Condensed Matter Physics and the Solid State
Seeks to describe the physical behavior of large number of particles
3 States of Matter
Gas Liquid Solid fluid
Crystals
A crystal lattice is a periodic array of points in space
Most simple chemical compounds in the solid state are crystalline
Crystal Lattice
(simple cubic)
Crystal Habits
(cubic)
From H. E. Hall
Microscopic view of a Cu(001) Surface:
Atomic-scale terraces are visible Mounds appear as microscopic habits on an optically flat surface
100 nm
500 nm
Zuo & Wendelken, PRL 78 2791 (1997)
High-Temperature Superconductor: YBa2Cu3O7 O Cu Building blocks of the crystal lattice can contain complex units Y
Ba
www.wfu.edu/~lawct/ybco.html
Crystals
A crystal lattice is a periodic array of points in space
Most simple chemical compounds in the solid state are crystalline There are many amorphous compounds: no long-range order (glass and vitreous are other terms also used for this)
As we will see, crystalline materials helped physicists understand condensed matter
Crystal Structure = Lattice + Basis
Lattice: an infinite periodic array of points, each of which represents a quantity (basis) whose arrangement and orientation appear exactly the same at all points in the array.
Position vector:
r r r r R = n1a1 + n2 a2 + n3 a3
Primitive vectors: the set of the smallest translation vectors that make up the lattice
Any point on a lattice can be reached by an appropriate choice of n1, n2, n3 (integers)
Basis: units or objects that are located at each lattice point.
Unit Cells
Primitive Unit Cell: Volume of space that can be translated through all primitive vectors of the lattice. It exactly fills space without overlapping or gaps. The definition is not unique.
r r r Vc = a3 (a2 a1 )
The Wigner-Seitz Primitive Cell a popular primitive cell construction Draw lines between neighboring atoms Draw lines perpendicular through the midpoint of these Wigner-Seitz cell is the smallest enclosed volume
Conventional Unit Cell (the Unit Cell): Can be primitive or nonprimitive cell (it can contain more than one lattice point/cell which would be included as a basis).
Primitive
Non-primitive (2 lattice points per unit cell in this example)
Bravais Lattices
Symmetry group of a crystal contains both: Translational Symmetry Point Symmetry
Point Symmetry Operations
2 Rotation n Cn
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
Reflection (mirror)
Inversion
r r r r
http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/j.p.goss/symmetry/Stereographs.html http://www.reciprocalnet.org/edumodules/symmetry/operations/index.html
C2 2mm One 2-fold rotation axis Two mirror planes
http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/j.p.goss/symmetry/index.html
Bravais Lattices
Symmetry group of a crystal contains both: Translational Symmetry Point Symmetry
2D: 5 Bravais lattice types 3D: 14 Bravais lattice types
Five Bravais Lattices in 2D
From Marder
Objects with 5-fold symmetry cannot fill space
3 Dimensions:
7 Crystal Systems 14 Bravais Lattices
http://frank.mtsu.edu/~njsmith/modernii/lec10I.html
Lowest symmetry
abc
Highest symmetry 3 Cubic Lattices
a=b=c o = = = 90
2 Tetragonal Lattices
a=bc o = = = 90
4 Orthorhombic Lattices
abc o = = = 90
1 Hexagonal Lattice
c a a
a=bc o = = 90 o = 120
1 Trigonal Lattice
Rhombohedral or Trigonal
a=b=c o o = = < 120 90
2 Monoclinic Lattices
abc o = = 90
3 Dimensions: 7 Crystal Systems 14 Bravais Lattices
From Kittel
BCC Conventional & Primitive Cells
From Kittel
The Wigner-Seitz Primitive Cell
Draw between neighboring atoms Draw lines perpendicular through midpoint of these Wigner-Seitz cell is the smallest enclosed volume
2D
BCC
FCC Conventional & Primitive Cells
From Kittel
From Kittel
Structures Derived From FCC
Diamond Structure: Examples are group IV elements: C, Si, Ge, -Sn, but not Pb 2 Interpenetrating FCC based at: (0,0,0) & (a/4, a/4, a/4) Zinc-Blende Structure: Examples: ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS, CdTe, CuF, CuCl, AgI III-V compounds: GaAs, AlAs, AlP, GaP, GaSb, InP 2 Interpenetrating FCC based at: Ga at (0,0,0) As at (a/4, a/4, a/4)
Structures Derived From FCC
Rock Salt Structure: 2 Interpenetrating FCC based at: Na at (0,0,0) Cl at (a/2, a/2, a/2)
Examples are usually ionically-bonded salts such as: Alkali-Halides: NaCl, LiFetc Alkaline-Chalcoginides (II-VI): CaS, MgS, SrSe, BaO, etc AgF, AgCl (Ag is usually monovalent) Rare-Earth Arsenides such as ErAs (Er is trivalent)
CsCl Structure: Derived From BCC
BCC-like structure with: Cs at (0,0,0) Cl at (a/2, a/2, a/2)
Examples: CsCl, NiAl, TiCl, TlI, AgCd
CaF2 Structure
FCC Ca based at (0,0,0) SC F based at (a/4, a/4, a/4)
F Ca
Examples: Alkaline-Halides: CaF2 , BaF2 Alkali-Chalcoginides: Li2O, Na2S Others: HfO2, CeO2, Mg2Si
Perovskite Structure
Ba at (0,0,0) Ti at (a/2, a/2, a/2) O at Face-Centered sites
Ti Ba O
Examples: BaTiO3, LaAlO3, SrTiO3, KNiF3. High-Tc superconductors based on these structures.
Often exhibit structural transitions to lower symmetry from rotation or stretching of the oxygen octahedra which are often Ferroelectric.
Hexagonal Structures
X X
a2 a1 a2 120 a1
X Aschroft & Mermin incorrectly give =60
a1 = a2 = a
=120 is the usual convention
Graphite (carbon): two hexagonal sheets
HCP FCC
Hexagonal Close Pack (HCP):
ABABAB stacking sequence c=a(8/3)=1.633a (not true for Graphite)
FCC: ABCABC stacking along [111] Can have Stacking Faults
Similarity of FCC & HCP
From Kittel
Miller Indices: method to define a crystal plane
(2,3,3) plane
1. 2. 3. Find intercept of plane on 3 axes Take reciprocals of these numbers Multiply to get smallest set of integers
(H,K,L) planes: {H,K,L} indicates all symmetry-related planes [H,K,L] indicates the direction in the crystal. For cubic crystals [H,K,L] is perpendicular to the (HKL) plane
From Kittel
14 Bravais Lattices in 3D
(Kittel)
3 Dimensions: 7 Crystal Systems 14 Bravais Lattices
http://www.chem.ox.ac.uk/icl/heyes/structure_of_solids/lecture1/lec1.html
