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¢ Graph
¢ Adjacency Matrix

¢ Adjacency List

¢ Greedy algorithms

¢ Making changes with fewest coins

¢ Shortest Distance

¢ Dijkstra’s Algorithm

¢ Minimum Spanning tree

¢ Kruskal’s Algorithm

¢ Prim’s Algorithm

CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

 Graphs

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¢ A graph is a set of nodes (vertices) joined by
edges (arcs).
¢ A graph may be directed or undirected

¢ A graph is connected if you can get from any

node to any other node by following edges.

CSCI203 - Algorithms and Data Structures

¢A directed graph is strongly connected if
you can get from any node to any other
node by following directed edges.

CSCI203 - Algorithms and Data Structures

¢ Anacyclic graph is one in which there is
no path from any node back to the same
node that does not involve retracing edges

CSCI203 - Algorithms and Data Structures

¢ In a graph, two graph vertices are
adjacent if they are joined by a graph
edge.
¢ The adjacency matrix of a simple graph is
a matrix with rows and columns labeled
by graph vertices, with a 1 or 0 in position
according to whether and are adjacent or
not.

CSCI203 - Algorithms and Data Structures

http://mathworld.wolfram.com/AdjacencyMatrix.html
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CSCI203 - Algorithms and Data Structures

¢ The adjacency list representation of a graph
consists of n lists one for each vertex.
1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1 1
2 1 0 0 0
3 0 1 0 1
4 0 1 1 0

1 -> 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4

2 -> 1
3 -> 2 -> 4
4 -> 2 -> 3

CSCI203 - Algorithms and Data Structures

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CSC2103 - Data Structures & Algorithms

CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms
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¢ Optimization problem
— An optimization problem is one in which we
want to find not just a solution but the best
solution.
— “Greedy algorithm” sometimes works well for
optimization problems
— “Greedy algorithm” works in phases. At each
phase
¢ Take the best which can get it now, without regarding future
consequences

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Greedy algorithm solves optimization problems
by making locally optimal choices and hoping
that these choices lead to a globally optimal
solution . These algorithms work by taking
what seems to be the best decision at each step.
¢ No backtracking is done (once a choice is made
we are stuck with it)
¢ Easy to design
¢ Easy to implement
¢ Efficient (when they work)

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¢ Example 1: making change
¢ Given we have $2, $1, 50¢, 20¢, 10¢, 5¢ and 1¢ coins; what is
the best (fewest coins) way to pay any given amount?
¢ The greedy approach is to pay as much as possible using the
largest coin value possible, repeatedly until the amount is
paid.

¢ E.g. to pay $17.97 we pay 8 $2 coins, 1 $1, 1 50¢ coin, 2 20¢

coins, 1 5¢ coin and 2 1¢ coins (15 coins total).
¢ This is the optimal solution (although this is harder to prove
than you might think).
¢ Note that this algorithm will not work with an arbitrary set
of coin values.
¢ Adding a 12¢ coin would result in 15¢ being made from 1 12¢
and 3 1¢ (4 coins) instead of 1 10¢ and 1 5¢ coin (2 coins).

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

How Greedy Algorithms Work?
¢ We start with a set of candidates which have not yet
been considered for the solution
¢ As we proceed, we construct two further sets:
— Candidates that have been considered and selected
— Candidates that have been considered and rejected
¢ At each step we check to see if we have reached a
solution
¢ At each step we also check to see if a solution can be
reached at all
¢ At each step we select the best acceptable candidate
from the unconsidered set and move it into the
selected set
¢ We also move any unacceptable candidates into the
rejected set
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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

16
Example 2: Shortest Path
¢ Let G= (N, E) be a connected, directed graph
consisting of a set of nodes N, and a set of
directed edges E.
¢ Each edge has a length, the distance from the
node at one end of the edge to the node at the
other end.
¢ One node is designated the source node
¢ The problem is to find the shortest path from
the source node to each of the other nodes
¢ The most popular shortest path algorithm is
Dijkstra’s Algorithm

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

For example, find the shortest path from Node 1 to
all other nodes.
1
10 50

5 2
30
100

10
5
20

4 3
50

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Dijkstra’s Algorithm: An Example

Step 0 S={1} C = {2, 3, 4, 5}

D = [50, 30, 100, 10]

1
10 50

5 2
30
100

10
5
20

4 3 19
50

CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Dijkstra’s Algorithm: An Example

1
10 50

5 2
30
100

10
5
20

4 3 20
50

CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Dijkstra’s Algorithm: An Example

Step 0 S = { 1 ,5} C = {2, 3, 4}

D = [50, 30, 100, 10]

1
10 50

5 2
30
D=10 100

10
5
20

End of Step 0
4 3 21
50

CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Dijkstra’s Algorithm: An Example

Step 1 S = { 1 ,5} C = {2, 3, 4}

D = [50, 30, 20, 10]

1
10 50

5 2
30
D=10 100

10
5
20

4 3 22
50

CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Dijkstra’s Algorithm: An Example

Step 1 S = { 1 ,5} C = {2, 3, 4}

D = [50, 30, 20, 10]

1
10 50

5 2
30
D=10 100

10
5
20

End of Step 1
4 3 23
50
D=20
CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms
¢ Dijkstra’s Algorithm: An Example

Step 2 S = { 1 ,5,4} C = {2, 3}

D = [50, 30, 20, 10]

1
10 50

5 2
30
D=10 100

10
5
20

4 3 24
50
D=20
CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms
¢ Dijkstra’s Algorithm: An Example

Step 2 S = { 1 ,5,4,3} C = {2}

D = [50, 30, 20, 10]

1
10 50

5 2
30
D=10 100

10
5
20
End of Step 2
4 3 25
50 D=30
D=20
CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms
¢ Dijkstra’s Algorithm: An Example

Step 3 S = { 1 ,5,4,3} C = {2}

D = [50, 30, 20, 10]

1
10 50

5 2
30
D=10 100

10
5
20

4 3 26
50 D=30
D=20
CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms
¢ Dijkstra’s Algorithm: An Example

Step 3 S = { 1 ,5,4,3} C = {2}

D = [40, 30, 20, 10]

1
10 50

5 2
30
D=10 100

10
5
20

4 3 27
50 D=30
D=20
CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms
¢ Dijkstra’s Algorithm: An Example

Step 3 S = { 1 ,5,4,3} C = {2}

D = [35, 30, 20, 10]

1
10 50

5 2
30
D=10 100

10
5
20

4 3 28
50 D=30
D=20
CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms
¢ Dijkstra’s Algorithm: An Example

Step 3 S = { 1 ,5,4,3,2} C={}

D = [35, 30, 20, 10]

1
10 50

5 2
30
D=10 100 D=35
10
5
20
End of Step 2

4 3 29
50 D=30
D=20
CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms
Dijkstra’s Algorithm
¢ Uses two sets of nodes S and C
¢ At each iteration S contains the set of
nodes that have already been chosen
¢ At each iteration C contains the set of
nodes that have not yet been chosen
¢ At each step we move the node which is
cheapest to reach from C to S
¢ An arrayD contains the shortest path so
far from the source to each node

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

Initialize array D[2..n]
C→{2,3,..,n}
S →{1} Start node
For i → 2 to n do D[i] → L[1,i] // put initial values into array D
Repeat n-2 times
v → an element of C minimizing D[v]
C → C-{v} // remove v from C
S → S U {v} add v to S
for each w in C do
D[w] → min(D[w],D[v]+L[v,w]) Return D

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms
32
¢A sub graph that spans (reaches out)
to all vertices of a graph is called
a spanning sub graph.
¢ A sub graph that is a tree and that
spans (reaches out to ) all vertices of the
original graph is called a spanning tree.
¢ °Among all the spanning trees of a
weighted and connected graph, the one
(possibly more) with the least total weight
is called a minimum spanning tree (MST).
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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Minimum Spanning Tree
— Let G = (N, E) be a connected, undirected graph
consisting of a set of nodes, N, and a set of edges E.
— Each edge has a length, the distance from the node
at one end of the edge to the node at the other end.
— The problem is to find a subset, S, of the edges of G
such that the graph G¢ = (N, S) is still connected
and that the total length of the edges in S is
minimized.
— G¢ is called the minimum spanning tree for the
graph G

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Minimum Spanning Tree

1 1 2 2 3 1 1 2 2 3

6 5
4 4 6 4
3
3 8

4 5 6 4 5 6

7
4 3 4 3

G 7 G¢ 7

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

Minimum Spanning Tree
¢ Two possible paths of attack seem possible:
— Start with an empty set S and select at each
stage the shortest edge that has been neither
selected nor rejected.
— Start at a given node and at each stage select
into S the shortest edge that extends the
graph to a new node
— Strangely, both approaches work

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms
37
¢ Kruskal’s Algorithm
— Start with an initially empty set of edges S.
— Add edges to S
— At each step add the shortest edge to S which
increases the connectedness of the graph.
— Reject a candidate edge if it does not effect the
connectedness of S.
— Stop when the graph is connected.

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Kruskal’s Algorithm: An Example
¢ Step 0 - {1} {2} {3} {4} {5} {6} {7}

1 1 2 2 3 1 2 3

6
4 4 5 6
3

4 5 8 6 4 5 6
7
4
3

G 7 G¢ 7

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Kruskal’s Algorithm: An Example
¢ Step 1 {1, 2} {1, 2} {3} {4} {5} {6} {7}

1 2 2 3 1 1 2 3

6 5
4 4 6

3 8

4 5 6 4 5 6

4 7 3

G 7 G¢ 7

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Kruskal’s Algorithm: An Example
¢ Step 2 {2, 3} {1, 2, 3} {4} {5} {6} {7}

1 2 2 3 1 1 2 3

6 5
4 4 6
3 8

4 5 6 4 5 6

4 7
3

G 7 G¢ 7

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Kruskal’s Algorithm: An Example
¢ Step 3 {4, 5} {1, 2, 3} {4, 5} {6} {7}

1 2 2 3 1 1 2 3

6 5
4 4 6
3 8

4 5 6 4 5 6

4 7 3

G 7 G¢ 7

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Kruskal’s Algorithm: An Example
¢ Step 4 {6, 7} {1, 2, 3} {4, 5} {6, 7}

1 2 2 3 1 1 2 3

6 5
4 4 6
3 8

4 5 6 4 5 6

4 7 3

G 7 G¢ 7

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Kruskal’s Algorithm: An Example
¢ Step 5 {1, 4} {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} {6, 7}

1 2 2 3 1 1 2 3

6 5
4 4 6
3 8

4 5 6 4 5 6

4 7 3

G 7 G¢ 7

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Kruskal’s Algorithm: An Example
¢ Step 5 {2, 5} {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} {6, 7} - rejected

1 2 2 3 1 1 2 3

6 5
4 4 6
3 8

4 5 6 4 5 6

4 7 3

G 7 G¢ 7

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Kruskal’s Algorithm: An Example
¢ Step 5 {4, 7} {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} - done

1 2 2 3 1 1 2 3

6 5
4 4 6
3 8

4 5 6 4 5 6

4 7 3

G 7 G¢ 7

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

1 (Sort the edges in an increasing order)
2 A:={ }
3 while E is not empty do {
3 take an edge (u, v) that is shortest in E
and delete it from E
4 if u and v are in different components
then
add (u, v) to A
}
Note: each time a shortest edge in E is
considered.
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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms
48
Let O be a set of nodes and S a set of edges
Initially O contains the first node of N and S is
empty
At each step look for the shortest edge {u, v} in E
such that u Î O and v Ï O
Add {u, v} to S
Add v to O
Repeat until O = N
Note that, at each step, S is a minimum
spanning tree on the nodes in O

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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Prim’s Algorithm: An Example
¢ Step 0 - {1}

1 1 2 2 3 1

6
4 4 5 6
3

4 5 8 6
7
4
3

G 7 G¢
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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Prim’s Algorithm: An Example
¢ Step 1 {1, 2} {1, 2}

1 1 2 2 3 1 2

6
4 4 5 6
3

4 5 8 6
7
4
3

G 7 G¢
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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Prim’s Algorithm: An Example
¢ Step 2 {2, 3} {1, 2, 3}

1 2 2 3 1 1 2 3

6 5
4 4 6

3 8

4 5 6

4 7 3

G 7 G¢
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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Prim’s Algorithm: An Example
¢ Step 3 {1, 4} {1, 2, 3, 4}

1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2

6 4 5 6 4

3 8
4 5 6 4

4 7 3

G 7 G¢
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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Prim’s Algorithm: An Example
¢ Step 4 {4, 5} {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2

6 4 5 6 4

8 3
4 5 6 4 5

4 7 3

G 7 G¢
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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Prim’s Algorithm: An Example
¢ Step 5 {4, 7} {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}

1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2

6 4 5 6 4

8 3
4 5 6 4 5

7 3 4

G 7 G¢ 7
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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms

¢ Prim’s Algorithm: An Example
¢ Step 5 {7, 6} {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} – done

1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2

6 4 5 6 4

8 3
4 5 6 4 5 6

7 4 3

G 7 G¢ 7
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CSC1203 - Data Structures & Algorithms