inequalities.
Remember to shade the 6
unwanted regions.
355
4
First show x ≥ 3.
Next show y > 2.
Then show x + y ≤ 8. 2 y2
xy 8 x 0 8
y 8 0 x
0 2 4 6 8 10
xy 8
Now show the points with integer coordinates that satisfy
all three inequalities on the diagram.
y x3
b For the points in part a, 10
find the maximum value
of 2x + y.
8
Put the points into a table
and calculate the value of 6
2x + y at each point.
356
x y 2x + y 4
3 3 6+3= 9
4 3 8 + 3 = 11 2 y2
5 3 10 + 3 = 13
3 4 6 + 4 = 10 x
0 2 4 6 8 10
4 4 8 + 4 = 12 xy 8
3 5 6 + 5 = 11 The maximum value of 2x + y is 13.
(The maximum occurs at the point (5, 3).)
It is important to note that the maximum or minimum
values always occur at/near the
corners of the required region
357
Examples y
x 1 yx
2 x≥1 y≥x 4x + 5y ≤ 40 10
a Show the points with
integer coordinates that 8
satisfy all three inequalities.
Remember to shade the 6
unwanted regions.
358
4
First show x ≥ 1.
Next show y ≥ x.
Then show 4x + 5y ≤ 40. 2
4x 5y 40 x 0 10
y 8 0 x
0 2 4 6 8 10
4x 5y 40
Now show the points with integer coordinates that satisfy
all three inequalities on the diagram.
Examples y
x 1 yx
10
b For the points in part a,
find the minimum value
of 10x + 3y. 8
Put the ‘corner’ points into
a table and calculate the 6
value of 10x + 3y at each
point.
359
4
x y 10x + 3y
1 7 10 + 21 = 31
2
1 1 10 + 3 = 13
4 4 40 + 12 = 52 x
0 2 4 6 8 10
4x 5y 40
The minimum value of 10x + 3y is 13.
(The minimum occurs at the point (1, 1).)
Examples y
x2 yx
10
3 Zoe buys x lemons and y oranges.
She must buy at least 2 lemons.
She must buy more oranges than lemons. 8
She must buy a total of at least 8 lemons R
and oranges.
a Write down three inequalities in x and y. 6
x2 yx xy 8
360
4
b On the graph show the region R
that represents these 3 inequalities.
2
c A lemon costs $1 and an orange
costs $2. Find the smallest amount
of money that she spends. x
0 2 4 6 8 10
At (2, 6) Cost = 2 × 1 + 6 × 2 = $14 xy 8
At (3, 5) Cost = 3 × 1 + 5 × 2 = $13 Remember that the maximum or minimum
values always occur at/near the
At (4, 5) Cost = 4 × 1 + 5 × 2 = $14 corners of the required region.
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
VARIATION
371
PROPORTION
1 y varies directly with x.
If y = 6 when x = 3, find y when x = 2.
y x
y kx substitute y = 6 and x = 3 into the formula
372
6 3k solve to find k
k2 put k = 2 into the formula y = kx
y 2x This is the formula connecting y and x.
y 22
y4
2 y varies directly with x.
If y = 15 when x = 2.5, find x when y = 3.
y x
y kx substitute y = 15 and x = 2.5 into the formula
373
15 2.5k solve to find k
k6 put k = 6 into the formula y = kx
y 6x This is the formula connecting y and x.
36x
x 0.5
3 y varies directly with the square of x.
If y = 48 when x = 4, find x when y = 12.
y x2
y kx 2 substitute y = 48 and x = 4 into the formula
374
48 16k solve to find k
k3 put k = 3 into the formula y = kx2
y 3x 2 This is the formula connecting y and x.
12 3 x 2
x2
4 y varies inversely with x.
If y = 2 when x = 3, find y when x = 5.
1
y
x
k substitute y = 2 and x = 3 into the formula
y
x
375
k solve to find k
2
3
k
k6 put k = 6 into the formula y
x
6
y This is the formula connecting y and x.
x
6
y
5
y 1.2
5 y varies inversely with the square root of x.
If y = 6 when x = 4, find y when x = 36.
1
y
x
k
y substitute y = 6 and x = 4 into the formula
x
k
376
6 solve to find k
4
k
k 12 put k = 12 into the formula y
x
12
y This is the formula connecting y and x.
x
12
y
36
y2
377
INDICES 1
index or power
7 × 7 × 7 × 7 × 7 = 75
378
base
Multiplying: 3 2 35 (3 3) (3 3 3 3 3) 3 7
RULE 1 am × an = am + n
333333
Dividing: 36 32 34
379
33
RULE 2 am ÷ an = am − n
Raising to a power: (4 2 )3 (4 4) (4 4) (4 4) 4 6
RULE 3 (am)n = am × n
Examples
1 Simplify a y4 × y5 b x7 ÷ x4 c (p3)4
a y 4 y 5 y 45 y 9 add the powers
380
b x 7 x 4 x 74 x 3 subtract the powers
c (p 3 )4 p 34 p12 multiply the powers
Examples
2 Simplify a 2p 2q 5 5p 4q 3 b 6a5b7
2a 2b3
a 2p 2q 5 5p 4q 3 2 5 p 2 p 4 q 5 q 3
381
10 p 24 q 53
10p 6q 8
b 6a5b7 6
(a5 a2 ) (b7 b3 )
2a 2b3 2
3 a52 b73
3a3b 4
33 1
Negative powers: 32 34 2
3333 3
and 3 2 3 4 3 24 3 2
2 1
so 3 2
3
RULE 4 1
a m
382
am
3333
Zero powers: 34 34 1
3333
and 3 4 3 4 3 44 3 0
so 30 1
RULE 5 a0 = 1
Examples
2
1 Work out the values of a 2−3 b 70 c (−2)−3 d 3
4
a 3 1 1 1
2
23 222 8
383
b 70 1
3
1 1 1
c (2) 3
(2) (2) (2) (2) 8
2 2
3 4 4 4 16
d
4 3 3 3 9
Examples
2 Simplify a y4 × y−7 b 3x−5 × 2x4 c y4 ÷ y−7 d (p−3)4
a y 4 y 7 y 47 y 47 y 3 add the powers
384
b 3x 5 2x 4 3 2 x 5 x 4 6 x 54 6x 1
c y 4 y 7 y 47 y 11 subtract the powers
d (p 3 )4 p 34 p 12 multiply the powers
385
INDICES 2
Reminder
RULE 1 am × an = am + n
RULE 2 am ÷ an = am − n
386
RULE 3 (am)n = am × n
RULE 4 1
a m
am
RULE 5 a0 = 1
Fractional indices
1 1
2 2
Consider 9 9 and 9 9
1 1
2 2
33 9
9 91 9
1
2
387
So 9 9
1
The index 1 means ‘square root’ 2
2
a a
1
The index 1 means ‘cube root’ 3
3
a 3a
This can be written more generally as:
1
The index 1 means ‘nth root’ n
n
a na
Examples
1 1 1 1
2 2 4 3
21
1 Find the value of a 16 b 25 c 16 d 125 e 36
1
a 2
16 16 4
1
b 2
388
25 25 5
1
c 4 4
16 16 2
1
d 3
125 3 125 5
21
1 1 1
e 36 1
36 2 36 6
2 1 2 2
3 3 3
8 can be written as 8
8 22 4
similarly
32 1 1 1 1
389
8 can be written as 2
2
2
3 3 2 4
8 8
In general:
m m
n n
a a
Examples
3 2 3
4 3 2
32 34
2 Find the value of a 16 b 64 c 25 d 125 e 81
3 1 3 3
a 4 4 4
16 16 16 23 8
2 1 2 2
3 3 3
b 64 64 64 4 2 16
390
3 1 3 3
2 2
c 25 25 25 53 125
d
32 1 1 1 1 1
125 2
1 2
2
2
3 3 25
125 3 5
125
125
e
34 1 1 1 1 1
81 3
3
3
3
4 1
81 4 4 3 27
81 81
Examples
2 Find the value of n if 2n 32
first write 32 as a power of 2
32 2 2 2 2 2 25
391
so
2n 25
n5
Examples
n 1
3 Find the value of n if 5
125
1
first write 125as a power of 5
1 1 1
3 53
392
125 5 5 5 5
so
5n 5 3
n 3
Examples
4 Find the value of n if 5n1 125
first write 125 as a power of 5
125 5 5 5 53
393
so
5n1 53
n 1 3
n4
Examples
5 Find the value of n if 43n2 16 2
first write 162 as a power of 4
2
2 2
16 4 44
394
so
43n2 4 4
3n 2 4
3n 6
n2
395
QUADRATIC GRAPHS
1 a Draw the graph of y = 2x2 – 3x – 2 in the range 2 x 4.
2
x 2, y 2 2 3 2 2 8 6 2 12
2
x 1, y 2 1 3 1 2 232 3
396
2
x 0, y 2 0 3 0 2 002 2
2
x 1, y 2 1 3 1 2 232 3
2
x 2, y 2 2 3 2 2 862 0
Put the results
2
x 3, y 2 3 3 3 2 18 9 2 7 into a table
and then draw
2 the graph.
x 4, y 2 4 3 4 2 32 12 2 18
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
y 12 3 -2 -3 0 7 18
y
20
x
15 y 2x 2 3x 2
397
x
10
x
5
x
x x
-2 -1 0x 1 2 3 4
x
-5
b Use the graph to estimate the values of x when y = 9.
x 1.7 and x 3.2
y
20
x
15 y 2x 2 3x 2
398
x
10
x
5
x
x x
-2-1.7 -1 0x 1 2 33.2 4
x
-5
c By drawing a tangent to the graph estimate the gradient of
the graph when x = 3.
18
Gradient 9
y 2
20
x
y 2x 2 3x 2
15
399
x
10
x 18
5
x
x x
-2 -1 0x 1 2 3 4
x 2
-5
2 a Draw the graph of y = 9 + 3x - 3x2 in the range 2 x 3.
2
x 2, y 9 (3 2) 3 2 9 6 12 9
2
x 1, y 9 (3 1) 3 1 9 3 3 3
400
2
x 0, y 9 (3 0) 3 0 900 9
2
x 1, y 9 (3 1) 3 1 933 9
2
x 2, y 9 (3 2) 3 2 9 6 12 3
Put the results
2
x 3, y 9 (3 3) 3 3 9 9 27 9 into a table
and then draw
the graph.
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y -9 3 9 9 3 -9
y
15
10 y 9 3x 3x 2
x x
401
5
x x
x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
-5
x x
-10
b Use the graph to estimate the values of x when y = -4.
x 1.6 and x 2.6
y
15
10 y 9 3x 3x 2
x x
402
5
x x
-1.6 2.6 x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
-5
x x
-10
c By drawing a tangent to the graph estimate the gradient of
the graph when x = 1.
12
Gradient 3
y 4
15
10 y 9 3x 3x 2
x x
403
12
5
x x
4
x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
-5
x x
-10
404
405
CUBIC GRAPHS
1 a Draw the graph of y = x3 – 5x + 2 in the range 3 x 3.
3
x 3, y 3 5 3 2 27 15 2 10
3
x 2, y 2 5 2 2 8 10 2 4
406
3
x 1, y 1 5 1 2 1 5 2 6
3
x 0, y 0 5 0 2 002 2
3
x 1, y 1 5 1 2 1 5 2 2
Put the results
3
x 2, y 2 5 2 2 8 10 2 0 into a table
and then draw
3 the graph.
x 3, y 3 5 3 2 27 15 2 14
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y -10 4 6 2 -2 0 14
y
15 x
10 y x 3 5x 2
407
x
x 5
x
x x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x
-5
x -10
b Use the graph to estimate the values of x when y = 4.
x 2, x 0.4 and x 2.35
y
15 x
10 y x3 5x 2
408
x
x 5
x
x x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-2 -0.4 x 2.35
-5
x -10
c By drawing a tangent to the graph estimate the gradient of
the graph when x = 2.
14
Gradient 7
y 2
15 x
10 y x 3 5x 2
409
x
x 5
x
x x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x 14
-5
2
x -10
2 a Draw the graph of y = x2 - x3 + 3x in the range 2 x 3.
2 3
x 2, y 2 2 3 2 4 8 6 6
2 3
x 1, y 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 1
410
2 3
x 0, y 0 0 3 0 000 0
2 3
x 1, y 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 3
2 3
x 2, y 2 2 3 2 486 2
Put the results
2 3
x 3, y 3 3 3 3 9 27 9 9 into a table
and then draw
the graph.
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 6 -1 0 3 2 -9
10
411
x
2 3
y x x 3x 5
x
x
x x
-2 x
-1 0 1 2 3
-5
x
-10
b Use the graph to estimate the values of x when y = 2.
x 1.5, x 0.6 and x 2
10
412
x
2 3
y x x 3x 5
x
x
x x
-2 x
-1 0 1 2 3
-1.5 0.6 2
-5
x
-10
c By drawing a tangent to the graph estimate the gradient of
the graph when x = −1.
4
Gradient 2
2
y
10
413
x
2 3
y x x 3x 5
x
x
x x
4 -2 x
-1 0 1 2 3
2
-5
x
-10
414
EXPONENTIAL
415
GRAPHS
Exponential graphs are graphs of the form y =
ax where a is a positive constant.
416
1 a Draw the graph of y 2x.
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8
y
8 x
y 2x.
417
6
4 x
2 x
x
x x
x x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
1 b Use the graph to estimate the value of x when 2 x 3.
Answer: x 1.6
y
8 x
y 2x.
418
6
4 x
3
2 x
x
x x
x x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 1.6 2 3
1 c By drawing a tangent to the graph estimate the gradient of
the graph when x = 1.5.
5.6
Gradient 1.9
2.9
y
8 x
y 2x.
419
6
4 x
x 5.6
2 x
x
x x 2.9
x x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
420
RECIPROCAL
421
GRAPHS
12
1 Complete the table of values for y and draw the graph of the function.
x
x -12 -6 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 6 12
y -1 -2 -3 -4 -6 -12 12 6 4 3 2 1
y 12
12 xy x
422
8
Note: x
There is no value for x
4
y when x = 0 because x
x
12 ÷ 0 is undefined. x
x
-12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12
x
x
x -4
x
-8
-12
x
6 2
2 Complete the table of values for y x and draw the graph of the function.
x
x -4 -3 -2 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4
y 14.5 1 -5 12.25 6.25 7 17.5
2 6
423
x 3, y 3 92 7
3
2 6
x 0.5, y 0.5 0.25 12 11.25
0.5
2 6
x 1, y 1 1 6 7
1
2 6
x 3, y 3 92 11
3
6
2 Complete the table of values for y x 2 and draw the graph of the function.
x
x -4 -3 -2 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4
y 14.5 7 1 -5 -11.25 12.25 7 6.25 7 11 17.5
y
26
20 yx
x x
424
x
x x
Note: 10
There is no value for x x x x
y when x = 0 because
6 ÷ 0 is undefined. x x
-4 -2 0 2 4
x
-10
x
-20
USING GRAPHS TO
425
SOLVE EQUATIONS
Use the graph of y = 2x2 – 5x – 3 to solve these equations
a 2x2 – 5x – 3 = −5
y = 2x2 − 5x − 3
0.5 2
426
y = −5
a 2x2 – 5x – 3 = −5
Draw the line y = −5
x = 0.5 or x = 2
Use the graph of y = 2x2 – 5x – 3 to solve these equations
b 2x2 – 5x – 6 = 4
y = 2x2 − 5x − 3
y=7
427
-1.3 3.8
b 2x2 – 5x – 6 = 4 add 3 to both sides
2x2 – 5x – 3 = 7
Draw the line y = 7
x = −1.3 or x = 3.8
Use the graph of y = 2x2 – 5x – 3 to solve these equations
c 2x2 – 5x – 3 = 2x + 4
y = 2x2 − 5x − 3
y = 2x + 4
428
−0.8 4.3
c 2x2 – 5x – 3 = 2x + 4
Draw the line y = 2x + 4
x = −0.8 or x = 4.3
DISTANCE-TIME
429
GRAPHS
The steepness of a distance-time graph represents the speed.
A horizontal line shows that
the speed is zero.
430
The steeper the line is,
the greater the speed.
distance
A straight line shows that the
speed is constant (steady).
time
distance travelled
speed
time taken
Example
1 150
100
distance from
home (km)
50
75
431
0 time (t hours)
0 1 1 2 3 4 5
The distance-time graph shows the journey of a car.
a Calculate the speed of the car during the first hour of the journey.
distance
speed
time
75
1
75 km/h
Example
150
100 50
distance from
home (km)
1.5
50
432
0 time (t hours)
0 1 2 3 4 5
The distance-time graph shows the journey of a car.
b Calculate the speed of the car between t = 1.5 and t = 3.
distance
speed
time
50
1.5
33 31 km/h
Example
150
100
distance from
home (km)
125
50
433
2
0 time (t hours)
0 1 2 3 4 5
The distance-time graph shows the journey of a car.
c Calculate the speed of the car between t = 3 and t = 5.
distance
speed
time
125
2
62.5 km/h
Example
150
100
distance from
home (km)
50
434
0 time (t hours)
0 1 2 3 4 5
The distance-time graph shows the journey of a car.
d Calculate the average speed for the whole journey.
total distance travelled
average speed
total time taken
125 125
5
50 km/h
Example
150
100
distance from
home (km)
50
435
0 time (t hours)
0 1 2 3 4 5
The distance-time graph shows the journey of a car.
e Explain what is happening between t = 1 and t = 1.5.
The line is horizontal which means that the speed is zero.
So the car is stationary (i.e. not moving).
436
SPEED-TIME
437
GRAPHS
In a speed-time graph:
speed
gradient = acceleration
time
438
and
area under graph = distance travelled
1 speed (m/s)
30
20
10
439
0 time (s)
0 10 20 30 40 50
The speed-time graph shows the speed of a car over the first 50 seconds
of a journey.
1 speed (m/s)
30
20
25
10
440
0 time (s)
0 10 10 20 30 40 50
a Calculate the acceleration between 0 and 10 seconds.
acceleration = gradient
25
10
2.5 m/s2
1 speed (m/s)
30
5
40
20
10
441
0 time (s)
0 10 20 30 40 50
b Calculate the acceleration between 10 and 50 seconds.
acceleration = gradient
5
40
0.125 m/s2
1 speed (m/s)
30
20
25 30
10
442
10 40
0 time (s)
0 10 20 30 40 50
c Calculate the the total distance travelled in the first 50 seconds.
distance travelled = area under graph
1 1
10 25 25 30 40
2 2
1225 m
1 speed (m/s)
30
20
10
443
0 time (s)
0 10 20 30 40 50
d Calculate the average speed over the first 50 seconds.
total distance travelled
average speed =
total time taken
1225
50
24.5 m/s
2 speed (m/s)
30
20
10
444
0 time (s)
0 10 20 30 40 50
The speed-time graph shows the speed of a car over 45 seconds.
2 speed (m/s)
30
20
35
10
445
20
0 time (s)
0 10 20 30 40 50
a Calculate the acceleration between 0 and 20 seconds.
acceleration = gradient
35
20
1.75 m/s2
2 speed (m/s)
30
20
35
10
446
25
0 time (s)
0 10 20 30 40 50
a Calculate the acceleration between 20 and 45 seconds.
acceleration = gradient
35
25
1.4 m/s2
2 speed (m/s)
30
20
35
10
447
0 time (s)
0 10 20 30 40 50
45
c Calculate the the total distance travelled by the car.
distance travelled = area under graph
1
45 35
2
787.5 m
2 speed (m/s)
30
20
10
448
0 time (s)
0 10 20 30 40 50
d Calculate the average speed over the 45 seconds.
total distance travelled
average speed =
total time taken
787.5
45
17.5 m/s
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DIFFERENTIATION
495
(CALCULUS)
For IGCSE Cambridge and Edexcel
This section for Cambridge and Edexcel
Derivatives and gradient functions
Another method for finding the gradient of a curve rather than using the graph
is called differentiation.
dy
is called the derivative of y with respect to x.
dx
The general rule for differentiating power functions is:
496
dy
If y = xn then = nx n-1
dx
It is easier to remember this rule as
‘multiply by the power n and then subtract one from the power’
So for the function y = x3 ,
dy
= 3 ´ x 3-1 = 3x 2
dx
There are two other notations that can be used to describe this rule:
• If f(x) = xn then f ¢(x) = nxn-1
d n
• x = nxn-1
( )
dx
Example
dy
497
1 Find for each of the following.
dx
dy
a y = x7 = 7 ´ x 7-1 = 7x 6
dx
dy
b y = x5 = 5 ´ x 5-1 = 5x 4
dx
dy
c y = x = x1 = 1´ x1-1 = x0 = 1
dx
0 dy
d y = 4 = 4x = 0 ´ x 0-1 = 0
dx
The rule for differentiating functions of the form xn can be extended to
dy
If y = axn then = nax n-1
dx
Example
498
2 Differentiate 3x 4 - 5x3 + 8x 2 with respect to x.
d d d d
3x 4 - 5x3 + 8x 2 =
( ) 3x 4 -
( ) 5x3 +
( ) 8x 2 ( )
dx dx dx dx
= 4 ´ 3x3 - 3 ´ 5x2 + 2 ´ 8x1
= 12x3 - 15x 2 + 16x
Example
dy
3 Given that y = 3x + 5 x - 4 find
( )( ) .
dx
y = 3x + 5 x - 4
( )( ) expand brackets and simplify
= 3x 2 - 12x + 5x - 20
= 3x2 - 7x - 20 differentiate
499
dy d d d
= 3x 2 -
( ) 7x - 20
( ) ( )
dx dx dx dx
= 2 ´ 3x1 - 1´ 7x0 - 0
= 6x - 7
Example
4 Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = x3 + 5x 2 - 9 at
the point (1, −3).
y = x3 + 5x 2 - 9 differentiate
dy
= 3x 2 + 10x
500
dx
dy 2
When x = 1, = 3 1 + 10 1 = 13
() ()
dx
Gradient of the tangent to the curve at the point (1, −3) is 13.
Finding the equation of a tangent to a curve
tangent
501
(x1, y1)
If the value of dy at the point (x1, y1) is m, then the equation of the tangent
dx
can be found using the equation y = mx + c.
The values x1 and y1 are substituted into y = mx + c to find the value of c.
Example
5 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x3 − 4x2 + 5 at the
point where x = 2.
y = x3 - 4x 2 + 5 differentiate
dy
= 3x 2 - 8x
dx
3 2
502
When x = 2, y = 2 - 4 2 + 5 = -3
( ) ( )
dy 2
and = 3 2 - 8 2 = -4
( ) ( )
dx
The tangent passes through the point (2, −3) and has gradient −4.
y = mx + c use m = −4
y = -4x + c use x = 2 , y = −3
- 3 = -4 2 + c
( )
c=5
The equation of the tangent is y = −4x + 5.
Stationary points
The gradient of the curve is zero
at the points P, Q and R.
Q
A point where the gradient is
zero is called a stationary point
or a turning point.
O
503
dy
R Stationary points occur when = 0.
dx
The stationary point Q is called a maximum point.
Q is called a maximum point because the value of y at this point is
greater than the value of y at other points close to Q.
The stationary points P and R are called minimum points.
P is called a minimum point because the value of y at this point is
less than the value of y at other points close to P.
Example
5 A curve has equation y = 2x3 + 3x2 − 12x.
Find the coordinates of the turning points on this curve.
y = 2x3 + 3x 2 - 12x differentiate
dy
= 6x 2 + 6x - 12
dx
dy
At stationary points = 0.
504
dx
2
6x + 6x - 12 = 0 divide both sides by 6
x2 + x - 2 = 0 factorise
(x + 2)(x - 1) = 0
x + 2 = 0 or x – 1 = 0
x + –2 = 0 or x=1
3 2
When x = −2, y = 2 -2 + 3 -2 - 12 -2 = 20
( ) ( ) ( )
3 2
When x = 1, y = 2 (1) + 3 (1) - 12 (1) = -7
The turning points are (−2, 20) and (1, −7).
First derivative test for maximum and minimum points
505
R
The gradient of the curve is zero at the points P, Q and R.
The red sections of the curve show where the gradient is negative.
The blue sections show where the gradient is positive.
Example
6 Find the coordinates of the stationary points on the curve y = x3 − 3x + 2
and determine the nature of these points. Sketch the graph of y = x3 − 3x + 2.
y = x3 - 3x + 2 differentiate
dy
= 3x 2 - 3
dx
dy
At stationary points = 0.
506
dx
2
3x - 3 = 0 divide both sides by 3 and rearrange
x2 = 1
x = ±1
3
When x = −1, y = -1 - 3 -1 + 2 = 4
( ) ( )
3
When x = 1, y = (1) - 3 (1) + 2 = 0
The stationary points are (−1, 4) and (1, 0).
Example
6 continued
The sketch graph of y = x3 − 3x + 2 is:
y = x3 − 3x + 2
(−1, 4)
507
2
O (1, 0)
Jan 2022 1H
508
Second derivatives
dy
If you differentiate y with respect to x you obtain .
dx
dy
is called the first derivative of y with respect to x.
dx
If you then differentiate dy with respect to x you obtain second derivative
dx 2
509
d y
which can be written as 2
.
dx
d2 y
is called the second derivative of y with respect to x.
dx 2
Example
7 A curve has equation y = x5 + 4x2 − 5x.
dy d2 y
Find and 2
.
dx dx
y = x5 + 4x 2 - 5x differentiate
510
dy
= 5x 4 + 8x - 5 differentiate again
dx
d2 y 3
2
= 20x +8
dx
Second derivative test for maximum and minimum points
After finding the x-coordinates of the stationary points
d2 y
a) Find 2
.
dx
d2 y
b) Replace each x-value in 2
.
dx
511
d2 y
If 2
< 0, then the point is a maximum point. − +
dx
0
d2 y + −
If 2
> 0, then the point is a minimum point.
dx
Example
8 Find the coordinates of the stationary points on the curve y = x3 − 12x + 5
and use the second derivative test to determine the nature of these points.
y = x3 - 12x + 5 differentiate
dy
= 3x 2 - 12
dx
dy
512
At stationary points = 0.
dx
2
3x - 12 = 0 divide both sides by 3 and rearrange
x2 = 4
x = ±2
3
When x = −2, y = -2 - 12 -2 + 5 = 21
( ) ( )
3
When x = 2, y = ( 2) - 12 ( 2) + 5 = -11
The stationary points are (−2, 21) and (2, −11).
Example
8 continued
Now find the second derivative:
dy
= 3x 2 - 12 differentiate
dx
d2 y
= 6x
513
2
dx
d2 y
When x = −2, 2
= 6 -2 < 0
( ) Þ maximum point
dx
d2 y
When x = 2, 2
=6 2 >0
( ) Þ minimum point
dx
So (−2, 21) is a maximum point and (2, −11) is a minimum point.
For Edexcel only
Applications on differentiation
a) Maximum and minimum values of quantities
b) Motion on a straight line
Maximum and minimum value of quantities such as Volume, area,……….. etc.
514
i) write volume or area in terms of x
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝐴 dy
ii) find , or ( it depends on what the question says )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 dx
iii) get the stationary value of x
iv) replace x-value in the original equation
Example
Jan 2021 Paper 1H
515
516
517
b) Motion on a straight line
518
519
520
FINDING TURNING
POINTS OF
QUADRATICS BY
COMPLETING THE
521
SQUARE
The shape of the graph of y = ax2 + bx+ c is called a parabola.
The orientation of the parabola depends on the value of a, the coefficient of x2.
If a > 0, the curve has a minimum point which occurs
at the lowest point of the curve.
If a < 0, the curve has a minimum point which occurs
522
at the lowest point of the curve.
In the case of a parabola, we also call this point the vertex of the parabola.
Every parabola has a line of symmetry that passes through the vertex.
When you sketch the graph of a quadratic function, the key properties are:
• the general shape of the graph
• the axis intercepts
• the coordinates of the vertex.
Example
1 a Find the axis crossing points for the graph of y = x2 − 4x − 12.
b Sketch the graph of y = x2 − 4x − 12 and find the coordinates of the vertex.
a y = x2 − 4x − 12
When x = 0, y = −12
When y = 0, x2 − 4x − 12 = 0
(x + 2)(x − 6) = 0
523
x+2=0 or x − 6 = 0
x = −2 or x=6
Axis crossing points are (0, −12), (−2, 0) and (6, 0).
Example
1 a Find the axis crossing points for the graph of y = x2 − 4x − 12.
b Sketch the graph of y = x2 − 4x − 12 and find the coordinates of the vertex.
b Method 1 Using the symmetry of the curve:
The x-axis crossing points are (−2, 0) and (6, 0).
The line of symmetry cuts the x-axis midway between −2 and 6.
Hence the line of symmetry is x = 2 x=2 y = x2 − 4x − 12
y
524
When x = 2, y = (2)2 − 4(2) − 12 = −16
Minimum point = (2, −16)
−2 O 6 x
Method 2 By completing the square:
x2 − 4x − 12 = (x − 2)2 − 22 − 12 −12
= (x − 2)2 − 16 (2, −16)
The minimum value of (x − 2)2 − 16 is 0 − 16 = −16 and this
minimum occurs when x = 2
So the graph of y = x2 − 4x − 12 has a minimum point at (2, −16).
Example
2 a Write 6x − 7 − x2 in the form a − (x + b)2.
b Write down the coordinates of the turning point of the curve y = 6x − 7 − x2,
stating whether it is a maximum or minimum point.
a 6x − 7 − x2 = −(x2 − 6x + 7)
= − [(x − 3)2 − 32 + 7]
525
= − [(x − 3)2 − 2]
= 2 − (x − 3)2
b y = 6x − 7 − x2 = 2 − (x − 3)2
The maximum value of 2 − (x − 3)2 is 2 − 0 = 2 and this occurs when x = 3
Hence the turning point is (3, 2) and it is a maximum point.
Edexcel OL notes 2023 – 2024 Dr.Youssef Ahmed
Chapter Topic page
3 Geometry 502 – 577
a- Angle properties
b- Polygons
c- Circle theorems
d- Intersecting chords
e- Congruence and similarity
f- Area of similar shapes
g- Volume of similar shapes
WhatsApp +201128360039 IGCSE & IAL maths instructor
526
527
ANGLE PROPERTIES
Names of angles
ACUTE angles angles between 0o and 90o
RIGHT angles angles of 90o
528
OBTUSE angles angles between 90o and 180o
REFLEX angles angles greater than180o
Names of triangles
529
equilateral right-angled
isosceles triangle
triangle triangle
right-angled scalene
isosceles triangle triangle
Angle properties
Angles on a straight line Angles at a point Vertically opposite angles
530
a
c b b
a b
a b 180o a b c 360o ab
Angle properties
Exterior angles of a Angles in a quadrilateral
Angles in a triangle
triangle
a
531
a a d
b
b c c
b c
a b c 180o abc a b c d 360o
Parallel and perpendicular lines
Parallel lines Perpendicular lines
532
Angle properties of parallel lines
Corresponding angles Alternate angles Interior angles
533
a a a
b b
b
ab ab a b 180o
Examples
1 Calculate the size of each lettered angle.
a 127o opposite angles
a
534
c b
127o
a b 180 angles on a straight line
b 127 180
b 53o
c 127o opposite angles
Examples
2 Calculate the size of each lettered angle.
b a 72o isosceles triangle
535
a b 72 180 angles in a triangle
a 72o b 144 180
b 36o
Examples
3 Calculate the size of angle a.
a 61 143 102 360 angles in a quadrilateral
102o
536
143o a 306 360
a 54o
a
61o
Examples
4 Calculate the size of angle a.
537
128o
a 128o corresponding angles
Examples
5 Calculate the size of angle a.
538
131o
a
a 131 180 interior angles
a 49o
Examples
6 Calculate the size of angle a.
539
a
132o
a 132o alternate angles
540
541
POLYGONS
A polygon is a shape enclosed by straight lines.
Number of sides Name of polygon
3 triangle
4 quadrilateral
5 pentagon
542
6 hexagon
7 heptagon
8 octagon
9 nonagon
10 decagon
TRIANGLE QUADRILATERAL
sum of interior angles = 180° sum of interior angles
= 2 x 180° = 360°
543
PENTAGON HEXAGON
sum of interior angles sum of interior angles = 4 x 180° = 720°
= 3 x 180° = 540°
An n-sided polygon can be split into (n – 2) triangles.
The sum of the interior angles in an n-sided polygon
= (n – 2) x 180°
Example
544
Find the sum of the interior angles in a nonagon.
Sum of interior angles = (n – 2) x 180°
= (9 – 2) x 180°
= 7 x 180°
= 1260°
Example Find the value of x.
140° x
107°
545
75°
105°
Sum of interior angles = (5 – 2) x 180° = 540°
x + 75 + 105 + 107 + 140 = 540
x + 427 = 540
x = 113°
In a regular polygon
• All the sides are the same length
AND
546
• All the angles are the same size
Regular or not?
547
EXTERIOR
INTERIOR ANGLE
ANGLE
548
Regular hexagon
Sum of exterior angles = 360°
120° 60°
Exterior angle = 360° ÷ 6
549
= 60°
Interior angle = 180° – 60°
= 120°
Regular pentagon
Sum of exterior angles = 360°
108° 72°
Exterior angle = 360° ÷ 5
550
= 7°
Interior angle = 180° – 72°
= 108°
Regular octagon
Sum of exterior angles = 360°
135° 45°
Exterior angle = 360° ÷ 8
551
= 45°
Interior angle = 180° – 45°
= 135°
In a regular n-sided polygon:
o
360o 360
Exterior angle = Interior angle = 180o
n n
Example
The interior angle of a regular polygon is 156°.
552
How many sides does the polygon have?
o
360
Interior angle = 180o 156o
n
360
24
n
360
n 15 The polygon has 15 sides.
24
Example ABCDE is a regular pentagon.
Find the size of angle x .
D E F
72° x
72°
553
C
A
B
Angle AEF = exterior angle = 360 ÷ 5 = 72°
Angle EAF = 72°
x = 180 – (72 + 72) = 36°
554
555
CIRCLE THEOREMS 2
The alternate segment theorem
x°
556
x° tangent
The alternate segment theorem states that:
The angle between the tangent and the chord at the point of contact is equal
to the angle in the alternate segment.
The alternate segment theorem
x°
y°
557
y° x° tangent
Using the alternate segment theorem, we can see that there is another
pair of equivalent angles on the diagram.
Example
1 Shade the matching angles in the alternate segments in each diagram.
a b c
558
d e f
O O O
Example
2 A, B and C are points on the circumference of a circle. C
The line PQ is a tangent to the circle at A. x°
Find the value of x and the value of y. B
57
°
y°
50
P A° Q
559
Angle ACB = angle BAQ alternate segment theorem
x = 50
x + y + 57 = 180 angles in a triangle add up to 180°
y = 180 − 57 − 50
y = 73
Example
3 A, B, C and D are points on the circumference of a D
circle, centre O. 52
° C
The line XY is a tangent to the circle at A. O
a Find the value of a and the value of b. a°
b Find angle CAY. b°
B
X A Y
560
a Angle AOC = 2 × angle ADC angle at centre = 2 × angle at circumference
a = 2 × 52
a = 104
Angle ABC + angle ADC = 180° opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral
b + 52 = 180
b = 128
b Angle CAY = angle ADC alternate segment theorem
Angle CAY = 52°
Example
4 Find the value of a, the value of b and the value of c.
a b°
c°
O°
54°
80°
561
a = 2 × 54 angle at centre = 2 × angle at circumference
a = 108
a + 2b = 180 isosceles triangle
2b = 180 − 108
b = 36
b + c = 80 alternate segment theorem
c = 80 − 36
c = 44
562
563
CIRCLE THEOREMS
TANGENTS
A straight line can intersect a circle in three possible ways.
It can be:
A DIAMETER A CHORD A TANGENT
564
B
O O O
B
A
A A
2 points of 2 points of 1 point of
intersection intersection intersection
TANGENT PROPERTY 1
The angle between a
565
tangent and a radius is a
O right angle.
A
TANGENT PROPERTY 2
566
O
P
The two tangents drawn
from a point P outside a
A circle are equal in length.
AP = BP
Example
AP is a tangent to the circle.
a Calculate the length of OP.
P b Calculate the size of angle AOP.
B c Calculate the shaded area.
O
x
8 cm 8
a OP 2 6 2 8 2 b tan x
6 cm 6
OP2 100
8
567
A OP 10 cm x tan1
6
AOP 53.13o
c Shaded area = area of ΔOAP – area of sector OAB
1 53.13
8 6 62
2 360
24 16.69
7.31 cm2 (3 s.f.)
CHORDS AND SEGMENTS
A straight line joining two points on the circumference of a
circle is called a chord.
A chord divides a circle into two segments.
568
major segment
minor segment
SYMMETRY PROPERTIES OF CHORDS 1
The perpendicular line from the centre
of a circle to a chord bisects the chord.
569
O
ΙΙ ΙΙ Note: Triangle AOB is isosceles.
A B
SYMMETRY PROPERTIES OF CHORDS 2
AB = CD
D
Q
If two chords AB and CD are the same
C length then they will be the same
570
O perpendicular distance from the
centre of the circle.
Ι
ΙΙ ΙΙ If AB = CD then OP = OQ.
A P B
Example
Find the value of x.
O
Triangle OAB is isosceles
571
96o because OA = OB (radii of circle)
So angle OBA = x.
x B
2x 96 180
A
2x 84
x 42o
THEOREM 1
The angle at the centre is
572
twice the angle at the
O circumference.
2x
Example
Find the value of x.
x
573
96o
Angle at centre
= 2 × angle at circumference
96 2x
x 96 2
x 48o
Example
Find the value of x.
62o
574
x
Angle at centre
= 2 × angle at circumference
x 2 62
x 124o
Example
Find the value of x.
O
x
575
84o
Angle at centre
= 2 × angle at circumference
84 2x
x 84 2
x 42o
Example
Find the value of x.
104o
576
Oy
Angle at centre
= 2 × angle at circumference
y 2 104
y 208
x 360 208
x 152o
THEOREM 2
An angle in a semi-circle is
577
always a right angle.
O
Example
Find the value of x.
58o O x
578
Angles in a semi-circle = 90o
and
angles in a triangle add up to 180o.
x 58 90 180
x 32o
THEOREM 3
Opposite angles of a cyclic
579
quadrilateral add up to
180o.
x y 180o
y
Example
Find the values of x and y.
x
580
Opposite angles in a cyclic
quadrilateral add up to 180o.
o 132o
75
x 132 180 y 75 180
x 48o y 105o
THEOREM 4
x
Angles from the same arc
581
in the same segment are
equal.
x
Example
Find the value of x.
39o
582
Angles from the same arc in the same
segment are equal.
x 39o
583
584
585
586
CONGRUENCE
587
& SIMILARITY
Congruency
Two shapes are congruent if one of the shapes fits exactly on top of the other shape.
These three triangles
588
are all congruent
In congruent shapes:
• corresponding angles are equal
• corresponding lengths are equal
To prove that two triangles are congruent you must show that they satisfy one
of the following four sets of conditions:
SSS: three sides are equal SAS: two sides and the included
angle are the same
589
ASA: two angles and the included RHS: right-angled triangle with
side are the same hypotenuse and one other side the
same
Similar shapes
R
These two quadrilaterals are similar.
S
PQ QR RS SP C
D
AB BC CD DA
590
In similar shapes:
• corresponding angles are equal A B P Q
• corresponding sides are in the same ratio
To show that two triangles are similar it is sufficient
to show that just one of the above conditions is satisfied.
Examples
1 The triangles are similar. Find the values of x and y.
(All lengths are in cm.)
x 5.5
y
9 8
12
591
Using ratio of corresponding sides:
x 12 y 8
5.5 8 9 12
8x 66 12y 72
x 8.25 y6
Examples
2 The triangles are similar. Find the values of x and y.
(All lengths are in cm.)
7
Turn one of the triangles so that
x
you can see which are the
8 corresponding sides.
592
7
y Using ratio of corresponding sides:
x 8 y 12
12 15 12 7 8
15
12x 120 8y 84
x 10 y 10.5
Examples
3 Find the values of x and y. x 6
(All lengths are in cm.)
Separate the two triangles.
2.5 9 2
Using ratio of corresponding sides:
y
y 8 x 2.5 8
593
9 6 x 6
x +2.5 8
6y 72 6(x 2.5) 8x
y 12 6x 15 8x
y
2x 15
x 6
x 7.5
9
6
Examples
4 Find the values of x and y. 4 y
(All lengths are in cm.)
6 x
Turn the top triangle so that you can see
which are the corresponding sides.
9
594
Using ratio of corresponding sides:
y 4
x 9 y 6
6
4 6 6 9 6 x
6x 36 9y 36
y4 9
x6
x
Examples
5 Find the values of x and y. 6 12
(All lengths are in cm.)
16 y
Turn the top triangle so that you can see
which are the corresponding sides.
20
595
Using ratio of corresponding sides:
12 6
x 12 y 16
x
20 16 6 12 16 y
16x 240 12y 96
y 8 20
x 15
596
AREAS OF SIMILAR
597
SHAPES
enlarge with a length
scale factor of 2
1 cm 2 cm
2 cm
4 cm
The diagram shows that:
If the length scale factor is 2, then the area scale factor is 4.
598
enlarge with a length
scale factor of 3
1 cm 3 cm
2 cm
6 cm
The diagram shows that:
If the length scale factor is 3, then the area scale factor is 9.
General rule:
If the length scale factor is k, then the area scale factor is k2.
Examples
1 The two shapes are similar.
The area of the smaller shape is 5 cm2.
Find the area of the larger shape.
3 cm
6 cm
599
6
Length scale factor = 2
3
Area scale factor = 22
Area of larger shape = 5 22 20 cm2
Examples
2 The two shapes are similar.
The area of the larger shape is 13.5 cm2.
Find the area of the smaller shape.
4 cm
12 cm
600
12
Length scale factor = 3
4
Area scale factor = 3 2
Area of smaller shape = 13.5 32 1.5 cm2
Examples
3 The two shapes are similar.
The area of the smaller shape is 12 cm2.
The area of the larger shape is 27 cm2.
Find the value of x.
4 cm
x cm
601
27 9
Area scale factor =
12 4
9 3
Length scale factor =
4 2
3
So x = 4 6 cm
2
C
Examples
4 Area of triangle CDE = 10 cm2. 4 cm
a Calculate the area of triangle ABC.
b Calculate the area of ABDE. E D
2 cm
A B
C
a Triangles ABC and EDC are similar.
602
6 3
Length scale factor = 6 cm
4 2
2
3
Area scale factor =
2 2
3 A
Area of triangle ABC = 10 B
2 C
22.5 cm2 4 cm
b Area of ABDE = area of Δ ABC − area of Δ CDE
2
E D
22.5 10 12.5 cm
D E
Examples
5 Find the area of triangle CDE. 15 cm
C
21 cm
147 cm2
A B
C
603
Triangles ABC and EDC are similar. 15 cm
15 5 E D
Length scale factor =
21 7 C
2
21 cm
5 147 cm2
Area scale factor =
7
2 A B
5
Area of triangle CDE = 147 7
75 cm2
604
VOLUMES OF
605
SIMILAR OBJECTS
enlarge with a length
scale factor of 2 2 cm
1 cm
1 cm
1 cm 2 cm
2 cm
The diagram shows that:
If the length scale factor is 2, then the volume scale factor is 8.
606
enlarge with a length
3 cm
1 cm scale factor of 3
1 cm
1 cm
3 cm
3 cm
The diagram shows that:
If the length scale factor is 3, then the volume scale factor is 27.
General rule:
If the length scale factor is k, then the volume scale factor is k3.
Examples
1 The two pyramids are similar.
The volume of the small pyramid is 24 cm2.
Find the volume of the larger pyramid.
4 cm
8 cm
607
8
Length scale factor = 2
4
Volume scale factor = 23
Volume of larger pyramid = 24 23 192 cm3
Examples
2 The two prisms are similar.
The volume of the small prism is 27 cm3.
The volume of the large prism is 64 cm3. x cm
20 cm
Find the value of x.
608
27
Volume scale factor =
64
3
27 3
Length scale factor =
64 4
3
x 20 15 cm
4
Edexcel OL notes 2023 – 2024 Dr.Youssef Ahmed
Chapter Topic page
4 Trigonometry 579 – 633
a- SOHCAHTOA & 3D trigonometry
b- Angles of elevation and depression
c- Sine and cosine rules
d- Area of the triangle
e- Bearings
f- Trigonometric graphs
WhatsApp +201128360039 IGCSE & IAL maths instructor
609
610
611
TRIGONOMETRY
The longest side in a right-angled triangle is
called the hypotenuse (hyp).
The side opposite
612
the angle
is called the
opposite (opp).
xo
The side next to the angle is
called the adjacent (adj).
hypotenuse
opposite
xo
adjacent
613
opposite adjacent opposite
sin x cos x tan x
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent
A useful memory aid for remembering these three ratios is:
SOHCAHTOA
614
FINDING THE
615
LENGTH OF A SIDE
Example
1 Find the value of x.
x opp
24o
6 cm
adj
616
o opp
tan 24 replace opp by x and adj by 6
adj
o x
tan 24 multiply both sides by 6
6
x 6 tan 24o
x 2.67 cm (to 3 s.f.)
Example
2 Find the value of x. 73o
hyp
8 cm x adj
617
o adj
cos 73 replace adj by x and hyp by 8
hyp
o x
cos 73 multiply both sides by 8
8
x 8 cos73o
x 2.34 cm (to 3 s.f.)
Example
3 Find the value of x.
hyp
opp x 5 cm
40o
618
o opp
sin 40 replace opp by x and hyp by 5
hyp
o x
sin 40 multiply both sides by 5
5
x 5 sin 40o
x 3.21 cm (to 3 s.f.)
Example
4 Find the value of x.
15 cm
x adj
hyp
65o
adj
cos 65o replace adj by 15 and hyp by x
619
hyp
15
cos 65o multiply both sides by x
x
x cos 65o 15 divide both sides by cos 65o
15
x
cos 65o
x 35.5 cm (to 3 s.f.)
620
621
FINDING AN ANGLE
Example
1 Find the value of x.
hyp
opp
5 cm 9 cm
xo
622
opp
sin x replace opp by 5 and hyp by 9
hyp
5
sin x to find x use the sin-1 button on your calculator
9
5
x sin1
9
x 33.7o (to 3 s.f.)
Example
2 Find the value of x. xo
hyp
8 cm 5 cm
adj
623
adj
cos x replace adj by 5 and hyp by 8
hyp
5
cos x to find x use the cos-1 button on your calculator
8
5
x cos1
8
x 51.3o (to 3 s.f.)
Example
3 Find the value of x.
3 cm
opp
xo
6 cm
adj
624
opp
tan x replace opp by 3 and adj by 6
adj
3
tan x to find x use the tan-1 button on your calculator
6
3
x tan1
6
x 26.6o (to 3 s.f.)
THREE
DIMENSIONAL
625
TRIGONOMETRY
To find the angle
H G between AG and the H G
E F base you need to E F
5 cm look at triangle AGC. 5 cm
D C D C
6 cm 6 cm
A 7 cm B A 7 cm B
626
First you need to Now use
G
calculate AC using trigonometry on
Pythagoras on triangle ACG. 5 cm
triangle ABC. 5
tan x
85 x
AC 2 7 2 6 2 5 A 85 C
x tan1
AC 2 85 85
AC 85 x 28.5o (to 3 s.f.)
ANGLES OF
ELEVATION AND
627
DEPRESSION
Angle of elevation of the top of the flag from the point P
628
ANGLE OF
ELEVATION
P
When you look up from the horizontal the angle you turn
through is called the angle of elevation.
629
From a point A, on horizontal ground, the angle of elevation of a hot air
balloon is 12o.
The balloon is vertically above the point B, which is 1000 m from A.
Calculate the height of the balloon above the ground.
o opp
tan12
adj
h
tan12o
630
1000
h 1000 tan12o
h 213 m
h
12o
A 1000 m B
ANGLE OF
DEPRESSION
631
When you look down from the horizontal the angle you turn
through is called the angle of depression.
632
A yacht is 28 m from the base of a lighthouse.
From the top of the lighthouse, the angle of depression of the yacht is 49o.
Calculate the height of the lighthouse.
28 m
49o
633
opp h
tan 49o
adj
h
tan 49o
28
h 28 tan 49o
h 32.2 m
634
THE SINE AND
635
COSINE RULES
The sine rule B
Note: side a is
opposite angle A.
a
c
636
C
b
A
a b c or sin A sinB sinC
sin A sinB sinC a b c
1 Find the size of x.
Note: the sine
rule connects a
8 cm x cm side and the
angle opposite.
30o 40o
637
x 8
sin30 sin 40
8 sin30
x
sin 40
x 6.22 cm
2 Find the size of angle x.
Note: the sine
rule connects a
side and the
4 cm 12 cm
angle opposite.
64o x
638
sin x sin 64
4 12
4 sin 64
sin x
12
x 17.4o
You can sometimes find two values for a missing angle.
In triangle ABC, AB = 4 cm, AC = 3 cm and angle ABC = 44o.
Work out the two possible values for angle ACB.
A
sinC sin 44
4 3
4 cm 4 sin44
sinC
639
3
3 cm 3 cm
sinC 0.9262
o C 67.9o
44
B C2 or C 180 67.9 112.1o
C1
C1 and C2 are the two possible
positions for the point C.
The cosine rule B
Note: side a is
opposite angle A.
a
c
640
C
b
A
b2 c 2 a2
cos A
a 2 b 2 c 2 2bc cos A 2bc
Used when Used when finding
finding a side. an angle.
1 Find the size of angle x.
Note: use the cosine
rule when you know
x cm two sides and the
included angle.
6.5 cm
641
100o
8.7 cm
x 2 8.7 2 6.52 2 8.7 6.5 cos100
x 2 137.6
x 11.7 cm
2 Find the size of angle x.
x
5.7 cm 2.4 cm
642
6.9 cm
2.4 2 5.7 2 6.9 2
cos x
2 2.4 5.7
cos x 0.342
x 110o
643
AREA OF A TRIANGLE
The area of a triangle
B
a
c
644
C
b
A
1
Area ab sinC
2
To use this formula you need to know two sides of a triangle
and the angle between the two sides.
1 Find the area of the triangle.
4.2 cm
75o
645
6.9 cm
Area = 1 ab sinC
2
1
6.9 4.2 sin75
2
14.0 cm2
2 Find the area of the triangle.
Note: the triangle
8 cm is equilateral.
646
60o |
8 cm
Area = 1 ab sinC
2
1
8 8 sin 60
2
27.7 cm2
3 Find the area of the parallelogram.
Note: the parallelogram
5 cm can be divided into two
identical triangles.
72o
9 cm
647
Area of triangle = 1 ab sinC
2
1
9 5 sin72
2
21.40 cm2
Area of parallelogram = 2 × 21.40 = 42.8 cm2 (to 3 s.f.)
4 Find the area of the shaded segment.
o
5 cm 130 5 cm
648
Area of triangle = area of sector – area of triangle
130 1
52 5 5 sin130
360 2
28.36 9.576
18.8 cm2 (to 3 s.f.)
649
BEARINGS
Bearings are always measured
clockwise from the north line.
650
1 Find the bearing of A from B.
N
Draw a north line at B.
Join B to A.
A
Measure the angle clockwise
from the north line.
651
B
Bearing of A from B = 075o
2 Find the bearing of Q from P.
N
Draw a north line at P.
Join P to Q.
Measure the angle clockwise
from the north line.
652
P
Bearing of Q from P = 110o
3 Find the bearing of Y from X.
N
Draw a north line at X.
Join X to Y.
Measure the angle clockwise
from the north line.
653
X
Bearing of Y from X = 230o
4 The bearing of A from B is 060o.
Find the bearing of B from A. N
Draw a diagram to show the
positions of A and B. N
Draw a north line at A.
654
Find the angle measured
clockwise from the north line at A. A
60o
60o
Bearing of B from A = 180o + 60o = 240o
5 The bearing of Q from P is 250o.
Find the bearing of P from Q. N
N
Draw a diagram to show the
positions of P and Q.
Draw a north line at Q.
655
Find the angle measured o
P 250
clockwise from the north line at Q. 70o o
70
Bearing of P from Q = 070o
6 The diagram shows three straight roads connecting points A, B and C and
the angles between them. N
NOT TO
105o B135o SCALE
N
120o
o
N
75
A
656
45o
35o C
280o
a Find the bearing of C from B.
Bearing of C from B = 360 – (105 + 120) = 135o
b Find the bearing of A from C.
Bearing of A from C = 360 – (35 + 45) = 280o
TRIGOMOMETRIC
EQUATIONS AND
657
GRAPHS
The graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x
P
In the diagram the line OP is of length 1 unit 1
and OP makes an angle x with the positive
x
horizontal axis.
O
Using trigonometry:
• height of right-angled triangle = sin x
658
• base of right-angled triangle = cos x
The height of P above the horizontal axis changes
from 0 → 1 → 0 → −1 → 0.
The displacement of P from the vertical axis changes
from 1 → 0 → −1 → 0 →1.
The graph of y = sin x for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360° is:
y
O x
y = sin x
659
The graph of y = cos x for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360° is:
y
y = cos x
O x
The graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x can be expanded beyond 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°:
y = sin x
x
O
660
y
y = cos x
x
O
The sine and cosine functions are called periodic functions because they
repeat themselves over and over again.
The period of a periodic function is defined as the length of one repetition or cycle.
The basic sine and cosine functions repeat every 360°.
We say they have a period of 360°.
661
The amplitude of a periodic function is defined as the distance between
a maximum (or minimum) point and the principal axis.
The basic sine and cosine functions have amplitude 1.
y y
y = cos x
O x O x
y = sin x
The graph of y = tan x
The tangent function behaves very differently to the sine and cosine functions.
y
x
0
662
y = tan x
The red dashed lines at x = 90° and x = 270° are asymptotes.
The branches of the graph get closer and closer to the asymptotes
without ever reaching them.
The tangent function repeats its cycle every 180° so its period is 180°.
The tangent function does not have an amplitude.
The graph of y = tan x can be expanded beyond 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°:
663
x
0
y = tan x
Solving trigonometric equations for values between 0° and 360°
Consider solving the equation: sin x = 0.5 for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
x = sin−1(0.5)
A calculator gives the answer: x = 30°
There is, however, a second value of x for which sin x = 0.5
This can be found by considering the symmetry of the curve y = sin x:
664
y = 0.5
0 150
30
y = sin x
The second value = 180°− 30° = 150°
Hence the solution of the equation sin x = 0.5 for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360° is
x = 30° or 150°
Example
1 Solve cos x = 0.7 for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
cos x = 0.7
x = cos−1(0.7)
x = 45.6°
A sketch graph of y = cos x is used to find any other values:
665
y = cos x
y = 0.7
0 45.6 314.4
The second value = 360° − 45.6° = 314.4°
Hence the solution of the equation cos x = 0.7 for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360° is
x = 45.6° or 314.4°
Example
2 Solve cos x = −0.5 for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
cos x = −0.5
x = cos−1(−0.5)
x = 120°
A sketch graph of y = cos x is used to find any other values:
666
y = cos x
120 240
0
y = −0.5
The second value = 360° − 120° = 240°
Hence the solution of the equation cos x = −0.5 for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360° is
x = 120° or 240°
Example
3 Solve sin x = −0.6 for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
sin x = −0.6
x = sin−1(−0.6)
x = −36.9° (this angle is out of range)
A sketch graph of y = sin x is used to find any other values:
667
y = sin x
−36.9 216.9 323.1
0
y = −0.6
x = 180° + 36.9° = 216.9° or x = 360° − 36.9° = 323.1°
Hence the solution of the equation sin x = −0.6 for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360° is
x = 216.9° or 323.1°
Example
4 Solve tan x = 2 for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
tan x = 2
x = tan−1(2)
x = 63.4°
A sketch graph of y = tan x is used to find any other values:
668
y = tan x
y=2
0 63.4 243.4
The second value = 180° + 63.4° = 243.4°
Hence the solution of the equation tan x = 2 for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360° is
x = 63.4° or 243.41
Edexcel OL notes 2023 – 2024 Dr.Youssef Ahmed
Chapter Topic page
5 Mensuration 635 – 693
a- Area and perimeter of 2D shapes
b- Area and circumference of the circles + sectors
c- Surface area of 3D shapes
d- Volume of 3D shapes
WhatsApp +201128360039 IGCSE & IAL maths instructor
669
670
PERIMETER AND
671
AREA
The distance around an enclosed shape is called the perimeter.
672
The amount of space enclosed inside a shape is called the area.
Area of a rectangle
673
height
base
Area of rectangle = base × height
Area of a triangle
674
height
base
Area of triangle = ½ × base × height
Area of a parallelogram
A parallelogram can be made into a rectangle.
675
height
base
Area of parallelogram = base × height
Area of a trapezium
Two identical trapeziums can be made into a parallelogram.
b a
676
h
a b
Area of parallelogram = ½ (a + b) h
Examples
1 Find a the perimeter 7
b the area of the shape.
All lengths are in cm. 8
6
677
10
a Perimeter 3 2 7 6 10 8 3
36 cm 2
7
b Area (8 3) (7 6)
8
24 42 6
66 cm2
10
Examples
2 Find the area of the parallelogram. 3 cm
10 cm
Area base height
678
10 3
30 cm2
Examples
3 Find the area of the triangle. 4 cm
6 cm
1
Area base height
679
2
1
64
2
12 cm2
Examples
2
4 Find the area of the trapezium.
All lengths are in cm.
3
5
1
Area (a b)h
680
2
1
(5 2) 3
2
1
73
2
1
21
2
10.5 cm2
Examples
x
5 The area of the trapezium is 24 cm2.
Find the value of x.
4 cm
1 2x+3
Area (a b)h
2
681
1
24 (2x 3 x) 4
2
1
24 (3x 3) 4
2
24 2(3x 3)
24 6x 6
18 6x
x3
682
AREA AND
CIRCUMFERENCE OF
683
A CIRCLE + SECTORS
circumference
The perimeter of a circle is called
the circumference (C).
684
The diameter (d) of a circle is twice
the radius (r).
C 2 r or C d
3.142
Consider dividing a circle into 8 equal sectors:
rearranging the sectors
of the circle gives
685
Now consider dividing the circle into 12 equal sectors:
rearranging the sectors
of the circle gives
686
r
half circumference
r
The more sectors there are, the closer the area gets to being a rectangle.
Area r 2
Examples
1 Calculate a the circumference b the area of the circle.
a Circumference d
8 cm
8
687
25.1 cm (to 3 s.f.)
b Area r 2
42
16
50.3 cm2 (to 3 s.f.)
Examples
2 Calculate a the circumference b the area of the circle.
a Circumference d
3.7 cm
7.4
688
23.2 cm (to 3 s.f.)
b Area r 2
3.7 2
13.69
43.0 cm2 (to 3 s.f.)
Examples
3 The radius of the circle is 5 cm.
The circle touches all four sides of the square.
Calculate the shaded area.
Shaded area area of square area of circle
10 10 5 2
689
100 25
21.5 cm2 (to 3 s.f.)
10 cm
Examples
4 The radius of the large circle is 8 cm.
The radius of the small circle is 5 cm.
Calculate the shaded area.
Shaded area area of large circle area of small circle
82 52
690
64 25
39
126 cm2 (to 3 s.f.)
Examples
5 The radius of the circle is 3 cm.
The vertices of the square lie on the circumference of the circle.
Calculate the shaded area.
Let length of sides of square x
Using Pythagoras x 2 x 2 62
691
x 2x 2 36
x 2 18
x x 4.243... cm
Shaded area area of circle area of square
3 2 4.243 4.243
9 18
10.3 cm2 (to 3 s.f.)
Examples
6 The area of the circle is 200cm2. Find the value of r.
Area r 2
r cm
200 r 2
692
200
r2
r 2 63.66
r 63.66
r 7.98 cm (to 3 s.f.)
Semicircles and quadrants
A semicircle is half a circle. A quadrant is quarter of a circle.
693
Examples
1 Calculate a the perimeter b the area of the semicircle.
d
a Perimeter 10
2
10
10
10 cm 2
694
25.7 cm (to 3 s.f.)
r 2
b Area
2
52
2
39.3 cm2 (to 3 s.f.)
Examples
2 Calculate a the perimeter b the area of the quadrant.
d
a Perimeter 99
4
18
18
2
695
46.3 cm (to 3 s.f.)
r 2
9 cm b Area
4
92
4
63.6 cm2 (to 3 s.f.)
Examples
3 The perimeter of the quadrant is 50 cm. Calculate the value of r.
2 r
Perimeter r r
4
r
50 2r
696
2
50 1.571r 2r
50 3.571r
r cm
50
r
3.571
r 14.0 cm (to 3 s.f.)
Examples
4 The diagram shows four identical circles of radius 4 cm.
Calculate the shaded area.
Shaded area area of square area of 4 quadrants
697
area of square area of circle
8 8 42
64 16
13.7 cm2 (to 3 s.f.)
698
ARC LENGTH AND
THE AREA OF THE
699
SECTOR
Arcs and sectors
An arc is part of the circumference arc
of a circle.
sector
r
A sector of a circle is a region r
700
bounded by an arc and two radii.
Arc length 2 r
360
Area of sector r 2
360
Examples
1 Find a the area of sector OAB A
b the length of arc AB
c the perimeter of sector OAB.
5 cm B
95 95o
a Area of sector 52 5 cm
360 O
20.7 cm2 (to 3 s.f.)
701
95
b Arc length 2 5
360
8.2903...
8.29 cm (to 3 s.f.)
c Perimeter OA OB arc AB
5 5 8.2903...
18.3 cm (to 3 s.f.)
Examples
2 Find a the area
b the perimeter of the shape.
126 126
a Area 10 2 72
360 360
126°
110.0 53.88
702
7m 3m
56.1 m2 (to 3 s.f.)
b Perimeter large arc small arc 3 3
126 126
2 10 2 7 3 3
360 360
21.99 15.34 3 3
43.4 cm (to 3 s.f.)
SURFACE AREA AND
703
VOLUME 1
Volume of a cuboid
height
704
width
length
Volume of a cuboid = length width height
Volume of a prism
A prism is a three dimensional shape with a uniform cross-section.
cross-section
705
length
Volume of a prism = area of cross-section length
note: a cuboid is a prism with a rectangular cross section
Volume of a cylinder
A cylinder is a prism with a circular cross-section.
706
h
Volume of a cylinder area of cross-section length r 2h
Examples
1 Calculate the volume of the cuboid.
Volume length width height
5 cm
707
10 4 5
4 cm 200 cm3
10 cm
Examples
2 Calculate the volume of the prism.
Volume area of cross-section length
6 cm2
708
6 12
12 cm
72 cm3
Examples
3 Calculate the volume of the cylinder.
5 cm
Volume r 2h
709
52 8
8 cm
628 cm3 (to 3 s.f.)
Examples
4 Calculate the volume of the triangular prism.
1
Area of cross-section 43
2
6 cm2
4 cm
710
Volume area of cross-section length
7 cm
3 cm 67
42 cm3
Surface area of a prism
4 5
D
4 3 5
5 cm
NET
6 A B C 6
4 cm
711
6 cm
3 cm 4 3 5
E
4 5
Surface area of a prism = sum of areas of all the faces
4 5
D
4 3 5
5 cm
NET
6 A B C 6
4 cm
712
6 cm
3 cm 4 3 5
E
Area of rectangle A 4 6 24 4 5
Area of rectangle B 3 6 18
Area of rectangle C 5 6 30
Total surface area
1
Area of triangle D 3 4 6 24 18 30 6 6
2
84 cm2
Area of triangle E area of triangle D 6
Surface area of a cylinder
CIRCLE
r 2
RECTANGLE
2 r h
713
2 rh
The two circles are flat surfaces. CIRCLE
The rectangle is made from the r 2
curved surface of the cylinder.
Curved surface area of cylinder 2 rh
Total surface area of cylinder 2 rh 2 r 2
Examples
5 Calculate a the curved surface area of the cylinder
b the total surface area of the cylinder.
8 cm
714
a Curved surface area 2 rh
2 2.5 8
5 cm
2
126 cm (to 3 s.f.)
b Total surface area 2 rh 2 r 2
2 2.5 8 2 2.5 2
165 cm2 (to 3 s.f.)
SURFACE AREA AND
715
VOLUME 2
Volume of a pyramid
716
1
Volume of a pyramid = base area perpendicular height
3
Calculate the volume of the rectangular-based pyramid.
1
Volume = base area height
3
1
(5 4) 6
717
3
6 cm
40 cm3
D C
A 5 cm B
Surface area of a pyramid
718
Surface area = sum of the areas of all the faces of the pyramid
Calculate the surface area of the rectangular-based pyramid.
E
First find the length of EX and EY.
Use Pythagoras on triangle EOX.
EX 2 2.5 2 6 2
719
EX 2 42.25
6 cm
EX 6.5
D C
Use Pythagoras on triangle EOY.
O X
EY2 22 6 2
A Y B EY2 40
5 cm
EY 6.325
E
Area of rectangle ABCD = 4 × 5
NET OF = 20 cm2
PYRAMID Area of triangle BCE = ½ × 4 × 6.5
6.325
= 13 cm2
D C Area of triangle CDE = ½ × 5 × 6.325
5 cm = 15.81 cm2
720
6.5 6.5
E E
4 cm
A B
Surface area = sum of areas of faces
= 20 + 13 + 13 + 15.81 + 15.81
6.325
= 77.6 cm2
E
Volume of a cone
721
r
1
Volume of a cone = base area perpendicular height
3
1
r 2h
3
Calculate the volume of the cone.
1
Volume = base area height
3
1
( 42 ) 7
722
7 cm
3
117 cm3
4 cm
Surface area of a cone
The surface of a cone is made from a flat circular base and a curved surface.
The curved surface is made from a sector of a circle.
723
h l CURVED SURFACE
= FLAT BASE +
l l
r
Curved surface area of a cone = rl where l is the slant height
Total surface area of a cone = r 2 rl
Calculate
a the curved surface area of the cone,
b the total surface area of the cone.
a First calculate the slant height l using Pythagoras.
l 2 5 2 122
l 2 169
l 13
724
l
Curved surface area rl
12 cm
5 13
65
204 cm2
5 cm
b Total surface area r 2 rl
5 2 65
25 65
90
283 cm2
The straight edges of the sector are joined together to make a cone.
Calculate a the curved surface area of the cone,
b the radius of the base of the cone,
c the height of the cone. 280o
a Curved surface area = area of sector
280
42
360
112
725
9
39.1 cm2
b Curved surface area rl c Using Pythagoras
39.1 r 4 h 2 3.112 4 2
39.1 h 4
2
r h 6.321
4
r 3.11 cm h 2.51 cm 3.11
When you make a cut parallel to the base of a cone and remove the
top part, the part that is left is called a frustum.
726
FRUSTUM
Volume of frustum = volume of large cone – volume of smaller cone
3
Calculate the volume of the frustum.
All lengths are in cm.
8
You must first find the height 6
of the smaller cone using 1
similar triangles. Volume of large cone r 2h
3
1
727
h h8 62 16
3
3 6
192
h 6h 3h 24 1
3h 24 Volume of small cone r 2h
3 3
h8 1
32 8
8 3
24
Volume of frustum 192 24
6
528 cm3
Volume and surface area of a sphere
4 3
Volume of a sphere r
3
Surface area of a sphere 4 r 2
728
Volume and surface area of a hemisphere
2 3
Volume of a hemisphere r
3
Curved surface area of a hemisphere 2 r 2
A hemisphere is half a
sphere.
The sphere has radius 10 cm.
Calculate a the volume of the sphere,
b the surface area of the sphere.
4 3
a Volume r
3
4
103
729
3
4189 cm3
b Surface area 4 r 2
4 10 2
1257 cm2
The solid hemisphere has radius 6 cm.
Calculate
a the volume of the hemisphere,
b the curved surface area of the hemisphere, 6 cm
c the total surface area of the hemisphere.
2 3
a Volume r
3
2
63
730
3
452 cm3
b Curved surface area 2 r 2
2 62
226 cm2
c Total surface area = area of base circle + curved surface area
6 2 226
339 cm2
The solid is made from a cylinder and a hemisphere.
The cylinder has a height of 8 cm and a radius of 3 cm.
Calculate the volume of the solid.
2
Volume of cylinder r h
32 8
72
731
2 3
Volume of hemisphere r
3
2
33
3
18
Total volume 72 18
90
283 cm3
Edexcel OL notes 2023 – 2024 Dr.Youssef Ahmed
Chapter Topic page
6 Vectors and transformations 695 – 779
a- Vectors
b- Reflection, Rotation and translation
c- Enlargement
d- Transformations of functions
e- Transformations of trigonometric graphs
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REFLECTIONS,
ROTATIONS AND
769
TRANSLATIONS
770
REFLECTIONS
Reflect the triangle in the mirror line.
771
OBJECT IMAGE
The line joining a point to its
image is always at right angles
to the mirror line.
Reflect the shape in the mirror line. OBJECT
772
IMAGE
The line joining a point to its
image is always at right angles
to the mirror line.
y
10
8 OBJECT
Reflect the shape in the line y = 5.
6
773
y5
4
First draw the mirror line.
2 IMAGE
0 x
0 2 4 6 8 10
774
775
ROTATIONS
Rotate the triangle 90o clockwise
about the given point.
776
Rotate the triangle 90o clockwise
about the given point.
777
Use tracing paper for rotations.
Rotate the triangle 90o clockwise
about the given point.
Object
778
Image
Rotate the triangle 180o about the
given point.
779
Rotate the triangle 180o about the
given point.
780
Use tracing paper for rotations.
Rotate the triangle 180o about the
given point.
Object
781
Image
782
783
TRANSLATIONS
A translation is a transformation that ‘slides’ a shape from one place to another.
In a translation each point on the
original shape moves the same
distance and in the same direction.
4
This is a translation of .
5
The top number is the movement
784
in the x direction.
5
negative positive
IMAGE
OBJECT The bottom number is the movement
4 in the y direction.
positive
negative
3
Translate the shape by the vector .
2
785
2
OBJECT
IMAGE
3
2
Translate the shape by the vector .
4 4
786
OBJECT
IMAGE
2
1
Translate the shape by the vector .
3
787
1 OBJECT
IMAGE
3
4
Translate the shape by the vector .
1 4
1
788
OBJECT
IMAGE
789
ENLARGEMENTS
Enlarge the shape with scale factor 2.
The sides double.
The angles stay the same.
790
OBJECT
IMAGE
Enlarge the shape with scale factor 3.
The sides treble.
The angles stay the same.
791
OBJECT IMAGE
Finding the centre of enlargement
792
This is an enlargement scale factor 2 centre P.
Centre of
enlargement
793
P OBJECT
IMAGE
You must draw straight lines through corresponding
points and find where they intersect.
794
ENLARGING FROM A
GIVEN POINT WITH A
795
GIVEN SCALE FACTOR
Enlarge with scale factor 2 centre Q.
796
OBJECT
IMAGE
You must draw straight lines from the centre of
enlargement through each vertex of the triangle.
You must then double the distance of the vertex
from the centre of enlargement.
Enlarge with scale factor 3 centre Q.
You must draw straight
lines from the centre of
enlargement through
each vertex of the
rectangle. You must
then treble the distance
of the vertex from the
centre of enlargement.
797
IMAGE
OBJECT
Q
798
799
FRACTIONAL ENLARGEMENTS
Enlarge with scale factor ½ centre Q.
800
IMAGE
OBJECT
You must draw straight lines from the centre of
enlargement through each vertex of the triangle.
You must then halve the distance of the vertex
from the centre of enlargement.
Enlarge with scale factor ⅓ centre Q.
You must draw straight lines
from the centre of Q
enlargement through each
vertex of the triangle.
You must then divide the
distance of the vertex from IMAGE
the centre of enlargement
by 3.
801
OBJECT
802
NEGATIVE
803
ENLARGEMENTS
Enlarge with scale factor −2 centre P
IMAGE
804
P
OBJECT
For a negative enlargement the object and image are on
opposite sides of the centre of enlargement.
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Graphs transformations
Function can be transformed by altering the function
Transformations are
1) Translating the function
2) Reflecting the function
3) Stretching the function
Each type of transformation will be illustrated separately:
1) Translating functions [ Sliding / Shifting ]
a) Horizontal translation ( it changes x-coordinates only )
When 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) changes to 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ± 𝑎)
Original New
function function
Hint :
Change the sign of the constant ( a ), then add it to x-coordinate .
b) Vertical translation ( it changes y-coordinate only )
When 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) changes to 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑎
Original New
function function
Adding or subtracting a constant ‘outside‘ the function translates the graph vertically.
Hint :
Don’t change the sign of the constant ( a ), then add it to y-coordinate.
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Example:
Don’t change y-coordinate
(𝑖𝑖) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) − 7 Don’t change x-coordinate
( ………………… , ………………… )
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2) Reflecting functions
i) Reflection in x-axis
When 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) changes to 𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥)
Hint:
Change the sign of each y-coordinate
ii) Reflection in y-axis
When 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) changes to 𝑦 = 𝑓(−𝑥)
Hint:
Change the sign of each x-coordinate
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Example:
a)
b)
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3) Stretching functions
i) Stretching the graph horizontally
When 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) changes to 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑎𝑥) ; a is constant
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑎𝑥)
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
1
𝑦 = 𝑓 ( 𝑥)
𝑎
Hints:
1) When 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) changes to 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑎𝑥) ; a is an integer
Multiply each x-coordinate by ( the reciprocal of a )
1
2) When 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) changes to 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑎 𝑥)
Multiply each x-coordinate by a
Example :
1
𝑖) 𝑦 = 𝑓 ( 𝑥)
3
(……….. , …………. )
𝑖𝑖) 𝑦 = 𝑓(2𝑥)
( ……….. , ……….. )
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ii) Stretching the graph vertically
When 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) changes to 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑓(𝑥) ; a is constant
1
𝑓(𝑥)
2
Hints:
1) When 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) changes to 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑓(𝑥) ; a is an integer
Multiply each y-coordinate by a
1
2) When 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) changes to 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)
1
Multiply each y-coordinate by 𝑎
Example:
1
i) 𝑦 = 3 𝑓(𝑥)
(…………. , ………..)
ii) 𝑦 = 2𝑓(𝑥)
(…………. , …………)
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Exercise :
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Sketching functions after transformations: ( Very important )
Example:
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Describing a transformation
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Example:
The curve with equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is transformed to give the curve with equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 2)
c) Describe the transformation
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
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Edexcel OL notes 2023 – 2024 Dr.Youssef Ahmed
Chapter Topic page
7 Statistics and probability 781 – 831
a- Displaying data
b- Averages and range
c- frequency tables
d- grouped frequency tables
e- Cumulative frequency
f- Histogram
g- Probability
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DISPLAYING DATA
Bar charts
The table shows the number of driving tests taken by a group of
students before they passed the test.
Number of tests 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency 5 9 4 2 1
Show the information on a bar chart.
10
826
8
frequency
4
0
1 2 3 4 5 number of tests
Pie charts
The table shows the drinks sold in a café. Drink Frequency Angle
Show the information on a pie chart. Coffee 4 × 12 = 48
4
A total of 30 drinks were sold. Tea 10 10 × 12 = 120
360o ÷ 30 = 12o per drink. Apple 7 7 × 12 = 84
Orange 6 6 × 12 = 72
827
Lemon Coffee Lemon 3 3 × 12 = 36
Total = 360
Orange
Tea
Apple
Pictograms
The table shows the number of cars sold by a salesman.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
6 6 10 5 9 6
Show the information on a pictogram.
Key: represents 2 cars
828
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Displaying continuous data
The table shows the life times of 20 batteries.
6.5 9.2 8.6 7.1 5.5
7.5 6.9 7.8 9.4 8.2 7.6
8.0 8.1 7.3 9.9 8.6 7.9 9.6 8.8 10.3 8.1
Draw a frequency diagram
8
to show the data.
829
Lifetime (x)
Frequency 6
hours
6≤x<7 2
4
frequency
7≤x<8 6
8≤x<9 7
2
9 ≤ x < 10 4
10 ≤ x < 11 1
0
6 7 8 9 10 11
lifetime (hours)
830
AVERAGES AND
831
RANGE
Averages
The three types of average that you need to know are:
MEAN MEDIAN MODE
832
The total of all
The middle The value
the values
value when the (or item) that
divided by the
data is arranged occurs most
number of
in order. often.
values.
Examples
1 3 9 9 8 6
Find the mean, median and mode for these numbers.
total of all values 39986 35
mean
total number of values 5 5
mean = 7
833
median the middle number when the data is arranged in order
3 6 8 9 9
median = 8
mode the number that occurs most often
mode = 9
Examples
2 9 8 4 1 8 3 6 5
Find the mean, median and mode for these numbers.
total of all values 9 8 4 1 8 3 6 5 44
mean
total number of values 8 8
mean = 5.5
834
median the middle number when the data is arranged in order
1 3 4 5 6 8 8 9
note: median = 56
median = 5.5 2
mode the number that occurs most often
mode = 8
Examples
3 9 4 9 4 9 3
Find the mean, median and mode for these numbers.
total of all values 949493 38
mean
total number of values 6 6
mean = 6⅓
835
median the middle number when the data is arranged in order
3 4 4 9 9 9
note: median = 49
median = 6.5 2
mode the number that occurs most often
mode = 9
Examples
4 The mean height of five men is 1.87 m.
The heights of four of the men are 1.69 m, 2.04 m, 1.85 m and 1.91 m.
Find the height of the fifth man.
total height of the five men 5 1.87 9.35 m
836
let height of fifth man x m
x 1.69 2.04 1.85 1.91 9.35
x 7.49 9.35
x 1.86
The height of the sixth man = 1.86 m
The range is a measure of spread.
RANGE
837
Range = highest value − smallest value
Example
Find the range of the numbers 3 9 9 8 5
range = highest value − smallest value = 9 − 3 = 6
838
839
FREQUENCY TABLES
The list shows the number of fillings that each of a group of 20
students had in their teeth.
11 33 2 2 11 11 0 11 2 33
0 11 33 2 0 11 0 2 11 2
Find the modal, median and mean number of fillings.
Modal number of fillings = 1 (the number that occurs most often)
840
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3
Median number of fillings = 1 (the middle number)
Mean number of fillings = 4 × 0 + 7 × 1 + 6 × 2 + 3 × 3 = 1.4
20
Large sets of data are usually recorded in a frequency table.
The frequency table for the data
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3
would be:
Number of fillings Frequency x×f A third column
(x) (f) is used to calculate
0 4 0×4= 0 the number of
841
fillings.
1 7 1×7= 7
2 6 2 × 6 = 12 The total of the f
and f × x
3 3 3×2= 9 columns is
20 28 needed to
calculate the
mean.
Mean number of fillings = 28 = 1.4
20
Example
The table shows the number of tractors owned by 25 farmers.
Find the modal, median and mean number of tractors.
Number of tractors Frequency x×f
1 11 1 × 11 = 11
2 8 2 × 8 = 16
3 5 3 × 5 = 15
842
4 1 4× 1= 4
25 46
(1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4)
Mode = 1 tractor (the number with the highest frequency)
Median = 2 tractors ((25 + 1) ⁄ 2 th value = 13th value)
Mean number of tractors = 46 = 1.84 tractors
25
GROUPED
843
FREQUENCY TABLES
Time (t Frequency
minutes) (f) In a grouped frequency table you do
18 < t ≤ 19 4 not know the individual data values
so you can only estimate the mean.
19 < t ≤ 20 11
844
20 < t ≤ 21 22
21 < t ≤ 22 13
The mid-value of the groups is used to estimate the sum
of the figures in each group.
The method is shown in the following examples.
1 The table shows information about the times of 50 runners in a race.
a Write down the modal group.
b Estimate the mean time taken.
Time (t Frequency
Mid-value (x) f×x
minutes) (f)
18 < t ≤ 19 4 18.5 4 × 18.5 = 74
19 < t ≤ 20 11 19.5 11 × 19.5 = 214.5
845
20 < t ≤ 21 22 20.5 22 × 20.5 = 451
21 < t ≤ 22 13 21.5 13 × 21.5 = 279.5
50 1019
a Mode = 20 < t ≤ 21 (the group with the highest frequency)
b Mean = 1019 = 20.38 minutes
50
2 The table shows information about the heights of 40 basketball players.
a Write down the modal group.
b Estimate the mean height.
Frequency
Height (h cm) Mid-value (x) f×x
(f)
160 < t ≤ 170 2 165 2 × 165 = 330
170 < t ≤ 180 19 175 19 × 175 = 3325
846
180 < t ≤ 190 15 185 15 × 185 = 2775
190 < t ≤ 200 4 195 4 × 195 = 780
40 7210
a Mode = 170 < h ≤ 180 (the group with the highest frequency)
b Mean = 7210 = 180.25 cm
40
CUMULATIVE
847
FREQUENCY
The frequency table shows From the frequency table you can
information about the length make a cumulative frequency table.
of 20 journeys.
Distance (km) Frequency Distance (km) Cumulative frequency
0 < d ≤ 20 2 ≤ 20 2
848
20 < d ≤ 40 3 ≤ 40 2+3= 5
40 < d ≤ 60 9 ≤ 60 2 + 3 + 9 = 14
60 < d ≤ 80 5 ≤ 80 2 + 3 + 9 + 5 = 19
80 < d ≤100 1 ≤ 100 2 + 3 + 9 + 5 + 1 = 20
From the cumulative frequency table you
can draw a cumulative frequency graph.
Cumulative
Distance (km)
cf frequency
20
≤ 20 2
16
≤ 40 5
849
12
≤ 60 14
8 ≤ 80 19
4 ≤ 100 20
distance (km)
0 20 40 60 80 100
To find the median: Find ½ of the cumulative frequency. 20 ÷ 2 = 10
cf
20
Read across to the
curve and down.
16
850
12
10
8
distance (km)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Median = 51
To find the lower quartile: Find ¼ of the cumulative frequency. 20 ÷ 4 = 5
cf
20
Read across to the
curve and down.
16
851
12
5
4
distance (km)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Lower quartile = 40
To find the upper quartile: Find ¾ of the cumulative frequency. 20 × ¾ = 15
cf
20
Read across to the
curve and down.
16
15
852
12
distance (km)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Upper quartile = 62
To find the inter-quartile range: Find the difference between the upper
quartile and the lower quartile.
cf
20
16 upper quartile
853
12
median
8
lower quartile
4
distance (km)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Inter-quartile range = 62 − 40 = 22
854
855
HISTOGRAMS
Grouped continuous data can be represented on a histogram.
In a histogram, the area of each bar is proportional to the frequency.
The bars can have different widths.
(The width of a bar is called the class width.)
856
The vertical axis represents the frequency density.
frequency
Frequency density =
class width
or
Frequency = frequency density class width
1 The lengths of 20 phone calls are recorded. Draw the histogram.
Length, t (min) Frequency Class width Frequency density
0≤t<3 6 3 6÷3=2
3≤t<5 7 2 7 ÷ 2 = 3.5
5 ≤ t < 10 7 5 7 ÷ 5 = 1.4
857
Add columns to the
table to show the class 3
widths and to
calculate the
frequency density. 2
Frequency density
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min)
2 The heights of 35 seedlings are recorded. Draw the histogram.
Height, h (cm) Frequency Class width Frequency density
0≤h<2 7 2 7 ÷ 2 = 3.5
2≤h<8 24 6 24 ÷ 6 = 4
8 ≤ h < 10 4 2 4÷2=2
858
Add columns to the
table to show the class 3
widths and to
calculate the
frequency density. 2
Frequency density
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Height (cm)
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
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