WEEDS

A weed is a plant that grows where it is not required. It competes with crops for water,
nutrients, and light. This can reduce crop production. Some weeds have beneficial uses
but not usually when they are growing among crops.

Terminologies used in weeds

• Weed science is the scientific discipline that deals in the reduction of weeds in
crops rangelands and forest plantations.
• Weed biology; is the study of geographical distribution, habitant, growth,
development, reproduction and population dynamics of weed species and
communities.
• Weed ecology; is the study of weeds in relation to their environment including
both nonliving (abiotic) and living (biotic factors).
• Life cycle; is a series of processes that govern the basic behavior of organisms.
• Weed dispersal; are mechanisms that allow large or regional and local (field)
scale migration of weedy plants from place to place.
• Weed fitness; the degree to which a weed species has adaptation mechanisms that
allow its persistence and survival in a specific environment.
• The concept of weediness; there are various definitions of the term weed
including the following;
• A weed is a plant growing out of place or where it is not wanted or desired
and possess characteristics that make its control or management difficult
for example a plant such as maize growing in a soybean field or vice versa
is a weed because it was not planted by the farmer.
• A weed is a plant that grows in abundancy and suppresses other plants that
possess more viable properties
• A weed is a plant that is not wanted and therefore should be destroyed.
• A weed is a plant that grows simultaneously in a habitant or environment
greatly modified by human activities.
• A weed is a plant that colonizes disturbed habitants and is noxious,
destructive, and troublesome and economically of little value i.e. weeds
interfere with crops.
 • A weed is a plant in wild growth often found on land that has not been
cultivated.

(what are invasive weeds?)

WEED EVOLUTION.
From the ecological perspective, weeds may be regarded as colonizers or plants that
capitalize on disturbance i.e. the environment greatly modified by human activities such
as farming. Of the world’s 250,000 plant species, the world population relies on12-15
species 90% of food supply while approximately 250 species occur as weeds of which 76
of these species are categorized as the world’s worst weeds. Approximately 70% of the
250 species that are regarded as weed throughout the world belong to 12 plant families.
Many weeds belong to the same plant families as major food crops including;
• Graminea (poaceae/ grass family) which include many of the world’s major food
crops such as rice, maize, wheat, sorghum, millet, oats, barley etc.
• Compositae or esteraceae.
• Other families with worst weeds are; eurphobiaceae, solanaceae, leguminoceae

Weeds share many characteristics with crops and among these characteristics is the fact
that many crops and weed rely on human intervention for establishment. Human
activities contribute greatly on the dispersal of seeds and propagules to new sites and thus
introduce weeds to exotic habitants.
Weeds have been noted to thrive in habitants disturbed by human activities such as
agricultural lands and practices that favor crops and also weeds. The fact that weeds and
crops often share the requirement of human intervention for establishment and
propergation in a given habitant is fundamental to understand the difficulty in weed
management. It has been concluded that weeds come from two major sources;
• Wild species that have long been adapted to the site of natural disturbance.
• New species or varieties that have evolved since the inception of agriculture
through natural selection.
Having explained the concept of “weediness”, weeds are often unwanted but that’s not
want makes them weeds e.g. one man’s weed may be another’s crop i.e. one farmer may
want a particular plant in the field while another will consider it undesirable. Therefore
its important to understand why a plant is considered unwanted or why its considered
undesirable by considering the effects of weeds that make them undesired in the eyes of
man.
The following are some of the characteristics of weedy species;
• Some weeds have rapid seedling growth and the ability to reproduce while young
i.e. they have a quick maturation or a short vegetative stage.
• Some have dual modes of reproduction i.e. most reproduce by seed but many may
reproduce both sexually and vegetatively.
• Some have excellent adaptation to wide environmental conditions i.e. they
express environmental plasticity by growing in a wide range of climatic and
edaphic conditions.
• Weed seeds have excellent seed viability over many years i.e. they resist decay
for long periods in the soil and remain dormant whereas most crop seeds rot if
they don’t germinate shortly after planting.
• Some weed seeds exhibit several kinds of dormancy and dispersal in time so as to
escape the changes in the environment and only germinate when conditions are
most favorable for survival.
• Many weeds seed have no specific environmental requirements for germination
i.e. that’s why some weeds do well in very dry conditions.
• Weeds often produce seeds with the same size as crop seeds, making physical
separation very hard hence facilitating spread by man.
• Some annual weeds produce seeds more than once in a growing season and seed
is produced for as long as conditions are favorable. Each generation capable of
producing large number of seeds per plant and some seeds produced over a wide
range of environmental conditions e.g. amaranthus.
• Roots of some weeds are able to grow deeper into the soil hence enhancing the
competitiveness.
• Roots and other vegetative parts of perennial weeds are vigorous with large food
reserves enabling them to withstand environmental stress and intense cultivation.
• Vegetative organ of perennial weeds such as rhizomes will quickly regenerate if
cut into small pieces.
• Many weeds have adaptation that resist grazing such as spines, bad taste or odour.
• Weeds have great competitive ability for nutrients, light and water and can
compete by special mean such as the climbing growth habit and by allelopathy.
Allelopathy is a mechanism where plants produce chemical compounds called
allele-chemicals that inhibit the growth and development of other plants.
• Weeds are said to be ubiquitous i.e. they exist everywhere agriculture is practiced.
Because of these features, weeds can establish themselves without any deliberate
 action of man and they are very difficult to eradicate once stablished due to their
aggressive and competitive nature.
The following are the competitive causes of crop yield reduction in the presence of
weeds;
• Competition for water. Crops and weeds compete for moisture if its in limited
supply. However as discussed above, weeds are better adopted than crops and
hence will out compete the crops leading to yield reduction.
• Competition for nutrients. Nutrient availability is important for crop production.
Weeds are vigorous competitor for nutrients especially nitrogen which is the most
limiting. Although fertilization will promote both crops and weeds, the more
aggressive competitor in most cases weeds will tend to dominate the plant
community leading to crop yield reduction.
• Competition for light. Weeds tend to compete with crops for light especially by
shading out other plants. Broad leafed and taller weeds over shadow the shorter
crops by attaining maximum light interception thus weeds control early in the
growing season before weeds establishment may reduce weeds competition with
crops.
Competition for light between weeds and crops is influenced by the
following;
• The time of weed emergence i.e. early weed control enables the crop to
out compete the weeds for the rest of the season.
• Position of the leaves i.e. taller weeds tend to over shadow shorter crops
plants.
• The growing habit i.e. climbing weeds ascend the crop and form a dense
canopy this accessing more light leading to reduced crop yield.
Apart from competitive causes leading to crop yield loss, there also non-competitive
losses due to the presence of weeds and these are;
• Some weeds produce allele-chemicals, a phenomenon called allelopathy. These
toxic substances released by the weeds may influence the growth and
development of the crops usually inhibiting germination and growth.
• Weeds interfere with agricultural operations such as harvesting, this increasing
harvest cost i.e. they increase harvesting operations and some crops are not
harvested because some weeds cause skin irritation such as itch grass (Rottboellia
exaltuta).
• Some weeds may act as alternate hosts on pests and diseases that injure crop
plants. They provide food and shelter for them before their right full hosts come
up e.g. pink boll worm (Pectinophora gossypiella) and the cotton strainers
 (Dydercus spp). They live on wild Malvaceae such as hibiscus before cotton is
introduced. Maize hopper (Cicadulina mbila) live on wild sorghum spreading the
maize streak virus.
• Reduction in the quality of farm products such as crops, meat, and milk e.g.
canned peas are graded down or rejected if they contain some weed seeds or
berries. Some flour products have off-flavors due to wild onions or wild garlic
bulbs, dairy products contaminated by wild onions or wild bulbs, reduced value of
wool and hides due to seeds getting entangled in animal fur.
• The presence of weeds can also reduce the quality of foliage of pasture grasses,
making them un palatable or even poisonous to livestock e.g. soddom apple
(Solanum incanum) and thorn apple (Datura stramonium). Also Dantana camara
affects the flavor of livestock products such as milk, when cows feed on them.
Weeds may also cause discomforts such as skin irritation, allergies, hay fever due to
weed plant such as poison ivy and itch grass (Rottboellia exaltuta).
Weeds decrease the quality of wild life habitats and may be a fire hazard e.g. spear grass.
Water weeds such as water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) clog irrigation beaches and
lakes and interfare with navigation and fishing.
Parasitic weeds such as witch weed (Striga spp), field dodder, and mistletoe parasitize
crops.
Generally all the know pests, weeds cause the greatest percentage of agricultural losses
e.g. diseases cause 27% of the total yield loss, insects cause 28% loss, nematodes 3.2%
loss and weeds 42% yield loss in the less developed countries. Therefore, without
application of weeds control practices, there could be 100% yield loss due to weed
problems. This indicates that weeds are very injurious if not managed or controlled.
Beneficial effects of weeds.
Despite the losses caused by weeds, there are potential benefits attributed to weedy plants
and these include;
• Some act as cover crops in areas which are susceptible to soil erosion by
stabilizing the soil due to improved soil structure.
• In places where zero tillage is practiced, they lead to aggregation of soil particles
and thus improve soil structure.
• Weeds provide soil organic matter and are also important in recycling of plant
nutrients especially weeds with deep rooted systems.
• Weeds provide pastures, edible fruits and some are medicinal in nature being used
to cure colds, coughs, fever.
• Others are used as ornamental plants that are used for landscaping purposes.
 • Weeds may provide a natural habitat for natural enemies for plant pests and some
provide a wild life habitat and food for birds.
• Some weeds such as amaranthus spp (dodo, pig weed and black nightshade
(solanum spp/ ensuga) are used as vegetables for human consumption.
• Weeds provide useful germ plasm for plant breeders by gene transfer from wild
species related to crop plants but with different characteristics/ genetic traits.

WEED TAXONOMY/ CLASSIFICATION.

PLANTS OF SIMILAR characteristics are often put together for simple identification.
Taxonomy in simple terms means classification. Classification may be done according to
morphology, origin adaptation of ife cycle.
Classification according to life cycle.
The life cycle is a series of processes that govern the basic behavior of organisms. A
typical life cycle of flowering plant includes the following processes;
• Germination
• Seedling establishment
• Development into adulthood.
• Fertilization
• Embryonic growth
• Seed dispersal
• Senescence and death.
One of the most common methods of classifying weeds is to divide them on the basis of
the length of their life cycle such as annual, biennial and perennial weeds. The life cycle
of a weed determines its adaptability to various management systems and its
susceptibility to control measures.
• Annual weeds; an annual plant completes its life cycle from emergency to
physiologically mature seed in one growing season or in less than one year.
Within this period, the weeds grow vegetatively, flowers and produces seed.
Annuals typically grow quickly and reproduce even under adverse growing
conditions i.e. seeds of many annual weeds will germinate over a broad range of
environmental conditions and emerge under the conditions of disturbance that are
associated with agriculture. Despite these adaptive features that tend to favor
survival, many weed researchers consider annual weeds as a group of weeds most
easily managed compared to perennial weeds. In general, older and larger annual
 weeds are more difficult to control than the younger and smaller weed seedlings.
So to control annual weeds, strategies have to be designed to reduce seed
production of to control weeds before flowering or seed set.
• Biennial weeds; these are plants that live for more than one year but not more
than two years i.e. they complete their life cycle in two years. In the first year,
they grow vegetatively and produce a lot of foliage and during the second year,
they flower and produce seed. Immediately after seed production, they die. Many
of them have a rosette growth habit such as the cabbage growth with a lot of
leaves collected in clusters. There only a few biennial weeds such as the wild
carrot (Daucus carota), they can be controlled by slashing them down during the
first year of vegetative growth since this period they don’t produce seed.
• Perennial weeds; these are plants in which the vegetative structures live for two
or more years typically by renewed growth from the same root system. They grow
vegetatively for one or two years then flower and produce seed. However the
plant will not die, it will continue growing. Such weeds are propagated by a
combination of seeds cuttings and many of them produce creeping stolons and
rhizomes. Some perennial weeds are capable of vegetative reproduction with
flowering phase.
• Simple herbaceous perennials; these normally reproduce by seeds and they
don’t naturally spread by vegetative means. However, if a plant is
damaged or removed, regeneration may occur through re-sprouting.
Simple herbaceous perennials survive unfavorable seasons and resume
growth via dormant roots, bulbs, tubers, crowns.
• Creeping perennials; in addition to producing seed, these may also spread
via a variety of organs such as stolons (star grass, barmuda grass
[Cynodun dactylon]), rhizomes (couch grass [Digitaria abbyssinca]),tuber
(yellow nutsidge [Cyperus rotundus]). rhizomes and stolons that creep
above the soil surface are the principle organs of propagation in perennial
grasses. Perennial grasses are the most troublesome group of weeds in
East Africa seriously affecting crop production in large and small scale
agriculture. The growth of perennial grasses tends to be facilitated when
other weeds are successfully removed. Crop yields can be partially or
completely suppressed by competition for water, light and nutrients,
physical damage of rhizomes penetrating crop roots and tubers or in some
cases by release of toxins from the decaying weed or from the living
weeds roots a phenomenon termed allelopathy.
• Woody perennials; these include trees and shrubs which undergo
secondary thickening. These plants often flower after reaching maturity
which may occur after establishment and may take many years. These
 often reproduce by seed but may also regenerate from buds and spread by
means of root sprouts.
Generally perennial weeds are among the most difficult to manage because of the many
mechanisms of propagation. Perennial weeds that establish from seed are easiest to
control in a seedling stage before seed set. However, control is often much more difficult
if a perennial plant propagates principally by vegetative means or has established beyond
the seedling stage.
Integrated strategies that capitalize on combining various control tactics such as cultural,
mechanical and chemical means are the most effective for managing perennial weed.
Consideration of the life cycle of a weed is critically important to the selection and timing
of weed management.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO GROWTH FORM OR MORPHOLOGY.

Weeds can be classified on the basis of their growth form or morphology. They may be
divided into herbaceous and woody species. Herbaceous species can be sub divided into
vines either with a prostate growth or upright growth habit. Woody species can be sub
divided into trees, shrubs and woody vines.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF COTOLYDONS OR SEED
LEAVES PRESENT.
Seed producing plants comprise of two classes;
• Flowering plants or angiosperms (covered seed)
• Gymnosperms (naked seeds)
However most weeds are angiosperms. The angiosperms are divided into sub classes
• Monocotyledons
• Dicotyledons.
• Monocotyledonous weeds; there embryo has one cotyledon and have often
referred to as monocots. They are sometimes referred to as grassy or grass like
because of their leaf shape and growth form. However these is misleading
because not all monocots weeds are grasses.
The monocots include weeds in the following families;
• Gramineae/ poaceae
• Sedge family (cyperaceae)
• Commelina family (commelinaceae)
 • Lily family (liliaceae)
• Dicotyledons
• Amaranthaceae
• Malvaceae
• Solanaceae
• Compositeae
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PLANT HABITANT
Another classification scheme used to separate weeds is based on their typical habitant or
on other special characteristics.
• Trees and shrubs are often referred to as woody weeds and when these woody
perennial species are found in non-crop land sites such as pasture or range lands,
they are referred to as bush. Aquatic or water weeds represent another class of
weeds that is recognized on the basis of habitant in which they occur.
• Aquatic weeds may either be annual or perennial and are often sub divided into
smaller groups based on their growth habit such as floating, emergent and sub-
merged. An example include the water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) which
belongs to family Pontederiaceae.
• Epiphytic weeds are another group recognized by their relationship to the
habitant. Epiphytes are organisms that grow non-parasitically on another
organism or some non-living structure such as a rock deriving moisture and
nutrients from. They include plants such as mosses, ferns, lichens and orchids.
• Parasitic weeds; these are plants that live on a plant host and derive nutrients for
energy from the host. Parasitic plants can either be obligate parasites i.e. cannot
exist without a host or they are facultative/ specific parasites i.e. can live without
a host. The majority of economically important parasitic plants belong to the
following families;
• Cuscutaceae (dodder family)
• Loranthaceae (the mistletoes)
• Orobanchaceae/ Scrophulariaceae

COMMON WEEDS IN EAST AFRICA.

• Graminae/ Poaceae (grasses)
The grass family has a wide range of weeds which mainly grow in the fields that
have been cultivated. These include;
• Couch grass (Digitaria abyssinica or D. scalanum). It is a perennial weed
which is troublesome because of the presence of rhizomes that are hard to
control.
• Bermuda grass or star grass (Cynodon dactylon) this is a perennial weed
with long runners (stolons) which root at the nodes and therefore can
rejuvenate or give rise to an entire plant from one node. Some runner are
at the surface of the ground. It is also hard to control because it is
propagated by both seed and stolons.
• Sword or spear grass. (Imperata cylindrical); it’s perennial in nature and
forms hard scaly rhizomes which are extensive in the soil and produces an
attractive inflorescence with a lot of seeds which can be dispersed by
wind. It is very common along the east African coast and many neglected
fields and along road sides. It is a troublesome weed in plantation crops
such as tea and coffee. It is also used for hatching huts, feeding animals
and for paper making in some countries.
• Johnson grass. (Sorghum halepense) it is perennial and is dispersed by
seed. It has very low creeping rhizomes. This weed prefers high
temperatures for its growth. It is a very vigorous grower. In one growing
season, one plant can produce about 5000 new nodes and then secondary
rhizomes arise from the primary rhizomes. It also exhibits allelopathy
when portions of the rhizomes die and rot, they produce chemicals that
inhibit germination and flowering of certain crop species.
• Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) is a perennial weed of highland
crops
• Wild oat (Avena fatua) an annual weed that reproduces by seed is favored
by conditions that favor the growth of oats. It is common in all cereal
growing areas of kenya and Tanzania highlands.
• Itch grass or guinea-fowl grass. (Rottboellia exaltata) is an annual grass
with sharps hairs on the edges. It germinates and comes up late in the
growing season and when mature, the seeds snap off. It survives well in
sandy soils and is a major problem in rice, sugar cane, maize and cotton
fields. It is important not only for its competitiveness but also for the
discomfort it causes to workers who come in contact with its brittle
irritating hairs.
• Sour grass or paspalum (Paspalum cojugatum) It is perennial with
creeping stolons and can torrelate shaded conditions. It also survives on
poor sandy acidic soils and can be propagated by seed.
 • Wild millet or crows foot grass. (Eleusine indica) is an annual weed that
resemble finger millet and reproduces by seed. It is one of the most wide
spread and troublesome annual grass weed in the tropical and subtropical
parts of the world and is found throughout east Africa.
• Cyperaceae (sedges)
There over 50 sedge species that occur as weeds in east Africa and they belong to
the Cyperaceae family. The most important include;
• Cyperus rotundus (purple nut sedge/ nut grass/nut sedge)
• Cyperus esculentus (yellow nut sedge/ water grass)
Which are the most important sedge weeds in east Africa. A common feature of
the nut sedges is the presence of underground bulbs and tubers which remain
dormant for long periods before they produce emergent shoots. Paradoxically, it’s
the most efficient famers who suffer most from nut sedges i.e. minimum tillage,
shallow cultivation, repeated use of herbicides, and mowing all tends to
encourage the growth of nut sedges.
• Nut grass or purple nut sedge (Cyperus rotundus)
It is perennial in nature and can survive in a wide range of soils. It is the most
troublesome of the two and is persistent in both dry and moist areas. It spreads
by slender horizontal rhizomes and has swollen tuberous bases.
• Yellow nut sedge ( Cyperus esculentus)
It is light green in colour and perennial in nature. It can be found in both low
moisture and high moisture fields. It reproduces by bulbs, bulblets ad
rhizomes.
• Oxalidaceae
This family includes Oxalis latifolia (oxalis) and Oxalis corniculata (yellow
soriel). Oxalis latifolia is the most troublesome of the two in east Africa and is
a problem in nurseries, annual field crops and horticultural crops. Oxalis
latifolia is perennial and reproduces by bulbs and bulbils and can also
reproduce by seed. It survives well under shade of coffee, tea and cocoa.
Oxalis corniculata is an annual weed larger in size than oxalis latifolia and is a
problem in gardens, nurseries and lawns. It can reproduce by root stalk and
seed. It is easier to control than oxalis latifolia that reproduces by bulbs and
bulbils.
• Commelinaceae
Weeds in this family have freshy and succulent stems and normally grow
along the ground. E.g Commelina benghalensis (wandering jew) which is
 commonest and most troublesome than Commelina africana. They both
survive for long and have the power to regenerate even when buried deep in
the soil. They are difficult to control because they are succulent and thus don’t
easily dry out.
• Compositeae;

Soil seed bank; is the store of seeds in the soil and is divided into surface seed bank
(active seed bank) and buried seed bank (dormant seed bank). An active seed bank
germinates to seedlings while a dormant seed bank awaits appropriate stimuli such as
light, moisture, oxygen or temperature. The soil seed bank can be reduced through
processes such as germination, predation, decay, and senescence.
Seed longevity in the soil depends upon the interaction of factors such as;
• Intrinsic or inbuilt dormancy of the seed (seed dormancy)
• Environmental conditions such as temperature, light, water, and gases such as
oxygen.
• Biotic activity from bacteria, fungi, predators, allelopathy.
The intensity and manner in which these factors interact also depends upon;
• Seed condition such as seed maturity and seed size.
• Location of the seed in the soil.
Seed dormancy; this is also termed as dispersal through time. Dormancy is a state of
suspended development or temporary failure of a viable seed to germinate under external
environmental conditions but later germinates when the restrictive state has been
terminated or released. Dormancy is affected by a number of factors including;
• Temperature; under adverse temperature conditions, seeds go into dormancy
until conditions are favorable.
• Moisture; low moisture causes dormancy in otherwise viable seeds.
• Light
• Chemicals or exudates from other plants.
Types of seed dormancy;
There three major types of seed dormancy including;
• Physical dormancy; due to the seed coat being impermeable to water.
• Physiological dormancy; this is the dormancy due to a chemical inhibiting
germination.
 • Morphological dormancy; this is due to an under developed or mature embryo.
Breaking seed dormancy
Breaking of seed dormancy must be synchronized with the arrival of suitable growing
conditions such as temperature, moisture, oxygen concentration, and light stimulus.
Advantages of dormancy to plants.
• Dormancy is a period of low metabolism which can prolong the life of a seed so
that the probability of experiencing good environmental conditions suitable for
germination and growth increases.
• Seeds are typically at low moisture level during dormancy which means there
mass and weight is decreased and therefore dispersal distance can be increased
resulting in a high probability of arriving at a safe site for survival.
• Dormancy can be induced or enforced so that growth does not occur until a
season which will maximize the potential for the plant to reach reproductive
stage.
Weed dispersal
By means of dispersal, weeds are easily dispersed especially by man. It has been
observed internationally that ornamental plants, foliage crops and vegetables have been
taken from one country to another with good intensions but have eventually turned out to
be weeds termed invasive weeds.
Most weeds have been dispersed by man by taking infested seed from one country to
another and using infected manure. Apart from man, other means of dispersal include;
• Wind; especially for weeds with special structure which enable they to be carried
by wind such as wings, hairs for easy flying.
Factors that influence wind dispersal include;
• Seed weight
• Seed structures such as wings
• Height if release.
• And wind speed.
• Water; certain seeds can float on water and as a result can be carried long
distances from rivers and lakes.
• Animals; some weeds attach themselves on animal fur/hair. Birds also carry seed
when flying from place to place and also depositing bird mature or droppings.
Principles of weed management.
The objectives of weed management programs include prevention, control and
eradication.
• Prevention; this is the keeping of a weed from being introduced into un-infested
area. Successful implementation depends on sanitation, prevention of seed
production and prevention of the spread of seed and vegetative parts or
propagules such as rhizomes.
Propagules are vegetative portions ofplants that can be removed from a mother
plant but can regrow and re-root after being removed.
• Control; this is the suppression of a weed to the point that its economic impact is
minimized. It is the practice most frequently employed once a weed is established.
Control methods don’t prevent all plants in an area from reproducing. A seed or
propagule reservoir is usually maintained and control practices must be continued
year after year to reduce the weed seed bank or seed reservoir.
• Eradication; is the complete elimination of all live plants, plant parts and seeds
from an area. Eradication includes the destruction of seeds, vegetative propagules
such as rhizomes, creeping roots and tubers. Elimination of a weed can be
achieved in cases of new small scale infestations, once a large area becomes
infested, there are almost no practical methods by which the long lived buried
seeds can be eliminated. Because seeds may remain dormant in the soil for many
years, it is easier to eliminate the living plants than seeds. Although any of all
these goals may be attempted, emphasis on weed management programs is placed
on control.

Design an intergrated weed management program in a crop of your choice?

Cultural Methods of weed control.

• Identification of the weed. Farmers can’t be expected to apply correct control
measures unless the problem of weeds has been correctly identified and there
significance as crop pests appreciated. A farmer needs to know if he has a grass,
sedge or broad leaf weed and whether there annuals or perennials. The choice of
control measures depends on several factors including susceptibility of the weed,
torrelance of the crop and cost. It is rear that one method is used. Usually several
methods are integrated e.g. a combination of land preparation, crop spacing,
herbicide application and timed weeding. Farmers should be flexible enough to
modify and change control methods whenever necessary because rigid use of a
single control procedure may give rise to serious weed problems. There are
several methods of weed control used in east Africa and these include cultural,
mechanical, biological and chemical. Often, the best and most economical way to
control weeds is the wise combination of two or more methods termed integrated
weed management.
The following are some of the technics available for weed control in east Africa;
• Preventive control; this is the procedure whereby weed species are prevented
from entering the field or increasing in population. It can be achieved by using
clean seed and farm machinery which are not contaminated with weed seeds
preventing weeds from producing seeds and inhibiting domestic livestock from
transferring weed seeds to clean fields.
• Land preparation; there is no substitute for good land preparation i.e. crops
planted in clean seed beds are more easily established and require less intensive
weed control than those sawn into poorly prepared land. During land preparation,
some of the most difficult weeds such as perennial grasses and sedges can be
subjected to methods of control which cannot be carried out in the presence of a
crop. Deep dry season cultivation or application of a non-selective herbicide are
some of the methods that can be employed during land preparation.
• Manual cultivation; basic tools of cultivation in east Africa include;
Heavy bladed hoe, the forked hoe, and a large knife (panger). Forked hoes are
useful for removing perennial grasses because they pull out intact rhizomes and
stolons with minimum damage to sensitive crop roots. Bladed hoes are more
damaging to crop roots and can aggravate perennial weed problem by cutting
rhizomes and stolons into small viable fragments. The panger can be used for
cutting down large woody weeds. Hand pulling can be used to remove large
weeds and is most practical and a commendable method for removing those
weeds which have escaped the main weed control treatment. Hand pulling and
manual cultivation should be recognized as being an integral part of any weed
control program and as a fine operation of removing surviving weeds which may
otherwise produce seed to contaminate crops in the future seasons.
• Mechanized cultivation or tillage; many different tractor mounted cultivation
implements are available in east Africa including ploughs, harrows, inter row
weeders, rotovators, moldboard ploughs are practical for burying weeds beneath
an inverted furrow but shallow cultivation also has a role in minimum tillage
systems. Cultivation is generally effective on weed seedlings but is usually un-
effective against weeds with underground perenating structures such as rhizomes,
stolons, tubers, bulbs, unless used to expose these propagules to extended periods
of desiccation. Animal or oxen drawn cultivators are used in some parts of east
Africa.
• Cutting, mowing and hand slashing; these are ineffective weed control methods
although they help to prevent soil erosion. Cut weeds continue to draw nutrients
and moisture from the soil and they regrow more rapidly than after cultivation. An
added risk is that the weed diversity can change to one dominated by prostate
perennial species such as Cynodon dactylonand Pennisetum clandestinum.
• Use of cover crops; these have limited use in east Africa though legumes could
be used to smother or suppress weeds in crops such as sisal and citrus. They also
offer several benefits to crops such as nitrogen fixation and soil protection.
However cover crops also carry risks including the potential for moisture
depression and excessive competition with the crop.
• Mulching; mulch prevents light from reaching weeds and in the case of black
polythene or synthetic mulch, it forms an impermeable or impervious barrior and
completely controls weeds due to change in the micro climate. Cereal straw,
maize stover, crop residues, banana leaves, and other organic material can be used
to suppress weeds in many perennial crops. Mulches can also be used to reduce
moisture loss and soil erosion however, mulch should not be contaminated with
weed seeds in order to be an effective weed control technic.
• Use of crop rotations; certain weeds are common in some crops than others.
Rotation in the same field of crops in an efficient way to reduce weed growth. A
good rotation for weed control usually includes strong competitive crops grown in
each part of the rotation. Certain weeds become adopted to repeated growing of a
crop e.g. wild oats in wheat and barley or annual sedges in flooded rice. The
development of populations of persistent weeds can be avoided by rotating crops
such that different control methods such as herbicides and cultural technics can be
employed. Grass lays serve a useful role in rotation because they compete with
and suppress many annual and perennial weeds.
• Use of crop competition; is the cheapest and most useful method available to
farmers. It involves using the best crop production methods which are favorable
to the crop such that the weeds are suppressed and out competed. crops vary in
their competitiveness to weeds but once established, most crops can suppress
further weed growth by shading the soil. Farmers can exploit this phenomenon of
crop competition by selecting vigorous cultivars or varieties, use of narrow
spacing or close spacing, planting early, keeping the crop healthy and promoting
early establishment by growing crops and transplants instead of from seeds,
placing fertilizers in the rooting zone of a crop is another method of improving
crop vigor relative to the unfertilized weeds. Cultural weed control relies on the
ability of the crop to out compete weeds for a competitive crop, annual weeds
emerging four weeks or more after planting may have no impact on the crop
yield.
• Flooding; weeds can be prevented from germinating by using water to deprive
them of oxygen. Flooding is a useful technic for weed control in rice but has little
implication in other crops. Water of about 5-10cm prevents the growth of most
weeds except those adopted to aquatic environment. Established weeds are more
tolerant to flooding and are capable of surviving of not completely submerged for
prolonged periods.
• Use of fire/ burning; the primary reason for burning is to get rid of excess plant
residue resulting from land clearing operations.it also helps to destroy weed seeds
and other crop pests that are either on the soil surface or associated with crop
residue. Directed burning with in many crops is possible with specialized
Equipements though great care is needed to protect the crops from damage.
Foliage of small plants is readily destroyed but seed and vegetative propagules
beneath the soil surface are unharmed and are a source of new growth. The
burning of cereal stubbles and straws can kill the significant number of weed
 seeds. Fire is often used on range lands to remove old vegetation, to encourage
regrowth of desired grazing pastures and to reduce the spread of some weeds.

Biological weed control;

This the reduction of a weed population to economically acceptable levels by use of
natural enemies such as parasites, predators, and pathogens or it is a natural process of
checking species populations without putting any more effect than predators, parasites,
and pathogens. Careful evaluations must take place before the introduction of a biological
control agent to ensure that such agents are harmless to crops and are unlikely to have
adverse effects on the environment. Biological control is especially important in the
management of certain perennial weeds in non-crop land situations especially for weeds
introduced from other areas. Introduced weeds would have left their natural enemies in
their native areas thus in classical biological control, the control agent is introduced from
a native area of the weed to control weeds in there new area of introduction where their
natural enemies are absent.
Although they have been some outstanding breakthrough for success particularly in non-
crop land situations such as rangelands and aquatic sites.it could be a while for a
biological control used for weed management with the frequency like their very nature.
Bio control organisms are selective in their food preferences and that is achievable of
tillage and herbicides. This method works best for mono weeds from range lands or water
hyacinth water ways. The purpose is to reduce the population of the weed below the
economic level. Eradication of the target weed is not possible by this method as the
agents only survive in the presence of the host but it is possible to achieve stable low
populations after several years.
Criteria for success
• To be successful, a biological control agent must possess certain characteristics
other than the ability to reduce the weed population to non-destructive levels.
• It must not have non target/ desirable plants i.e. it should be host specific
• It must be able to reproduce quickly enough to prevent the weed from competing
with desirable plants.
• It must survive and maintain a population equilibrium between itself and non-
competing levels of the weed. For this to be possible, the weed must be perennial
so that the agent is assured of continuous food supply throughout the year.
• It must be adaptable to the environment of the host i.e. it should be free from its
own predators or pathogens
Advantages of biological control
• No chemical residues in the environment
• Self-perpetuating once established i.e. it does not need to be applied again and
again
 • Less chances of the weed developing resistance to bio control agent.
• Inexpensive after initial costs of development
• It is effective in areas not easily accessible by other control methods
Disadvantages associated with biological with biological weed control
• The behavior of the bio control agent may change, there is no guarantee of
safety that the agent will only attack the weed without attacking the crop. Host
specificity is not guaranteed since the bio control agent may attack other
unintended hosts.
• It never eradicates the weed problem completely since the weed is the main
food
• It acts very slowly and the weed will continue to affect the crop
• It is very difficult to select the specific feeding insects since it is only a
specific stage that is used as a bio control agent usually the larvae are used
leaving the other stages that would be pests of crops
• It is irreversible after release i.e. insects remain in the environment once
released even if they become a problem.
Examples of bio control agents
Insects
Insects have been the major bio control agents of terrestrial weeds. Some are host specific
and may not change their feeding habits so readily while others respond to certain
chemical stimulants called phygo-stimulants
These chemicals are produced by few crop species and are very advantageous in
controlling the agents feeding habits. Some insects respond to the nutritional status of the
weed and its morphological features such as surface hairiness and smoothness e.g.
panicum spp don’t produce phygo-stimulants but an insect may not attack all its species
because some are hairy and others are smooth.
Microorganism
Microorganisms e.g. pathogens, fungi are the main agents in this group because they are
highly host specific compared to insects and predators. They are also numerous in nature
and can easily cultured in the laboratory

Herbivorous fish
Mainly used for controlling aquatic weeds and many of them are host specific for
example tilapia spp controls algae and other sea weeds.
Grazing animals
Grazing animals e.g. goats, sheep and cows and other animals such as rodents, snail and
birds
Examples of successful bio control programs
• Control of prickly-pear cactus (opuntia spp) in Australia
This was the first large scale success in biological control of a weed. Theses cactile were
introduced as ornamentals in 1800s from North and South America where they were
native
They escaped cultivation and infested grazing lands. The cactus moth (Cactoblastis
cactorum) collected from Argentina was very effective.
• The control of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) using weevil spp.
(Neochetina eichhorniae) and (Neochetina bruchi)

CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL

This refers to all weed control practices in which toxic chemicals known as herbicides are
used to kill, suppress or modify weed growth in such a way as to prevent interference
with crop growth.
A herbicide is a phyto-toxic chemical used for inhibiting or killing the growth of a plant.
Technologies are not used without problems although the benefits may exceed the risks.
Some common problems associated with herbicides are related to their inherent ability to
kill plants.
These problems include;
• Injury to non-target vegetation such as crop injury
• It leaves residues in the soil from the previous season
• Inconsistent weed control is a frequent problem i.e. patchy control leaving other
weeds unharmed
• Fish can be killed when herbicides enter ponds, lakes and streams. Fish don’t die
as a direct result of herbicides toxicity, but because herbicides kill algae and other
aquatic plants which as they decompose deplete oxygen from water a condition
called anorexia
• Injury to the applicator and livestock
Most of these problems can be minimized through proper selection, storage, handling and
application of herbicides
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF HERBICIDES
Herbicides are classified on the basics of either their use, mode of action, time of
application and chemical properties.
Classification based on use;
The two major groups based on use are selective and non-selective herbicides
• Selective herbicides
The selective ones kill some of the species in a mixed population leaving others
unharmed. They kill or impair the growth of certain plant species when applied to a
mixed population but cause practically no injury to other treated plants e.g. 2,4D is a
selective weed killer which kills only broad leaved weeds without damaging maize
depending on the dose or rate of application. This phenomenon is known as herbicide
selectivity. Usually seedlings of most weeds are more susceptible to herbicides than
mature weed plants
• Non selective herbicides
These indiscriminately kill all plants that they come in contact with e.g. glyphosate
(round up), gramoxone (paraquat). They are either contact or Trans located but the
majority are Trans located. Paraquat is an example of a contact, non-selective herbicide
while roundup is a Trans located non-selective herbicides.
Classification based on mode of action
These have major groups i.e. contact trans located or systemic and soil strilants
• Contact herbicides
They kill plant tissue that comes in direct contact with them, all contact herbicides are
applied to the foliage of the plants, usually annual plants are killed by contact herbicides
such as paraquat (gramoxone) which is a broad spectrum contact herbicide. Bentazone
(Basagram) used for weed control in soy bean and rice and propanil used in rice
• Trans located or systemic herbicides
These are readily absorbed by leaves, stems or roots of treated plants, following uptake
these herbicides move through the vascular system of the plant to organs where they exert
their toxic action.
Some herbicides move preferably in the phloem of treated plants along with food
materials e.g. sucrose. These herbicides tend to enter the plant through the leaves and the
stems i.e. they are foliar applied. Examples of herbicides that move in the living vascular
tissue are 2,4D, amitrole and dicamba and pidoram. Some systemic herbicides mainly
move in the xylem vessels along with water and minerals. These herbicides are generally
taken up by plant roots in the soil. Examples of herbicides that move through the xylem
vessels are atrazine, simazine, diuron metolachlor, alachlor. Some move freely both in
xylem and phloem and may enter the plants through the leaves or roots for example
Dicamba and Pictoram
Soil sterilants
These prevent the growth of all plants when applied in the soil at a high concentrations.
There effects may be temporary or may last for ,any years depending on the type of
herbicide and application rate used, soil sterilants are often used along rights of way such
as along railway trucks and pipe lines. Examples are sterilants are high rates of simazine,
diuron and bromacil.
Classification according to time of application
There are three main groups i.e;
• Pre-planting
• Pre-emergency
• Post-emergency
• Pre-planting herbicides (pre-plant incorporation)
These are applied before the crop is planted it can be folia, selective or non-selective
herbicide applied to control uncultivated (fallow) vegetation. Examples are glyphosate
and paraquat. Some volatile herbicides applied before planting the crop have to be
incorporated in the soil to minimize loss by volatilization. These include;
• EPTC
• Butylate
• Trifluralin
Two conditions are required for pre planting herbicides to be effective;
• The plant has to be tolerant to the herbicide
• The herbicide has to be placed or incorporated deep enough to control the weed
• Pre emergency herbicides
These are applied before the emergency of the crop. Herbicides in this group either
prevent germination or kill seedlings of weeds. They are generally not effective against
established weeds. They require soil moisture to be effective and often fail to control
weeds if applied on dry soil. They may be selective killing mainly broad leaf seedlings.
For example fluometron and diuron or they may be selective killing grass seedlings for
example alachlor and pendamethalin. Some pre emergency herbicides are effective on
both broad leaves and grasses for example atrazine
• Post emergency herbicides
These are applied after the emergency of the crop and the weed. They have little or no
soil activity and have to be applied to the foliage of weeds i.e they are folia applied. They
may be contact or systemic in action. Commonly used post emergency herbicide is 2, 4 D
used for control of broad leaved weeds
To be effective every herbicide must reach its site of action within the plant in sufficient
concentration in order to disrupt the vital functions. This is achieved in four major steps
including;
• Contact and retention on the plant
• Penetration into the plant through the exposed parts
• Translocation or movement from the site of entry to the site of action
• Disruption of vital plant functions such as photosynthesis respiration enzyme
activity cell division and differentiation
Herbicide selectivity
Weeds grow under similar conditions as crops and many weeds belong to the same plant
families as crops i.e. they are taxonomically related. Therefore there is great resemblance
between them and because of this application or herbicides becomes very difficult
because we are dealing with related plants. Herbicide selectivity therefore means the
chemical is able to kill certain plants while having no effect on others. In general
selectivity depends on the following factors;
• Physical factors
such as morphological differences between plants, for example cereals have upright or
vertical leaves, waxy surfaces and their growing points are protected or covered in the
leaf sheath which allows the chemical to roll off easily while broad leaved leaves have
horizontal leaves, hairy surfaces and exposed growing points which tend to intercept
more chemical. Chemicals such as 24D and MCPA are normally used in cereals to
control broad leaved weeds because of the above mentioned morphological factors
• Differential interception of chemicals
This is herbicide selectivity due to relative rooting depth of plant species. If one specie is
shallow rooted and another is deep rooted, this may lead to selectivity i.e. crop with deep
rooted roots will escape the chemical while the shallow rooted weeds will absorb the
chemical. Selectivity based on differential interception of chemicals due to rooting depth
is referred to as depth protection this phenomenon maybe unreliable because when it
rains the chemicals carried down the soil may affect deep rooted crops.
• Selectivity based on physiological resistance
For example the case of atrazine and simazine in maize. Maize is more resistant to these
herbicides because of its ability to convert them to non-toxic substances using certain
enzymes but most weeds may not be able to do this because they lack these enzymes. If
not detoxified by these enzymes, these herbicides have a strong effect on growth
processes such as photosynthesis and respiration leading to the death of the weeds.
Chemical weed control is a technology that should be handled with great care because if
wrongly used these compounds can lead to heavy losses. Crop injury or poor weed
control usually results from one or more of the following situations;
• Carelessness or ignorance on the part of the operator. The operator rarely knows
the characteristics of these chemicals
• Application of improper doses which may be too high or too low for example
2,4D in low doses behaves like a growth hormone and in in high doses as a weed
killer
• Miss application of chemicals for example application of post emergency instead
of a pre emergency or vice Vassar i.e. improper timeliness of application with
respect to the growth of the crop o the weed
• Failure to calibrate the equipment properly
• Improper soil incorporation of herbicides
The following are safety precautions in handling herbicides
• Read the label on the container completely and carefully. Manufacturers or
suppliers should give adequate information on dose, methods of application and
potential hazards to enable the safe use of their product
• Store herbicides in a safe place away from food children fertilizers and crop seed
• Wash out used containers and dispose them in a place where they can do no harm
• Don’t keep herbicides in unlabeled containers or they may be mistaken for other
products
• Never mix or touch herbicides with bear hands. Always use stirrers and suitable
containers
• Never try to clear blocked nozzles by sucking or blowing. Use a sharpened piece
of wood instead.
• Do not inhale herbicides either as a concentrated liquid, dust or as a diluted spray.
Wear a face mask over the nose and mouth and handle the concentrate in a well-
ventilated area
• Wear adequate protective clothing to prevent herbicide contact with eyes and skin
for example gloves, hat(cape), goggles, face masks and overall are some of the
clothes which may be needed but in practice many operators in the tropics find
this uncomfortable and reject their use. The minimum standard clothing for
operators is long trousers, shoes or boots, long sleeved shirts and handkerchief as
a face mask. However these are barely adequate substitute for the correct
protective clothing. All clothes should be changed and washed every day after use
• If the herbicide goes into the eyes wash or flush immediately with plenty of water.
Chemicals on the skin should be washed off immediately with soap and plenty
which should be in an easily accessible place for the operator.
 • Always wash hands before handling food and cigarettes after applying herbicides
• If feeling unwell after using herbicides consult a doctor without delay preferably
taking the product label which could aid diagnosis and treatment.
• Avoid contaminating water ways with herbicide spray and never wash out
containers and equipment in water that might later be used to irrigate crops or be
consumed by man and livestock.
• Do not endanger wild life during spraying or expose to toxic residues

Herbicide formulation
The term herbicide formulation has two related meanings in reference to chemical weed
control.
A formulation is a herbicide preparation supplied by the manufacturer for practical use. A
formulation includes all contents inside the container including the active ingredient
which is the actual toxicant that kills the weed plus inert ingredients such as solvents,
diluents and various spray additives or adjuvants. A spray additive or adjuvant is any
substance used with a herbicide that enhances the performance or handling of the
herbicide for example surfactants, anti-foaming agents, compatibility agents, crop oil
concentrates and drift control agents.
Formulation is also a process carried out by the manufacturer of preparing herbicides for
practical use. Through the formulation process, the manufacturer provides the user with
the herbicide in a form that is convenient to handle and in which if used correctly and
applied accurately at the correct dose uniformly and with safety to the applicator.
Most herbicides are formulated so that they can be applied in a suitable and convenient
carrier. A herbicide carrier is either a gas, liquid or solid substance used to dilute or
suspend a herbicide during application. Most commonly spray able preparations are
formulated to be diluted with and applied in solvents such as water, fertilizer solution and
oil. Some herbicides are formulated to be applied as dry granular or pelleted preparations
directly from the container. Dusts are not usually used as herbicides because the present
problems in handling and they drift to non-target vegetation.
Reasons for herbicide formulations
• To enhance the phyto- toxicity or efficiency of the chemicals
• To enhance uniform distribution of relatively small amounts of a herbicide over a
comparatively large area
• To provide the consumer with the herbicide that is easy to handle i.e. the chemical
is supplied to the consumer in an economic from
• To include the shelf life or storage of the herbicides i.e. the herbicide will store
for a long period of time when well formulated
 • To protect the herbicide from adverse environmental conditions while in transit or
storage

In conclusions, formulations may vary according to two major differences

The solubility of the herbicide active ingredient in water, oil or organic solvents
The manner in which the formulation is supplied i.e. whether it is dispersed in a carrier
such as water or applied as a dry formulation in the field

INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT

This is a weed management system that suppresses weeds by combining two or more
weed control methods i.e. integrated weed management approach economically combines
aspects or two or more weed control methods at low input levels to keep weed
competition in a given cropping system below an economic threshold. Integrated weed
management involves using a combination of the available technics such as the
preventive, mechanical, biological and chemical methods.
The following are some advantages of integration;
• It is easier to remove weeds which cannot be controlled by a single method
• It is cheaper and time saving since several methods are being applied
simultaneously
• It minimizes environmental problems such as pollution since the rates of
herbicide application are reduced
PARASITIC WEED STIRGA AND ITS MANAGEMENT
It’s a hemi-obligate parasitic weed
It belongs to the family orabanchaceae
Striga species are parasitic in nature collectively known as witch weeds and they belong
to the family orabanchaceae. Striga is of economic importance in many parts of east
Africa especially on sandy soils of low fertility.
In Uganda it is mainly found in the northern and eastern parts. Economically important
species in east Africa include the purple witch weed (Striga hermonthica), red witch
weed (Striga asiatica), Striga forbesii, Striga gesmeriodes
Striga hermonthica is the most important species causing considerable damage to cereal
crops such as maize, sorghum, finger millet and sugar cane. Striga asiatica occurs mainly
in coastal areas and in southern Tanzania where it is found on the same crops as Striga
hermonthica. Striga forbesii is less common but occurs as a parasite of rice and sorghum
in parts of Tanzania. Striga gesmeriodes is common in east Africa but has shown little
signs of becoming a serious pest. Striga seeds have the capacity to remain viable in the
soil seed bank for as long as twenty years in the absence of a suitable host. The seedlings
attach themselves to the roots of host plants, establish a vascular connection with the host
xylem and extract photosynthetic products in transit from the shoots to the roots. This
gives the host plant a stressed weak appearance with symptoms similar to those of
moisture stress and nutrient starvation for example stunted growth, yellowing, wilting.
These symptoms can be seen before Striga emerges from the soil and there severity
indicates the level of Striga infestation. Crop losses due to Striga vary with the level of
infestation but total crop failure is possible in worst situations.
Peasant small holder farmers tend to be more affected than large mechanized estates
probably due to better cultural practices such as crop rotation, use of fertilizers and
correct spacing. An integrated approach combining two or more control measure is most
likely to achieve success but requires further research and famer education by extension
services if the small holder famer is to benefit.

How striga lives

Striga is a parasitic weed, which lives on the roots of cereal crops. Striga sucks its food
from the crop and does not rely on the soil. Striga likes to grow in poor soils.
Striga does not reproduce through its roots, but only through seeds. One striga plant can
make hundreds ofthousands of seeds. The seeds are so tiny that mostfarmers do not know
they are seeds. They look like black dust. They are held in a pod that looks like a weevil.
When you crush the pod, the seeds are released. Striga seeds only sprout after they
receive a signal from nearby roots of a cereal crop, like sorghum, millet, maize or rice.
The roots of the striga seed then enter the roots of the cereal to suck its water and
nutrients.
The young striga plants develop underground for up toseven weeks, and emerge after all
the other weeds. Striga may escape the first round of weeding. If you let striga produce
seeds there will be even more of it the next year. So you need to identify striga before it
flowers. Unlike other weeds, striga appears as a batch near the sorghum plant, because it
attacks sorghum roots. Striga cannot attack all crops. Some crops like cotton,tobacco,
sesame, cowpea and groundnuts are called trap crops. The striga sprouts when it is near
trap crops, but it cannot penetrate their roots, so it dies.

Control measures
It is quite difficult to control Striga because Striga plants cause damage before they
emerge from the ground. Currently no single control available can provide complete
Striga control and many of those available have limited applicability on small farms.
The following are some of the control measures being used to manage Striga;
• Cultivation- this can reduce seedlings but it is also known to increase Striga
germination from the soil thus ineffective Striga control method
• Hand pulling- striga seedlings can be hand pulled before they flower to minimize
seed production thus reducing the soil seed bank
• Use of trap crops- crop rotation using trap crops such as cotton sun flower, g nuts
may reduce the striga soil seed reservoir. Trap crops induce or stimulate striga
germination but are not parasitized themselves since they are non-host crops thus
the weed dies of starvation. Also intercropping cereals with legumes especially
those that induce suicidal striga germination can reduce the striga soli seed bank
and this is termed as the push pull technology. This is where a combination of a
legume cereal crop such as maize and Napier grass or elephant grass leads to
control of maize stem borers and manages the striga problem i.e. desmodium and
maize are planted in alternated rows while Napier grass is planted guard rows
around the maize desmodium intercrop. Legume desmodium acts as a trap crop
that induces striga suicidal germination while Napier grass attracts stem borers
from the maize crop thus leading to improved maize yield
• Use of herbicides- there is no herbicide that can provide a perfect selective control
of striga but some such as 2, 4 D may partially prevent emergency or kill emerged
striga seedlings, this may not be effective since striga parasite may already have
infected the crop before its emergency from the soil
• Use of IR maize ( imidazolinone resistant maize) coated by herbicide – in this
case maize seeds coated with herbicide that control striga emergency and thus no
damage is done to the crop. IR maize is bred to be resistant to imidazolinone or
imazpyr, a herbicide that is highly poisonous to striga. The IR maize is coated
with a herbicide that kills the striga seedlings as they germinate and they can’t
successfully get attached to the host crop. The disadvantage with IR maize is that
farmers have to purchase seeds every season because of intellectual property
issues.
• Use of nitrogen fertilizers- striga is less damaging under fertile conditions.
Improved soil fertility management using inorganic or organic fertilizers such as
organic manures, may reduce striga problem since striga is a major problem on
low fertility soils.
• Use of resistant varieties- some crop cultivars are resistant to striga because they
produce little or no root exudates to stimulate seed germination
• Integrated control- while any of the above approaches may not be adequate on
their own, combinations of two or more control measures can make a significant
impact.