CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air, and is a means by which

thermal energy is distributed on the surface of the Earth, together with the much slower
(lagged) ocean circulation system. The large-scale structure of the atmospheric circulation
varies from year to year, but the basic climatological structure remains fairly constant.

The driving force behind atmospheric circulation is solar energy, which heats the atmosphere
with different intensities at the equator, the middle latitudes, and the poles. The rotation of
Earth on its axis and the unequal arrangement of land and water masses on the planet also
contribute to various features of atmospheric circulation
The three main drivers of wind are

Pressure Gradient Force: This force goes from higher to lower pressures and is directed at
right angles from the isobars.

Coriolis Force: Describes an apparent force that is due to the rotation of the earth. Coriolis
force causes the wind to deflect to the right of its path in the Southern Hemisphere. It is zero
at the equator, and maximum at the poles. Coriolis increases with the objects speed and
changes only the direction of the motion, not the speed.

Friction (close to the surface)

The idealized model of atmospheric circulation is a system of three cells in the latitude bands
0◦ -30◦ (Hadley Cell), 30◦ -60◦ (Ferrel Cell) and 60◦ -90◦ (Polar Cell). in each hemisphere
and the jet streams. The three cells have the task of energy redistribution. This three-cell
circulation pattern arises because of the unequal latitudinal distribution of radiation and the
rotation of the Earth.

Wind cells
There are three wind cells or circulation belts between the equator and each pole:

1. The trade winds (Hadley cells),

2. Prevailing westerlies (Ferrell cells), and
3. Polar easterlies (polar Hadley cells).

• Hadley cell - huge thunderstorms develop as the air rises and condenses. Latent heat
released during storms continues to drive the Hadley cell. The zone of low pressure is formed
at the equator called the inter-tropical convergence zone. High pressures at about 30◦ called
the subtropical highs. This is why the major deserts of the world are at that latitude. As the air
rises in the equator it diverges and moves toward the subtropics Coriolis deflects the winds to
the right in the NH and to the left in the SH. Providing westerly winds aloft. As the surface
air returns to the equator in the NH it will flow NE to SW and SE to NW in the Southern
Hemisphere. These are called the trade winds that converge in the inter tropical convergence
zone (ITCZ).

The trade winds or Hadley cells are named after the English scientist George Hadley (1685–
1768), who first described them in 1753. As air is heated at the equator, it rises in the
troposphere, the lowest 10 miles (16 kilometers) of Earth's atmosphere. In the wake of the
warm rising air, low pressure develops at the equator. When the air reaches the top of the
troposphere, called the tropopause, it can rise no farther and begins to move toward the poles,
cooling in the process. The Hadley cell (north-easterly trade) experience stronger convection
due to the release of latent heat energy by condensation of water vapor at higher altitudes
during cloud formation.
• Ferrel cell - is a thermally indirect cell because it is driven by the motions of the cells on
either side. At upper levels the model predicts easterly motion while at the surface there is a
strong belt of surface midlatitude westerlies. However in reality we observe upper level
westerlies in midlatitudes so this model breaks down. The reason is that at upper levels there
is high pressure in the equator (due to higher temperature) and lower temperature at the poles.
For this reason there is a pressure gradient from equator to pole and the actual wind is
deflected due to Coriolis so this causes predominant westerlies at upper levels that are
stronger in the winter. For this reason the weather systems migrate from west to east.

The warmer air is forced upward by the colder air to the tropopause, where most of it moves
back toward the equator, sinking at about 30 degrees latitude to continue the cycle again.
These second circulation belts over the middle latitudes between 30 degrees and 60 degrees
are the prevailing westerlies or Ferrell cells, named after the American meteorologist
William Ferrell (1817–1891), who discovered them in 1856. At about 30
degrees latitude north and south, the cooled air descends back to the surface, pushing the air
below it toward the equator, since air flows always move toward areas of low pressure. When
the north and south trade winds meet at the equator and rise again, an area of calm develops
because of the lack of cross-surface winds. Early mariners called this area the doldrums (from
an Old English word meaning dull) because they feared their sailing ships would be stranded
by the lack of wind. Calm regions also occur at 30 degrees latitude where Hadley cells and
Ferrell cells meet because of the lack of lateral wind movement. These regions were given the
name horse latitudes by sailors bringing horses to the Americas. Stranded by the lack of
winds, sailors often ate their horses as supplies ran low. While most of the trade-wind air that
sinks at 30 degrees latitude returns to the equator, some of it flows poleward.

 Polar Cell - Similar to the Hadley in that at about 60◦ there is rising motion and
movement towards the pole at upper levels with westerly motion. There is a subpolar
low where storms and clouds develop. The air sinks at the poles producing the polar
high and at the surface there is deflection to cause polar easterlies as the air moves
from poles to the supolar low. A polar front separates cold air coming from the poles
from milder air coming from midlatitudes, and the peaks of precipitation in the mid-
latitudes are primarily produced by extra-tropical cyclones that develop along this
front.

At about 60 degrees latitude north and south, this air mass meets much colder polar
air (the areas where this occurs are known as polar fronts).

The air at the top of polar fronts that does not return toward the equator moves,
instead, poleward. At the poles, this air cools, sinks, and flows back to 60 degrees
latitude north and south. These third circulation belts over the poles are known as
polar easterlies or polar Hadley cells because they flow in the same direction as the
Hadley cells near the equator. However, they are not as powerful since they lack the
solar energy present at the equator.
 While this idealized model is fairly good, it breaks down due to surface conditions (land
vs. ocean). In reality the world is not covered by belts of high and low pressure but by a
number of semi-permanent cells. These cells undergo seasonal variations in position and
intensity.
• Winter NH: have the Bermuda High, Pacific High characterized by easterlies to the
south and westerlies to the north. The SH has better defined high pressure systems. The
Siberian high and Canadian high are due to cold temperatures in the winter.

• Winter NH the Icelandic low and Aleutian low are where we would expect the polar
front. Continuous belt of low pressure that encircles the globe in the SH.

• In the summer NH: have low pressures over land. Subpolar lows practically dissapear.

• ITCZ pressure systems and wind belts shift north in July and south in January.

Thus the atmospheric circulation is also referred as Latitudinal circulation. It occurs

because incident solar radiation per unit area is highest at the heat equator, and decreases as
the latitude increases, reaching minima at the poles.
2. Longitudinal circulation, on the other hand, comes about because the ocean has a higher
specific heat capacity than land (and also thermal conductivity, allowing the heat to penetrate
further beneath the surface) and thereby absorbs and releases more heat, but the temperature
changes less than land. This brings the sea breeze, air cooled by the water, ashore in the day,
and carries the land breeze, air cooled by contact with the ground, out to sea during the night.

Longitudinal circulation consists of two cells, the

a. Walker circulation
b. El Niño / Southern Oscillation.

2a. Walker Circulation

Similar to the Hadley cell that transports air from the equator to the subtropical latitudes
(meridional circulation), there are zonal mean circulations (east-west oriented). One of these,
the Walker circulation, plays a primary role in determining where rainfall will fall near
equatorial regions and throughout the globe. Under normal conditions, the easterly trade
winds move warm surface waters westward, causing higher temperatures in the western
Pacific. The air overlying this warm water is in turn heated and rises to high levels of the
atmosphere, diverges outwards, east and west, and finally sinks over the eastern Pacific.
Rising air is associated with a region of low pressure, towering cumulonimbus clouds,
and rain. High pressure and dry conditions accompany the sinking air. There is also
upwelling of cold nutrient-rich water off the coast of Peru. This is very important for fishing
in this region.

2b. El Nino
Develops when the easterly trade winds weaken or even reverse and flow eastward. The
warm water normally found in the western Pacific moves eastward and the waters in the
eastern Pacific warm a couple of degrees centigrade. The upward branch of the Walker
circulation shifts eastward to the central or eastern Pacific and the sinking branch shifts to
Indonesia. El Nino occurs every 4-7 years around Christmas (this is why it is called El Nino).

The seesaw pattern of reversing surface air pressure at opposite ends of the Pacific Ocean
is called the Southern Oscillation and we call the whole phenomenon ENSO (El Nino
Southern Oscillation). ENSO affects temperature and precipitation patterns throughout the
world.

Even though it happens in the Pacific, it shifts the jet stream to the south (warm phase)
north (cool phase). The most important teleconnections are:

• Drought in Australia and northern South America

• Heavy rainfall in Ecuador and Peru

• Wet and cool winters in the Southwestern US and in Florida

• Warm and dry winters in Northwestern US