Download the full version of the ebook at

https://ebookgate.com

Sensuality and Sexuality Across the Divide of

Shame 1st Edition Joseph D. Lichtenberg

https://ebookgate.com/product/sensuality-and-
sexuality-across-the-divide-of-shame-1st-edition-
joseph-d-lichtenberg/

Explore and download more ebook at https://ebookgate.com

 Recommended digital products (PDF, EPUB, MOBI) that
you can download immediately if you are interested.

Sensuality and Sexuality Across the Divide of Shame 1st

Edition Joseph D. Lichtenberg

https://ebookgate.com/product/sensuality-and-sexuality-across-the-
divide-of-shame-1st-edition-joseph-d-lichtenberg/

ebookgate.com

Reflections on Self Psychology Joseph D. Lichtenberg

https://ebookgate.com/product/reflections-on-self-psychology-joseph-d-
lichtenberg/

ebookgate.com

Prophets And Patriots Faith In Democracy Across The

Political Divide 1st Edition Ruth Braunstein

https://ebookgate.com/product/prophets-and-patriots-faith-in-
democracy-across-the-political-divide-1st-edition-ruth-braunstein/

ebookgate.com

100 Questions Answers About Life After Breast Cancer

Sensuality Sexuality Intimacy 1st Edition Michael Krychman

https://ebookgate.com/product/100-questions-answers-about-life-after-
breast-cancer-sensuality-sexuality-intimacy-1st-edition-michael-
krychman/
ebookgate.com
Across the Great Divide Modernism s Intermedialities from
Futurism to Fluxus 1st Unabridged Edition Christopher
Townsend
https://ebookgate.com/product/across-the-great-divide-modernism-s-
intermedialities-from-futurism-to-fluxus-1st-unabridged-edition-
christopher-townsend/
ebookgate.com

The Films of Joseph H Lewis Gary D. Rhodes

https://ebookgate.com/product/the-films-of-joseph-h-lewis-gary-d-
rhodes/

ebookgate.com

In Honor of Fadime Murder and Shame Unni Wikan

https://ebookgate.com/product/in-honor-of-fadime-murder-and-shame-
unni-wikan/

ebookgate.com

Sense and Sensuality Jesus Talks to Oscar Wilde on the

Pursuit of Pleasure 1st Edition Ravi Zacharias

https://ebookgate.com/product/sense-and-sensuality-jesus-talks-to-
oscar-wilde-on-the-pursuit-of-pleasure-1st-edition-ravi-zacharias/

ebookgate.com

The globalization of sexuality 1st Edition Jon Binnie

https://ebookgate.com/product/the-globalization-of-sexuality-1st-
edition-jon-binnie/

ebookgate.com
ER3475X_C000.indd 1 7/11/2007 7:44:09 AM
ER3475X_C000d.indd 6 7/5/2007 6:39:01 AM
 Psychoanalytic Inquiry
Book Series

Vol. 1: Reflections on Self Psychology— Vol. 16: The Clinical Exchange: Techniques
Joseph D. Lichtenberg & Derived from Self and Motivational
Samuel Kaplan (eds.) Systems—Joseph D. Lichtenberg,
Frank M. Lachmann, & James L. Fosshage
Vol. 2: Psychoanalysis and Infant
Research—Joseph D. Lichtenberg
Vol. 17: Working Intersubjectively:
Vol. 4: Structures of Subjectivity: Contextualism in Psychoanalytic Practice—
Explorations in Donna M. Orange,
Psychoanalytic Phenomenology— George E. Atwood, & Robert D. Stolorow
George E. Atwood & Robert D. Stolorow
Vol. 18: Kohut, Loewald, and the
Vol. 7: The Borderline Patient: Emerging Postmoderns: A Comparative Study
Concepts in Diagnosis, Psychodynamics,
of Self and Relationship—
and Treatment, Vol. 2—James S. Grotstein,
Judith Guss Teicholz
Marion F. Solomon, & Joan A. Lang (eds.)

Vol. 8: Psychoanalytic Treatment: An Vol. 19: A Spirit of Inquiry: Communication

Intersubjective Approach— in Psychoanalysis—Joseph D. Lichtenberg,
Robert D. Stolorow, Bernard Brandchaft, Frank M. Lachmann, & James L. Fosshage
& George E. Atwood
Vol. 20: Craft and Spirit: A Guide
Vol. 9: Female Homosexuality: Choice to Exploratory Psychotherapies—
Without Volition—Elaine V. Siegel Joseph D. Lichtenberg
Vol. 10: Psychoanalysis and Motivation—
Joseph D. Lichtenberg Vol. 21: Attachment and Sexuality—
Diana Diamond, Sidney J. Blatt,
Vol. 11: Cancer Stories: Creativity and & Joseph D. Lichtenberg
Self-Repair—Esther Dreifuss Kattan

Vol. 12: Contexts of Being: Vol. 22: Psychotherapy and Medication:

The Intersubjective Foundations The Challenge of Integration—
of Psychological Life— Fredric N. Busch & Larry S. Sandberg
Robert D. Stolorow & George E. Atwood
Vol. 23: Trauma and Human Existence:
Vol. 13: Self and Motivational Systems:
Autobiographical, Psychoanalytic, and
Toward a Theory of Psychoanalytic
Technique—Joseph D. Lichtenberg, Frank Philosophical Reflections—
M. Lachmann, & James L. Fosshage Robert D. Stolorow

Vol. 14: Affects as Process: An Vol. 24: Jealousy and Envy: New Views
Inquiry into the Centrality of Affect in about Two Powerful Emotions—
Psychological Life—Joseph M. Jones
Léon Wurmser & Heidrun Jarass
Vol. 15: Understanding Therapeutic Action:
Psychodynamic Concepts of Cure— Vol. 25: Sensuality and Sexuality Across the
Lawrence E. Lifson (ed.) Divide of Shame—Joseph D. Lichtenberg

ER3475X_C000.indd 2 7/11/2007 7:44:15 AM

ER3475X_C000d.indd 6 7/5/2007 6:39:01 AM
ER3475X_C000.indd 3 7/11/2007 7:44:18 AM
ER3475X_C000.indd 4 7/11/2007 7:44:47 AM
 Acknowledgments

My idea to reconsider in depth my original presentation of the sensual–

sexual motivational system began at the 2006 meeting of the Eastern
Division of the International Association for Psychoanalytic Self Psy-
chology (IAPSP) in Boston. I was stimulated by a presentation of Mal-
colm Slavin and discussions by all the members but particularly Shelley
Doctors and my prior coauthors Frank Lachmann and James Fosshage.
My already-formed central conception about the role of culture-derived
shame separating sensuality and sexuality crystallized as I heard Peter
Fonagy present a similar proposal using a different frame to develop it.
As I wrote different chapters, I was aided and stimulated by discussions
by numerous colleagues at presentations, such as at the 2006 IAPSP
meeting in Chicago. I am especially indebted to Adrienne Harris, Estelle
Shane, Sandra Hershberg, Heidi Block, and Andrew Morrison, who
have led me to make specific additions and reformulations. Alan Kindler
introduced me to the research of Katherine Frank and provided me with
the opportunity to present chapters 1 and 2 to the Toronto Association
for Self Psychology. My colleagues in an Institute of Contemporary Psy-
chotherapy and Psychoanalysis study group chaired by Curtis Bristol
have been generous and dedicated in their chapter-by-chapter discussion.
I have borrowed (maybe shamelessly) from other sources to which I have
had unique access: the Psychoanalytic Inquiry issues on Mothers and
Daughters edited by Rosemary Balsam and Ruth Fischer, the Issue on
Fathers and Daughters edited by Christine Kiefer, and the book Attach-
ment and Sexuality edited by Diana Diamond, Sidney Blatt, and me.
Elisabeth Fivaz-Depeursinge kindly invited me to view research tapes
of her studies of family triangles in Lausanne, Switzerland, findings to
which I have referred frequently. Paul Stepansky, the former head of The
Analytic Press, has consistently encouraged my efforts. Many of the per-

ix

ER3475X_C000a.indd 9 7/26/2007 7:21:15 AM

 spectives to which I refer in the text derive from friends and colleagues,
like that of Robert Stolorow on intersubjectivity, Jessica Benjamin on
subjectivity in female development, Steven Mitchell and Lewis Aron
on the relational perspective, and Ernest Wolf on selfobject experience.
These approaches have become a core way of my thinking. My daughter,
Amy Lichtenberg Saloukha, was instrumental in the preparation of the
manuscript. My wife, Charlotte, patiently read and listened to portions
of the manuscript, especially those for which I had uncertainties, and
offered her sage advice. Finally, for me as a psychoanalyst, the most
meaningful testing ground for proposals like those I advance is in the
clinical setting of my patients and me struggling to come as close to get-
ting it “right” about their and my sensual and sexual experiences as it
affects their happiness and ability to relate, love, and lust lovingly. My
final debt is to the many men and women who have trustingly revealed
their inner and usually private worlds to me.

 Acknowledgments

ER3475X_C000a.indd 10 7/26/2007 7:21:16 AM

 Introduction

Sex, according to an anonymous wit, is the joker in the deck. Looking

at most recent mainstream psychoanalytic literature, a reader could eas-
ily conclude sex, rather than any longer a wild card, has been tamed
into established formulas such as psychosexual stages and an Oedipus
complex. New Yorker cartoons attest to the public familiarity with and
acceptance of these abstractions. Fonagy (2006), in his plenary address
on a genuinely developmental theory of sexual enjoyment, noted: “A
frightening survey of the use of sexual and relational language in the
electronically searchable journals of psychoanalysis showed a dramatic
decline in words in psychoanalytic articles directly concerning sexual-
ity.” In 1996 (pp. 871–883), Green asked sardonically, “Has sexuality
anything to do with psychoanalysis?” Of course, there are exceptions.
A considerable body of literature has been developed by feminists and
by analysts reconsidering formulations about homosexuality. In 2000, a
journal, Studies in Gender and Sexuality, began publication. Mitchell in
2002 wrote Can Love Last? The Fate of Romance Over Time. Another
exception that I draw on extensively is the contribution made by analytic
researchers steeped in attachment theory to sexuality (Diamond, Blatt,
& Lichtenberg, 2007).
My hope is to draw the reader back to a consideration of sex as a wild
card through a reformulation of the distinction between sensuality and
sexuality. In each reformulation, I start with phenomena such as general
observations and clinical vignettes. Obviously, all psychoanalytic for-
mulations started with phenomena, such as symptoms, but the criticism
of phenomenology has been that observables do not reveal unconscious
processes—only psychoanalytically obtained information does. I agree
with this critique, but I am not deterred by it. After over half a century as
a psychoanalytic clinician, I believe that I can combine the two sources.
Put more strongly, I believe I cannot not combine a phenomenological
and analytic approach because that is how I think. Here, I reach back to

xi

ER3475X_C000b.indd 11 7/5/2007 6:40:06 AM

 observable phenomena as a starting point to disentangle existing theory
to take a fresh look at sensuality and sexuality.
My main contribution (developed in chapter 1) is simple but, if
accepted, is far reaching. All infants, toddlers, and older children seek
pleasurable body sensations and schemas and fantasies that elaborate
hedonic bodily experience, and all parents and other authorities respond
to children’s pleasure sensation seeking either by approving, sharing, and
encouraging or by disapproving, shaming, and prohibiting. From that
easily observable phenomenon of discrepant culture-driven responses,
I make a small leap. The approved of, shared in, and encouraged forms
of pleasurable body sensations and accompanying fantasies I refer to as
sensuality. Sensual exchanges contribute to a broad spectrum of shared
human experiences, from deep attachments, to friendships, to pleas-
ant moments with self, others, and pets. The disapproved of, shamed,
and prohibited forms of pleasurable body sensations and accompany-
ing fantasies I refer to as sexuality. I argue that, from its inception in
the anxious culture-determined turning away and shaming by parents
in response to particular children’s pleasure-seeking desires, sexuality
takes a path toward excitement that builds from both a hedonic quest
and a response to transgressing the shaming and prohibiting. Taking off
from both pleasure/excitement seeking and breaking through prohibi-
tions and prohibitors, sexuality becomes the joker in the deck by includ-
ing in its expression subversive and transgressive aspects. My claim of
the significance of the experiential disparity between sensuality and sex-
uality (in both their formal expressions and conscious and unconscious
fantasy elaboration) is described throughout the book as it applies to
dyadic and triadic experiences and to romantic love throughout life.
In prior books (Lichtenberg, 1989; Lichtenberg, Lachmann, & Fos-
shage, 1992), I developed a theme of five motivational systems, one of
which is the sensual–sexual system. In these presentations, the interplay
of competing systems is described in detail. Each may be dominant at
any moment, the others subsidiary or latent. In this book, I primarily
focus on sensuality and sexuality and the particular relationship to the
attachment–affiliative motivational system. The other systems enter the
discussion without a formal consideration of the interrelationships.
The reader may encounter a problem in using the terms sensuality and
sexuality as I describe and define their usage in my theoretical claim. I am
placing much weight and meaning on two descriptors—sensuality and
sexuality—that already have preexisting meanings in a reader’s mind.
I hope my phenomenological examples succeed in evoking the kind of
examples in the reader’s own experience to carry the weight of my argu-
ment about the different paths taken by sensuality and sexuality.

xii Introduction

ER3475X_C000b.indd 12 7/5/2007 6:40:06 AM

 A word is needed on what I include and what I omit. Sensuality and
sexuality are vast subjects, ranging from a mother and a baby’s first
experience of sucking to the permutations of romantic love and lust in
adult life. I have chosen to write about only areas in which I believe
I have something to add to existing theory and areas in which I have
had sufficient personal experience as observer and clinical participant to
have confidence in my inferences. Essentially, I build off my background
in classical theory, ego psychology, self-psychology, the relational per-
spective, infant research, attachment theory, my contributions to moti-
vational systems theory, and my knowledge of sociocultural influences.
Although this includes a lot, much also remains outside the domain over
which I feel I can claim any mastery. My hope is that the reader will find
enough intriguing perspectives in what I offer to compensate for the
areas of omission.

Introduction xiii

ER3475X_C000b.indd 13 7/5/2007 6:40:07 AM

ER3475X_C000b.indd 14 7/5/2007 6:40:07 AM
 With attachment and love, I dedicate this book
to Charlotte, my wife, friend, and companion of nearly 60 years;
my wonderful children Ann, Amy, Maryland, and William;
their equally wonderful spouses Hank, Moustafa, Steve, and Vicky;
and my eight talented grandchildren
Katie, Andrew, and Lexie,
Jenny, Madalene, and Lizzy,
Allison and Lucas; and granddog Sedona.

ER3475X_C000d.indd 5 7/5/2007 6:39:01 AM

ER3475X_C000d.indd 6 7/5/2007 6:39:01 AM
 Contents

Acknowledgments ix
Introduction xi

CHAPTER 1 Looking at Sensuality and Sexuality

Across the Divide of Shame 1

CHAPTER 2 The Oedipus Complex in the 21st Century 21

CHAPTER 3 Intimacy With the Gendered Self 51

CHAPTER 4 Veronica
A Clinical Example of Achieving Intimacy
With the Gendered Self 67

CHAPTER 5 Fathers and Daughters, Mothers

and Daughters 83

CHAPTER 6 Middle Childhood and Adolescence 97

CHAPTER 7 Attachment Love, Romantic Love,

Lustful Love, Lust Without Love,
and Transference Love 115

CHAPTER 8 Coda 143

References 151
Index 157

vii

ER3475X_C000toc.indd 7 7/5/2007 6:39:25 AM

ER3475X_C000toc.indd 8 7/5/2007 6:39:25 AM
 CHAPTER 1
Looking at Sensuality and Sexuality
Across the Divide of Shame

INTRODUCTION

Contemporary revisions in self-psychology, relational, and other psy-

choanalytic theories leave analysts with the question: If sexuality is not
the product of a sexual drive, then what is it? The question can best be
approached by observing infants and caretakers and conjecturing on the
embodied minds of each as they engage in specific interplay. This explora-
tion revisits the sensual–sexual motivational system (Lichtenberg, 1989)
with a greater appreciation of the developmental role of intersubjectiv-
ity. I emphasize the central role of shame in distinguishing what comes
to be experienced as either sensuality or sexuality. My inquiry begins
with an appreciation of an infant and developing child’s body sensation
pleasure interacting with cultural values mediated by caregivers who
indicate sanctioned forms through approval and unsanctioned forms
through shaming. I suggest that transgressing into unsanctioned forms
of body pleasure and fantasy becomes a universal component of sexual-
ity. The interplay between desire and prohibition creates an experience
of tension in sexuality not present in sensuality. Whether an individual’s
form of sexual expression follows or deviates from practices acceptable
to that individual’s society is important to the degree and quality of
shame and guilt that person has to bear. Likewise, an analyst’s tolerance
or revulsion in response to an analysand’s forms of sexual expression
will influence the treatment, as I indicate from my clinical experience.
When she gave birth to her first child, my daughter requested that I
be in the delivery room with her and her husband to back them up on
maintaining their breathing exercise. After the delivery, the obstetrician
handed the baby to the nurse, who plunked the crying neonate on the
medication table. After administering to her, the nurse handed her to me,
and in my cradling arms her loud “protest” crying reduced to a whim-

ER3475X_C001.indd 1 7/5/2007 6:31:40 AM

 per. I placed her on her mother’s chest, and the whimpering stopped as
soon as the baby heard her mother’s heartbeat. I asked my daughter if
she would like to try to initiate a feeding. I knew that no breast milk
would be available 5 minutes after birth, but it would serve as priming
for the first feeding. My daughter agreed and asked me to position the
baby. I put the baby’s head near the nipple and chucked her cheek to
elicit rooting. The baby turned her head, clasped onto the nipple with
her mouth, and began to suck. A beautiful smile came over the mother’s
face that was shared immediately by me and other onlookers.
This vignette is a story of multiple levels of attachment: a newborn
baby to her mother and her mother to her; my daughter to her husband
and her husband to her and their baby; my daughter to me and me to
my daughter, her husband, and their baby. It could also be described
as a continuation of the baby’s intrauterine attachment based on her
familiarity with her mother’s heartbeat. The vignette is also a story of
the beginning of physiological regulation of feeding as a priming epi-
sode and the beginning of the capacity for self-righting from an aversive
state (crying) to a calm state. My principal reason for relating this cher-
ished memory is to delineate the powerful presence of sensuality. A small
example occurred the moment the nurse handed the baby to me and I
lovingly nestled her into my arms. This was certainly a sensual moment
for me as I felt the baby’s skin and possibly for the baby as she shifted
from crying to whimpering. Then, with skin-to-skin contact with her
mother, a definitely sensual moment emerged for each of them. The level
of sensual enjoyment of tactile stimulation was further increased for the
baby through nonnutritive sucking and for the mother through the stim-
ulation of her nipple and areola.
A second example of shared sensuality also involves breast-feeding.
Sammy, an infant observed in a study, at 3 months and his mother have
established a comfortable feeding rhythm. As he sucks, his little fist
against her breast slowly opens, and with his small fingers he strokes
her soft skin. Experiencing the pleasurable tactile sensations, she looks
down lovingly at him as they jointly enjoy the sensuality. Her affection-
ate glance down may be a tiny bit quizzical if she felt aroused by an
implicit or explicit association to fondling or feeling “felt up.”
Now, move ahead to Sammy at 3½. His mother allows him to climb
up next to her as she breast-feeds his baby sister. Calming from his initial
fussing at exclusion, Sammy begins to look with fascination at the suck-
ing baby and his mother’s breast. Sammy starts to reach for her breast,
and his mother rebukes him, saying: “No. No. Sammy you mustn’t.”
His interest-excitement inhibited, Sammy looks downcast and crushed
before he begins to protest again.

 Sensuality and Sexuality Across the Divide of Shame

ER3475X_C001.indd 2 7/5/2007 6:31:41 AM

 In both of the observations, Sammy is drawn to the tactile pleasure
of touching his mother’s breast. In the first instance, his touch is wel-
comed by a mirroring glance of his mother, who is pleased and happy
to share their rising pleasurable exchange. I suggest it is as if she were
saying to him: “Sammy you are a sensual little boy, and I am a sensual
woman, and together we can enjoy sensuality without shame or maybe
with just the tiniest hint of embarrassment on my part.” In the second
observation, a similar interest in tactile pleasure is no longer responded
to with pleasurable acceptance and sharing. As with most experiences,
the motives are complex. Sammy’s initial fuss is anger and envy at his
mother shutting out and replacing him, and his mother tries to respond
by offering him inclusion. The component of the experience I am center-
ing on is Sammy’s hand reaching to touch his mother’s breast. The moti-
vation behind his gesture includes having what his sister has, but mainly,
I believe, he is reactivating a somatic memory of a pleasurable sensual
experience repeated many times over before his weaning.
So, what has changed? Probably outside of her awareness, Sammy’s
mother is influenced by two different value systems prescribed by her
culture. One evaluation concludes the young baby’s touching, explor-
ing, and fondling are innocent of intentions regarded as naughty, dirty,
or even perverse. Innocent intentions to arouse pleasurable body–mind
experiences, intentions I refer to as sensual, are not regarded by Sammy’s
mother as threats to excite her or Sammy. She does not attribute to her-
self or Sammy an intrusion of lustful desire into their personal Garden
of Eden so celebrated in portrayals of Madonna and child.
Sammy’s mother uses a different value system to evaluate the actions
and intentions of the 3½-year-old, who she sees as wanting to play with
her breast, demarcated at this point as a sexual body part. Collateral
annoyance at Sammy for interfering with the ongoing feeding may have
accentuated her irritability but is not central to the message: “You may
not fondle my breast.” More precisely, the message was: “Curb your
excitement, curb that kind of action and the arousal it aims for and will
generate. Your intention, if not impeded, will lead to actions and excite-
ment that are shameful. You, and we, will have crossed the line that
divides what is ‘innocent’, acceptable, containable, affectionate sensual-
ity from what is unacceptable, dangerously arousing, lustful sexuality.”
Shameful is a moral or ethical evaluation of an action and the actor.
Shame is an emotion that has the effect of blunting initiative and curb-
ing interest-excitement. Shame is also an emotion that may be activated
when, for whatever reason, initiative is blunted and interest-excitement
is curbed. Sammy has his interest and arousal suddenly curbed by his
mother’s prohibition that signals bad action, bad intention, bad boy.
Once shamed, Sammy casts his eyes down, his body posture slumps, and

Looking at Sensuality and Sexuality Across the Divide of Shame 

ER3475X_C001.indd 3 7/5/2007 6:31:41 AM

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
the moisture from the rain for a considerable time, and, aided by the
great heat of the warmer months, cause the grass to grow with
extreme rapidity. Upon this grass and its seeds these rats could
easily live, and from it they could store up in their underground
burrows provisions to last them for a very long time. Rats are known
to be able to subsist on hard grain alone, that does not contain more
than ten or fifteen per cent of moisture.[18] They are probably
acquainted with a number of places where these grasses grow, and,
as it is known that they never drink, by making a store near each,
and travelling from one to another as their depots become
exhausted, they can maintain themselves for several years of
drought. The tracks that we saw running continuously for nine miles
at a stretch, with hardly a break, may have been those of a rat
travelling from one of his storehouses to another. A journey such as
this could hardly have been undertaken without some definite object
in view. A fifty mile run would be nothing to one of these little
creatures, so they would be able to draw their supplies from
thousands of square miles of country, within which, even in this arid
desert, they would be able to find plenty to live upon. In one place,
too, we found green terfa bushes, from which they may perhaps
have obtained some nourishment, and possibly sufficient moisture
from the green portions of the plants to enable them to exist without
drinking—though an occasional journey of a hundred miles or so,
into an oasis to procure water, would be quite within the locomotive
powers of these extraordinary little creatures.
 APPENDIX I

THE GEOGRAPHY AND WINDS OF THE LIBYAN DESERT

T HE views on the geography of the Libyan Desert, current at the

time of my visit to the country, are summarised by Mr. F. R. Cana
in the valuable paper and map that he contributed to the
“Geographical Journal.”[19] Writing of this desert he says: “Some
knowledge of its character has been obtained where it borders the
Nile, and to the north along the edge of the Cyrenaican plateau . . .
the general character of the desert is that of rocky wastes in the
north and east, and a vast sea of sand in the centre.”
The rocky wastes begin on the north, immediately to the south of
the cultivable belt along the North Egyptian coast; the desert here
rising to form a plateau. This tableland is succeeded by a vast
depression, portions of which lie below sea-level. This hollow runs
from Siwa Oasis in an easterly direction towards the Nile. Reference
will be made to this huge valley later on.
The southern side of this depression has never, I believe, been
mapped, but, beyond it, the level of the desert rises again to a
limestone-capped plateau, that in places is over a thousand feet
above sea-level. The western limit of this has not, I believe, been
ascertained in its northern part, but towards the east it is bounded by
the Valley of the Nile, where it forms the towering cliff on its western
side that is familiar to all visitors to Egypt. About the latitude of Qena
the plateau narrows down to a width of about a hundred miles, its
western limit being the great escarpment that bounds the oasis of
Kharga on its eastern side.
The geography of this limestone tableland, and of the desert
beyond it up to the Egyptian-Tripolitan frontier, was tolerably well
known at the time of my arrival in Egypt; but, with the exception of
Kufara and the other oases in the same group, practically the whole
desert beyond it was a terra incognita, the domain of the Senussi,
and, as stated in Mr. F. R. Cana’s paper, considered to consist of an
impassable sea of enormous sand dunes.
I made altogether eight journeys into the desert to the south-west
of Dakhla, only some of which have been described. In addition to
these, and to the others into Farafra and elsewhere already referred
to, I made some to the north of ’Ain Amur, where I found a perfect
network of small depressions.
These little hollows, which were only about a hundred and fifty
feet in depth, mostly opened out of each other, and fairly
honeycombed the limestone plateau. Entrance to them was gained
by a gap in the cliff on the northern side of ’Ain Amur Valley, from
which a small belt of sand dunes issued. They were mostly only a
mile or two in width, though some of them were of considerable
length, one in fact stretched for some thirty-four miles from north-
east to south-west. There was one extraordinary little hollow that
formed as it were an isolated pot-hole, nearly circular in shape, in the
limestone plateau, about a hundred and fifty feet in depth with almost
vertical sides. It was difficult to see how it could have been formed.
Judging from the jagged skyline, shown by some of the cliffs
surrounding these hollows, there were probably several other
depressions that time did not allow me to explore.
A curious fact in connection with these little hollows was that,
although many of them were floored with clay, they contained
practically no vegetation. On the limestone plateau that surrounded
them, however, bushes and even small patches of scrub were not
infrequently seen.
The origin of the depressions in this limestone plateau has been
the subject of some dispute. The action of water, sand erosion and
folding of the strata have all been put forward to account for them by
various writers. It may be interesting in this connection to mention
that the southernmost of these little hollows to the north of ’Ain Amur
contained the bed of a perfectly distinct watercourse, containing well-
rounded shingle, running towards the entrance into the ’Ain Amur
Valley.
In addition to these journeys I made one for three days to the
south of Belat, in Dakhla Oasis. On the edge of the oasis we got into
some very rough salt-encrusted ground, containing some patches of
rock salt.
Beyond this lay a large scrub-covered area known as Dhayat en
Neml, or sometimes as El Girgof, which was fairly thickly overgrown
with bushes.
On leaving this we got into the open desert, whose level here rose
fairly rapidly towards the south. Here we found traces of an old road,
which, however, we lost on the third day after leaving Belat. It was
probably only a branch of the Derb et Terfawi.
Early that afternoon our road led us to the top of a cliff about two
hundred feet in height. A few hours’ journey farther on and a second
cliff, two hundred and forty feet in height, was reached, beyond
which lay an expanse of level sandy desert, dotted here and there
with a few rocky hills. This second scarp was apparently the eastern
continuation of the cliff that forms the southern limit of the sandstone
plateau to the south-west of the oasis of Dakhla, which, however,
breaks down into a gradual slope to the south of the town of Mut, on
the western side of Dakhla, where the road from Mut runs to Selima
Oasis.
I endeavoured to make the most of the few opportunities that
presented themselves of gathering such information as I could of the
unknown areas beyond the Egyptian frontier. But opportunities of this
kind unfortunately were few. These parts were regarded by the
Senussi as being their particular reserve, and they did their best to
keep them closed to outsiders. It was consequently only members of
this sect and their friends who had any knowledge of the district, and
the Senussi were so extraordinary secretive about their country that
it was with the greatest difficulty that I was able to extract any
information concerning it. Enquiries, too, had to be conducted with
caution, for collecting data of this kind was apt to prove an unhealthy
occupation.
 Part of the map I was able to compile from the data given to me
has since been verified from other sources; as much of it has thus
been found to be correct, the remainder of it is presumably equally
reliable. The absolute positions, so far as latitude and longitude are
concerned, are, of course, considerably in error in most cases, but
the relative bearings and distances of each place to those
surrounding it are, in most instances, represented with reasonable
accuracy.
A map based on native information can, of course, never hope to
compete in precision with one constructed by the methods of a
modern survey; but it need not be very far behind those produced by
the rough-and-ready methods of the geographers of a hundred, or
even fifty, years ago. Its object is to give a general idea of the district
it covers, and, more especially, to give future travellers an objective,
and sufficiently accurate information as to its position, to enable
them to find it.
No definite system of spelling was adopted in my map. Many of
the names are clearly not Arabic, but either those of the Tibbus or
Bedayat, whose alphabets—if they have any—have not, so far as I
know, been reduced to any system of transliteration. It was
impossible to get the spelling of even the Arabic names, as all my
informants were illiterate bedawin, so I have spelt them as nearly as
I could phonetically. Probably the pronunciation that I heard differs
from that in vogue in Sudan, so the comparison may be of use.
The information was collected as far as possible in the form of
through routes, joining places that had already been more or less
accurately fixed by previous travellers. The remainder of the data
was then fitted into these routes, or plotted from more or less reliably
fixed points on other maps.
The three main routes on which the map was based were as
follows:[20]

Route I. From Tollab, in Kufara Oasis, to Bidau.

Three days south to the well of Bushara.
 Four days south to Asara, or Sarra (a well only).
Six days from Asara, S.S.W., to Tikeru.
Half a day west from Tikeru to Erwully, a well.
Three days west to Guru.
Three days south-west from Guru to Ungoury.
One day S.S.W. to the village of Ertha.
One day west to Bidau.

Route II. From Tikeru to Abesher.

Three days south to Wanjunga Kebir. Another Wanjunga, known
as Wanjunga Sgheir—little Wanjunga—lies one day’s journey to the
east. Both are inhabited. This district is sometimes called Wanjungat.
Three days south to Bedadi, a well belonging to the Bedayat.
Three days south to a well called Funfun, belonging to the
Bedayat tribe.
One and a half (or two) days south to Wayta Sgheir.
A short day south to Wayta Kebir.
Five days south—I was also told four—to Mushaluba (Um
Shaloba), which has recently been fixed by the French. The route
then continued via Lughad and Aratha to Abesher.

Route III. From Wayta Kebir to El Fasher.

One day east to Um el Atham, a Bedayat well.
One day south to Baky.
One day south to the well of El Guttara.
Two days east to ’Ain el Baytha, a Bedayat well.
Two days east to Baou, a Bedayat well, or pool, in a fertile valley
inhabited by Bedayat.
 One long day, or a day and a half, south to Kuffara, a valley with
plenty of water.
One day east to Medjoures, a valley containing many wells.
Three days and two “hours” east to Wady Howar. The road
crosses the Howar Wady, and, after leading for a two days’ journey
further east-south-east, it enters one of its tributaries—the Wady
Faruwiah. After crossing the wady, the road leads for two days
south-east to Musbut.
Musbut and Faruwiah are both said to be large wadies containing
many wells. Musbut is said to be on the Derb el Arbain, the old “forty
days” caravan road from the Sudan by which slaves used to be
taken to Egypt.
Two “hours” south from Musbut to Buhuruz, two days south-east
from Buhuruz, the road reaches Formah, a Zaghawa well.
Two days farther east, and it arrives at Kafut, a village in a wady
of the same name, which, half a day to the south, receives a tributary
known as the Wady Kobay. Wady Kafut itself, some seventy miles
farther north, unites with the Wady Kuttum to form the Wady
Meleeat, itself a tributary of the great Wady Howar.
Mr. Boyce’s survey shows a short section of the Wady Kuttum
running east and west. Mr. Sarsfield-Hall shows Kuttum on his map
as a village, situated upon an unnamed wady—presumably the
Wady Kuttum—of which only a short section, running north-east to
south-west is shown. But farther north he shows a large unnamed
wady, discharging to the north, that corresponds well with the
description I was given of the Kuttum-Meleeat Wady.
Three days farther east the road ends at El Fasher.
These routes were all taken as starting from Tollab, and when
plotted on the basis of a day’s journey of twenty miles in a straight
line, closed with the following errors, from the positions of their
termini as shown on the maps: Bidau, 95 miles 34° from the true
position, on a route from Tollab of about 430 miles as plotted—in
other words, with an error of about 22 per cent of the total route.
Abesher, 95 miles 98° from the true position, on a route of about 680
miles, i.e. about 14 per cent of the total distance; El Fasher, 160
miles 59° from the map position, on a fifty days’ journey of 1,000
miles, or 16 per cent of this distance. Considering the nature of the
material upon which the routes were mapped, this compares not
unfavourably—except in the case of Bidau—with a probable error in
a prismatic compass traverse of about 10 per cent.
But this data may perhaps be misleading, for Colonel Tilho—a
very accurate observer and equipped with a wireless installation for
getting longitude by means of the signals from the Eiffel Tower—
found that Nachtigal’s positions for some of the places in Tibesti
were as much as fifty miles in error; so presumably his position for
Bidau is not to be greatly relied upon. Rohlfs’ positions for Tollab,
and other parts of Kufara Oasis, also remain to be checked by
modern and more accurate methods than were available at the time
of his journey.[21]
In constructing the maps, the routes were treated first as being
three separate roads, joining Tollab to Bidau, Abesher and El Fasher
respectively, and were adjusted separately by the ordinary graphic
method, to their respective termini. This gave three separate
positions for Bushara, Asara and Tikeru. These three positions in
each case were meaned and accepted as correct, and from the
position of Tikeru thus found the route to Bidau was plotted afresh
and adjusted to Nachtigal’s position.
The routes south to Abesher and El Fasher were again plotted
from the new position thus found for Tikeru, and were again adjusted
to the map positions of Abesher and El Fasher, as two separate
routes running to those places from Tikeru. This gave two separate
positions for Wanjunga Kebir, Bedadi, Funfun, Wayta Sogheir and
Wayta Kebir.
The mean of these two positions was taken as correct, and from
this mean position for Wayta Kebir, the roads to Abesher and El
Fasher were plotted and finally adjusted to their termini. Many of the
places on these routes were consequently adjusted five times.

Route IV. Dongola to the Howash Valley.

 From Dongola a road runs five days south-west to Bu Senata—a
well belonging to the Kebabish tribe.
Four days farther west-south-west, and Jebel Maydob is reached.
From there, five days due west, and the road comes to Bu Zibad,
and, three days farther west, reaches the Howash Valley.
It was not until long after I had been given this route that I heard
of the existence of old Dongola, which lies some sixty-five miles
about south-south-east of the better-known new Dongola.
When plotted on a twenty-mile-a-day basis from either of these
places, the road is considerably in error, if the position of Maydob
can be relied upon. The route starting from old Dongola closing,
however, much better on to Maydob than the one from new Dongola.
The positions on the map are those found by plotting the information,
without adjustment from new Dongola. Upon this route, too, depends
the portion of the Wady Howash, lying to the north of Kowora (q.v.).
The description given to me of the Wady Howash was extremely
interesting. It was said that the sides of the wady in places were
covered with coloured paintings, and that it contained numerous
ruins of burnt brick, probably Meroitic in origin, and in addition many
statues—colossi apparently—and pits in the ground containing
ashes covered with stone slabs—possibly these were funerary pits
containing human remains. The Bedayat country generally was
reported as containing many stone-built ruins (ders), and to have
numerous rock inscriptions and “Roman”—i.e. artesian—wells, like
those in the western oases of Egypt, and seems likely to prove a
valuable field for future archæologists.
Among the remaining places shown on the map the following may
be mentioned. My informants were all Arabs, or Sudanese living in
Egypt, so the names are those in use among the Arabic-speaking
bedawin and may differ from those used by tribes speaking another
language, such as the Tibbus, Bedayat and other Sudanese races.
Dendura: This is Rohlfs’ alternative name Zerzura—“the oasis of
the blacks.” I concluded that Zerzura, if it exists at all, is a different
place from Dendura. The latter was described as being as large as
Dakhla Oasis, and as lying just to the west of an enormous
longitudinal dune that is almost impassable, seven days due west
from Bu Mungar (see also Zerzura).
Dunes: All the dune belts of the Libyan Desert are said to run from
north to south. In the neighbourhood of Dakhla Oasis they were
found to run 352° mag., and if, as I heard, they run parallel with the
Tollab-Tikeru road, the belts appear in reality to converge slightly
towards the north. Possibly the prevailing wind blows from a more
easterly quarter as one proceeds westwards from Egypt, as the
influence of the hot air rising from the Arabian deserts would be less
felt in the western part of the Libyan Desert. Towards the Central
Sudan it appears to approximate to the direction of the north-east
trades normally found in these latitudes, for Commandant Tilho
found the prevailing wind in Borku to blow from this direction. A dune
belt that is easy to cross is said to commence about two hours to the
west of Erbayana, near Kufara Oasis, and to extend for three days—
I was told four—to the westward, and to die out before reaching the
latitude of Bushara. A belt was also reported to exist about two hours
to the west of Erwully. This belt, though about the same width as the
one farther north, lying to the west of Erbayana, is perhaps only sand
banked up by the Tibesti hills, though from its position it looks like
the continuation of the belt near Kufara, with which it is exactly in
line; Tilho’s paper confirms the existence of a great dune field as far
as Ertha and Borku, and also to the south of Wady Dom. The line of
dunes following the Tollab-Kufara road is said to start close to the
west of Kebabo, and to be about a day’s journey in width from east
to west. The belt is said to go to the Sudan, and to die out in the
vegetation of Wanjungat. Between Wanjunga and Demi, Tilho found
a “little chain of sand dunes, about fifty feet high, stretching from
north-east to south-west, and extending from five to six miles in
breadth,” which appears to be the end of the belt described by my
informant.
The dune belts form a useful check upon the accuracy of the data
given me. One I saw at the end of our journey to the south-west of
Dakhla, near Jebel Abdulla, is apparently the northern continuation
of that which runs from El Atrun to “the Egyptian Oasis.” The
southern portion of the line of dunes lies farther west than the part
that I saw; but a map constructed from native intelligence can hardly
be expected to be very accurate, and, assuming the prevailing wind
in the neighbourhood of El Atrun to blow from a direction
approximating to north-east, as found by Tilho in Borku, the line of
dunes would be certain to curve round somewhat towards the west
at its southern extremity. The belt near Dendura is almost exactly in
line with the one reported in the neighbourhood of Owana; so, too, is
the wide belt to the west of Erbayana with the similar dune-field west
of Erwully. Sand-free intervals in these sand belts are not
uncommon, and the dying out of this belt about the latitude of
Bushara that was reported to take place, may only be the
commencement of one of these gaps, the line of dunes becoming
continuous again farther to the south.
“Egyptian Oasis”: An Ebday (i.e. one of the Bedayat tribe) who
was a friend of one of my guides, told him he had once ridden from
Merga (q.v.) with two hagins (i.e. riding camels) for five days north,
following the dune belt (I was also told that the distance was ten long
days from Merga with an ordinary caravan). He had then climbed a
very high black hill lying in the dune belt and had seen in the
distance under a cliff a huge oasis, containing a number of olive
trees and much terfa. He was too far off to see if it were inhabited,
and was afraid to go in, because he said it was an “Egyptian Oasis,”
and he feared that he would be killed if he did so. Another Arab told
me that a cousin of his was riding along the top of a scarp about
eight days somewhere to the south of Dakhla, when he saw below
him a very large oasis, containing a number of olive trees, palms and
wells. There was one very big ruined town that did not seem to be
inhabited and a few ezbas (i.e. hamlets), in which a few people were
to be seen. I was also told that this place was from seven to ten days
from Dakhla Oasis.
Ershay: A lake of sweet water, variously described as being three
miles across and five or six feddans (i.e. acres) in extent; also a
wady of the same name that runs into it. Entering the wady near El
Guttara, the lake lies three days’ journey along the wady to the north.
The lake is said to contain crocodiles, which seize camels when they
come down to drink. There is nothing very improbable in this, for
crocodiles have actually been found in the middle of the Western
Sahara, in the pools of the Wad Mihero, that leads into the Wad
Ighargharen, itself a tributary of the great Wad Igharghar, a valley
that in prehistoric times must have contained an immense river.
Presumably, as this part of the desert dried up, the crocodiles
became cut off, and now exist only in the pools of the river bed—a
similar state of affairs probably accounting for their presence in the
Ershay Lake.
Fardy, Wady el: Another name for the Wady Tibbu, or Bahr el
Ghazel, that connects with Lake Chad. Barth calls it the Barrum and
the Fede. The latter name may perhaps be a corruption of the Arabic
word Fardy.
There is also another Wady el Fardy that is said to run east of
Jebel Kusu, through Guru, Erbayana, Buseima and Taiserbo. It
crosses the Jalo-Kufara road four days south of Jalo, and then runs
past Jarabub, Siwa and Bahrein to join the Nile. One account said
that it also ran through the Fayum.
A large number of branch wadies are said to discharge into the
Wady el Fardy from the Tibesti range. These valleys support a large
population of Tibbus; but as these natives appear to be among the
chief followers of the Senussi, I could not induce my informants to
give me any information about this district, which appears to be one
of the chief strongholds of the sect. Several wadies, however, are
shown on existing maps, I do not know on what authority, as starting
in Tibesti and running in this direction.
There are a number of native reports of dried-up river beds in
various parts of the desert, that have never, I believe, been
investigated, and may be without foundation, and information of this
kind must be regarded with suspicion. But the Wady el Fardy sounds
authentic, for wadies have already been reported to exist at all the
points mentioned by my informants in its course. In the Tibesti range
there must even now be a considerable rainfall in the rainy season,
and probably in former times it was still heavier. The ultimate
destination of the water that falls on the northern and eastern sides
of Tibesti is still unknown. It is hardly likely that it can break back
through the range and discharge towards the south, so apparently it
must flow somewhere towards the north.
A plentiful supply of surface water exists in the Kufara group of
oases—more than the extremely slight rainfall of the desert could
possibly supply. In the Western Sahara the large oasis groups are
fed by wadies of this description—the Wad Saura, for instance,
brings down the rainfall from the Atlas Mountains to supply the oases
of the Twat depression, while the Wad Ghirh group between Tuggurt
and Biskra is supplied by the great Wad Igharghar, which takes its
rise in the Central Sahara. It seems quite possible that the Kufara
Oases and the Wady el Fardy are their counterparts in the Libyan
Desert.
Not only are wadies known to exist at all the points along this river
bed, where reported to me, but there is also known to be a large
depression between Siwa Oasis and the Nile, portions of which,
such as Sitra Lake, contain water and are below sea-level. The
northern boundary of this great hollow has been surveyed almost
throughout its entire length, the cliff running by Jebel el Ghazalat,
Jebel Tarfaia, Jebel Dakar, Garet el Leben, Jebel Somara and Jebel
Hashem el Gud, to the Wady Natrun. On the southern side of this
great valley a well-marked boundary has been found to exist in the
neighbourhood of Siwa, extending eastwards towards the Nile as far
as Araj Oasis and Lake Sitra. Beyond that point it does not seem to
have been surveyed. If this great depression forms part of the Wady
el Fardy, it must have widened out to the east of Siwa Oasis into
something like an estuary. The Wady el Fardy was described to me
as being as big as the Nile Valley.
In addition to the Wady el Fardy, I heard of another great river bed
known as the Wady Howar that in places was also said to be as
deep and wide as the Nile Valley. The bottom of the valley was said
to consist of clay and to contain much water after the rains—
presumably in wells and pools—but to dry up in the hot season.
Hurry: The name of a Bedayat tribe. Also of the district that they
inhabit, which contains a lake of good water, more than an Arab
gunshot across from north to south, and an hour’s journey from east
to west. There are a few trees and palms round the lake and some
cultivation. The lake lies three days east from Wanjungat, the road
lying all over sand and rock, it is seven days due north from Ershay
Lake, the road being all over rock with a great deal of water in the
rains, but none in the dry weather. There are settlements at the east
and west ends of Hurry Lake.
Iddaila: Three days to the south-west of Iddaila is a large oasis,
and two days to the west of Iddaila is a large hattia. A road runs from
Iddaila to Kufara and another runs west, hidden under the dunes.
Ko’or Wady: Lies six days west of Erbayana.
Kowora: An important Bedayat district. To the east of Kowora,
after one day’s journey the road is all level sand, west of which it is
all rock.
Merga: The so-called “hattia of the Bedayat,” of the bedawin of
the Egyptian deserts. It was described as being about the size of the
Tenida-Belat district in Dakhla Oasis—say ten miles each way. It
contains a pool, about an acre (feddan) in extent, fed by a spring, or
’ain (artesian well), which is surrounded by many palms, around
which again is a belt of scrub—argul and terfa. It lies two and a half
days north-west from El Atrun and three to three and a half—I have
also heard four—days west from Lagia. Two and a half days to the
south-west from Merga there is a high cliff with a negeb (i.e. pass)
leading up on to the plateau on the top.
After rather more than half a day’s journey over the plateau
another pass is reached, leading down into the “Valley of the
Bedayat” (q.v.). Merga is not regularly inhabited, but the Bedayat
come there in the season to gather the dates. They also use it as a
base from which to raid the caravans of Egyptian bedawin who go
down to El Atrun to gather natron. A road runs from Merga to Kufara,
Owanat (q.v.) being half-way along it. There are no Bedayat to the
north of Merga. This is perhaps the place that Miani calls Ptolemy’s
“lake of the mud tortoises.”
 Colonel Tilho’s native information on the question of this hattia
agrees very closely with that I received. He, too, was told of the road
from Merga to Kufara via Owanat, and also heard the place
described as a pool surrounded by palms. He estimates the position
as being “between the 25th and 26th degrees of longitude east and
18th and 19th degrees of latitude north.” This estimate agrees well
with my information so far as the latitude is concerned, but,
according to my intelligence, it should be at least a degree farther
east than he puts it.
No’on Lake: Belongs to the Bedayat and is about three miles
across. It lies close to the hill of the same name. There is cultivation
on the south-east and south-west sides. It lies one day west from
Jebel Kuttum. A road runs south and another east from the lake (?
destinations).
Owana: A place half-way along a road from Merga to Kufara,
consisting of a well, with no vegetation in the immediate
neighbourhood, but much green grass in the district after rain, on
which wild asses and “bekker el wahash” (probably Barbary sheep)
feed. North of the well is a cliff with a pass that takes two hours’ easy
travelling to traverse, and on the top is a high level oasis, the
landmark for which is two rocky hills that look like one from the north;
the scarp runs north-north-west and south-east from the well. Jebel
Abdulla is reported to be visible from near here. The whole of this
district is known as Owanat (plural of Owana). A dune belt comes
down close to it from the north and dies out about two days farther to
the south.[22]
Zerzura: Possibly only a generic name applied to any mythical or
undiscovered oasis. I have heard it applied to Rohlfs’ Zerzura
(Dendura?) (q.v.)—also to the “Egyptian Oasis” (q.v.), to an oasis
supposed to exist eight days somewhere to the south of Dakhla, and
to a stone temple I heard of about eighteen hours’ journey west of
Jedida in Dakhla Oasis. The map on native information here
reproduced originally appeared in the R.G.S.J., Sept., 1913. But then
it was somewhat altered and a considerable amount of material was
introduced into it, for which I was in no way responsible. The map is
here reproduced in its original form.
 The following are the principal roads that traverse the Libyan
Desert: One starting from Giza, near Cairo, runs in a westerly
direction through the Wady Natrun and the Wady Moghara, follows
the course of the reported Wady el Fardy to El Qara, and then
proceeds via Siwa, Jaabub, Jalo and Aujila to the oasis of Abu Naim
and on into Tripoli. Farther to the south a caravan route, starting from
the Fayum, crosses the desert to the northern end of Baharia, and
just before entering the oasis is joined by roads from Wady Natrun
and from Maghagha. Other routes, leaving the Nile Valley at
Bahnessa and Minia, enter the oasis farther to the south, and
combine to form a caravan route leaving the western side of the
oasis and going, via Lake Sitra and Araj, to Siwa Oasis. A road also
runs northward from Baharia, via Wady Moghara, to Alexandria,
while another leads in a south-westerly direction, by way of ’Ain el
Wady, to Qasr Farafra.
Farafra is connected with the Nile Valley by a road that runs
through Kairowin hattia to Beni Adi, near Assiut. A route that was
used by the Senussi runs towards the south-west, past ’Ain Sheykh
Murzuk and to the hattia of Bu Mungar and thence, across a field of
big dunes, to Kufara. It is said to pass on its way through a large
oasis. To the north-west there is a road from Farafra, crossing a
small detached limestone plateau, known as El Guss Abu Said, to a
well called Bir Labiyat, and then proceeding via the little oases of
Iddaila and Bahrain to Siwa. Another road leads to the south from
Iddaila, and passing through a little oasis, known as Nesla, leads to
Bu Mungar, and on to Dakhla Oasis, running along the foot of the
cliff immediately to the east of Bu Mungar. A second leads from
Iddaila, over El Guss Abu Said, direct to Dakhla, along the top of the
cliff above Bu Mungar.
The usual road, however, between Farafra and Dakhla runs
south-east from Qasr Farafra to Bir Dikker, and then follows what is
known as a gassi, or path swept by the wind free from sand, through
a field of biggish dunes, and enters Dakhla Oasis in its north-western
corner. This road emerges from the southern side of Dakhla Oasis at
the town of Mut, in the form of the Derb el Terfawi, leading to Bir
Terfawi and Selima Oases.
 Two other roads enter Dakhla Oasis from the north—the Derb el
Tawil, or “long road,” that leaves the Nile Valley at Beni Adi, and,
after crossing the limestone plateau, descends the cliff that bounds
the oasis on the north by a pass known as El Agaba, in the eastern
part of the oasis, and leads to Tenida; the other is a little-used road,
called the Derb el Khashabi, that runs direct from the north-western
corner of the oasis to some point in the Nile Valley to the south of
Beni Adi, or perhaps goes direct to Assiut.
There are two roads in regular use between Dakhla and Kharga
Oases—the northernmost leads to the well ’Ain Amur, high up on the
northern side of a small detached limestone plateau, and the other,
the Gubary road, runs along the foot of the cliff on the southern side
of this plateau. The latter is waterless and rather longer than the ’Ain
Amur road, but runs over the level, and is consequently the one most
used, as the ’Ain Amur road necessitates a laborious climb up to the
plateau, with a correspondingly difficult descent. It has, however, the
advantage of having a well of rather bitter water about midway along
it, and in consequence is occasionally used by small parties,
especially in the hot weather. Several branch roads split off from the
Gubary road, and lead to Beris and the places in the south of Kharga
Oasis; but they are hardly ever used.
Dakhla Oasis is bounded on its western side by a field of dunes.
The traces of several old roads are to be seen leading in this
direction and, before the dunes came down to this part, were
probably used by caravans proceeding to Kufara; but these are now,
I believe, never followed. Traces of the disused road from Mut, via
Owanat, to the Central Sudan has already been mentioned.
Several roads lead over the eastern cliff of Kharga depression;
from the southern end of the oasis one goes, via the little oasis of
Dungun, to Tumas, near Derr; a second goes, via the small oasis of
Kurkur, to Aswan; a third leads in a north-easterly direction to Esna;
while a fourth makes across the desert to Farshut. Esna can also be
reached from the centre of the oasis by a road starting from Qasr
Zaiyan. From Kharga village, in the north of the oasis, roads run to
Sohag, Girga, Farshut, Qena, Luxor and Esna. But the main road
running to Kharga is the Derb el Arbain, or “Forty days” route of the
old slave traders, which leaves the Nile Valley near Assiut and enters
the oasis at its northern end, runs through it from north to south, and
then proceeds, via the wells of Shebb, Selima Oasis, Lagia and Bir
Natrun, to Darfur.
The other great caravan road traversing the Libyan Desert from
north to south is that starting from Benghazi, and proceeding, via
Jedabya, Aujila and Jalo, to the Kufara group of oases—this was
practically the route followed by Rohlfs’ and the Forbes-Hassanein
expeditions. From Kufara it continues, via Bushara, Asara and
Tikeru, into Wanjunga and on into Central Sudan.
It will be noted that most of the roads traversing the Libyan Desert
run roughly from east to west. This is unfortunate, as it necessitates
their crossing the sand belts which run approximately at right angles
to them, the direction of these belts being due to the strongly
predominant character of the northerly winds.
The winds of the Libyan Desert are a rather interesting problem.
The prevailing direction from which they blow lies slightly to the west
of north, which is not quite the quarter to be expected.
All along the North African coast lies the Mediterranean. The
temperature of an area of water of this size and depth changes very
slowly, and would not be appreciably affected by one or two days’
sunshine. In the absence of wind, the heat of the atmosphere lying
over the sea is largely controlled by that of the water itself.
On the other hand, the Libyan Desert, owing to its lying nearer the
equator, is subjected to a much hotter sun. Its intensely arid
character prevents it from being cooled in any way by evaporation,
and it is entirely unshaded by any vegetation. Under the heat of the
tropical sun, the stones and sand of which it is composed very
rapidly heat in the sun’s rays. The air overhanging it consequently
gets greatly heated in its turn, becomes lighter and so rises, and the
colder, denser air from the Mediterranean has to rush in and take its
place.
A very similar state of things occurs in the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans, where the cold air rushes in towards the equator from both
north and south to form the trade winds. These winds, however, do
not blow at right angles to the equator, for the earth in its rotation
slips away, as it were, from under the surrounding atmosphere, with
the result that the trade winds blow from the north-east and south-
east, in the northern and southern hemispheres respectively.
But instead of blowing from the north-east, as would be expected
from the character of the trade winds, the wind in the Libyan Desert
comes from slightly to the west of north, which at first sight appears
rather puzzling.
The explanation of this peculiarity lies, I believe, in the fact that to
the east of Egypt—across the Red Sea—lies a like track of country
to the Libyan Desert in the shape of the Arabian Desert, where very
similar conditions prevail. The Red Sea, which separates the two,
being too narrow to greatly affect the situation, the air overhanging
the eastern part of the Mediterranean has also to take the place of
the heated atmosphere rising from Palestine and a considerable part
of Arabia, and consequently tends to draw in that direction.
Various phenomena of light and electricity, seldom or never seen
in other climates, are to be found in the desert. I several times saw
what appeared to be a large star suddenly flash up and disappear
immediately. This I believe to have been not a meteor, but some
form of electrical phenomenon, as I usually saw it after a sandstorm,
when the air was full of fine electrified sand.
Solar phenomena are sometimes very conspicuous in the desert,
the zodiacal light that follows the sunset being often very clearly
seen, in the form of a semi-elliptical portion of the sky showing
brightly above the horizon, after the sun had disappeared, and
shining with sufficient strength to give quite an appreciable light.
There was another phenomenon that I saw in this desert that I
have never seen alluded to by other travellers. Sometimes at sunset
luminous lines would appear in the eastern sky radiating from a point
opposite to the setting sun. These lines were never very
pronounced, but at the same time were quite clearly visible. On one
occasion, instead of luminous lines, dark ones appeared instead.
 Another peculiarity of this part of the desert was the way in which
a sandstorm would sometimes spring up without any appreciable
change in the strength or direction of the wind. I concluded this to be
due to a change in the electrical condition of the atmosphere.
The connection between the winds of this desert and its
geography is so close that I have included them both in this section.
The chief effect of the wind on the desert sands is, of course, to be
seen in the dunes. In addition to those mentioned when dealing with
the native information I collected, there is a large area in the Farafra
depression covered with sand hills and those in the neighbourhood
of Bu Mungar which have been previously mentioned.
Several narrow belts of dunes are also to be found starting in the
great depression between Siwa and Cairo. These belts, too, run
roughly from north to south; but with one exception they all die out
before reaching the latitude of Farafra Oasis.
The effects of the violent desert gales was everywhere to be
seen. On the limestone plateau, on the way to Kharga Oasis, and on
the Derb el Tawil very fine examples of sand erosion are visible.
Mr. H. Ll. Beadnell,[23] who carried out a series of weather
observations over a considerable time in Kharga Oasis, estimated
that the sand blew from a northerly direction for five days out of six in
this district. Violent sandstorms are unpleasantly common, by far the
greatest number of them coming from the predominating northerly
direction. The result of this uniformity in the direction of the winds is
clearly seen on the plateau. The swirling clouds of sand, driven by
the furious desert gales, have in many places not only shaped the
hard limestone into long ridges running up and down wind, but have
even cut grooves in the ridges themselves, as though with a gigantic
gouge, forming a type of desert known to the natives as kharashef.
These ridges rise sometimes twenty feet above the level of the
plateau, but more usually are only three or four feet in height,
producing a surface somewhat resembling a rough sea—a very
uncomfortable type of desert to have to cross with a caravan. A
diminutive form of this—kharafish—in the shape of small ridges,
often with a cutting edge, is also frequently seen, and works havoc