Fundamental of Surveying Horizontal Distance Measurements

Chapter Three
Horizontal Distance Measurements
3.1. Introduction

Every surveyor has to measure the horizontal distance between two points on the
surface of the earth. Measurement of horizontal distance or making linear
measurements is required in chain surveying, traverse surveying, and other types
of surveying.

In surveying the distance between two points means a horizontal distance. When
slope distances are measured in the field, these are always reduced to the
equivalent horizontal distances for preparation of map.

Slop
e dis
tanc
e

Horizontal distance

There are, in general, three methods of making linear measurements:

1. Direct methods
2. Optical methods
3. E.D.M. methods

In the direct methods, the distance is actually measured in the field using a tape.
In optical methods, the distance is not actually measured the field. It is computed
indirectly (for example: stadia tachometry).

Electromagnetic Distance Measuring (E.D.M) instruments have been developed

since the 60ties. Two different types are available:
1) Electro optical instruments, which use light waves for measurement of
distance.
2) Microwave instruments, which use radio waves for measurement of
distance.

3.2 Approximate method

The following approximate methods are commonly used in reconnaissance

surveying for the measurement of horizontal distances. These methods are also
use sometimes to detect large mistakes in linear measurements obtained with a
tape.

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Fundamental of Surveying Horizontal Distance Measurements

1. Pacing: A person can determine the distance walked by

Counting the number of paces made. The distance can be obtained by
multiplying the number of paces by the average length of the paces.

2. Measuring wheel: A measuring wheel consists of a wheel mounted on a

lower end of rod about 1 m long through a fork. The upper end of the rod
has a handle. The wheel is pushed along the ground. The distance
traversed is recorded on the dial attached the wheel.

measuring wheel

3. Speedometer. All automobiles have a speedometer to indicate

the speed and the distance travelled. If the ground is smooth, the
speedometer can be used to measure the distance.

3.3 Tapes
Measuring tapes can be classified into 5 types depending upon the
material used in their manufacture.

1. Liner or cloth tapes.

2. Glass-fibre tapes
3. Metallic tapes
4. Steel tapes
5. Invar tapes

a) Steel tape b) Invar tape

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Fundamental of Surveying Horizontal Distance Measurements

1. Linen or cloth tapes: These tapes are made of linen or cloth. The tape is light
and handy but not very accurate. These tapes are available in length of 10m
20m, 25m and 30m.

2. Glass–fibre tapes: These tapes are similar to linen and plastic coated tapes but
they are made of glass-fibre. The tapes are quite flexible, strong and non-
conductive.

3. Metallic tapes: These tapes are similar to liner tapes but are made of water
proof fabric or glass-fibre in which metallic wires are interwoven.

4. Steel tapes: The steel tapes are the most commonly used tapes in surveying.
They are more accurate than metallic tapes. The steel tapes are made of steel
or stainless steel strip.

5. Invar Tapes. Invar tapes are made of an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel (36%),
which has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion.

Invar tapes are used for linear measurements of very high precision.

3.4 Taping accessories

In addition to a tape, the following small instruments and accessories are

required for the determination of the length of a line.

1. Arrows (Chain pins)

2. Pegs
3. Ranging rods
4. Plumb bobs or rod levels

1. Arrows (Chain pins): They are used to mark the position of the ends of the
tape on the ground.
2. Pegs: Wooden pegs are used to mark the position of the survey stations or the
end points of the survey line.
3. Ranging Rods: The process of locating a number of points on a long survey
line is called ranging. Ranging rods are used to locate intermediate points such
that these points lie on the straight line joining the end stations. Ranging rods
are made of well-seasoned, straight-grained timber.
4. Plumb bobs: The plumb bob plays a very important role in surveying. As a
freely suspended plumb bob always points towards the gravity, it indicates the
direction of the vertical line. In linear measurements plumb bobs are used for
measuring distances on sloping ground.

Adama science and Technology university Department of Geomatics Engineering

Fundamental of Surveying Horizontal Distance Measurements

Ranging rods hold by ranging rod tripods plumb bob

3.5 Ranging out lines directly

The process of establishing intermediate points on a straight line is known as

ranging out or aligning in surveying. It is necessary to establish intermediate
points on a line if the distance is greater then one tape lengths. The ranging
out ensures that the straight distance between two points is measured.

straight line
A B
line measured without aligning

The procedure is as follows:

Two ranging poles are set up vertically on the two ends of the line to be
measured.

A B

The surveyor stands behind one ranging pole at a distance of about 2-3 meters.
The assistant holds another ranging rod approximately on the line at a distance
not greater than one tape lengths.
By looking left and right along the set up ranging poles the surveyor directs
the assistant to move the ranging pole towards the line. The assistant has to
hold the ranging pole vertically.

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Fundamental of Surveying Horizontal Distance Measurements

A
2-3m
B
C
side view

A
2-3m
B
C
top view

Having more than one ranging pole to be aligned, start always with the farther
one to have a good visibility.
Never take an intermediate point for ranging out a further intermediate point.
If the first intermediate point has been aligned incorrectly you would align the
second one into a wrong line.

A B
C
D
second incorrect intermediate first incorrect intermediate point
point aligned into line AC

After establishing all intermediate points the result of the ranging out has to be
checked. Therefore, sight left and right along the line. The ranging poles have
to appear one after the other in the right order - that means from the nearest to
the most distant one.

Adama science and Technology university Department of Geomatics Engineering

Fundamental of Surveying Horizontal Distance Measurements

3.6 Taping horizontal distance over level ground

The simplest taping operation is measuring over level ground where the tape can
be stretched out while fully supported by the ground as shown in the figure below.
Range pole is set at each end of the line and the tape is unwound and laid out on
the ground with the zero ends forward. The front tape person then takes the zero
end of the tape hands one pin to the rear tape person, and moves forward along
the line.

3.7 Taping horizontal distance over sloping ground

Consider two point A and B which are several tape lengths apart along a slope.
The horizontal distance between the two points can be measured by supporting
the tape at the two ends only, as shown in the figure below.
Assuming that the distance is to be measured downhill, the front tape person holds
one end of the tape at a comfortable height above the ground so that the straight
line joining the two ends are approximately level. Tension is applied and the
position of the end of the tape is transferred by means of a plumb bob to the
ground. Where a point is set or on a hard surface, a keel mark is mode. If accurate
work is needed. The tape is stretched a second time and the mean of the two
measurements taken.

It is hardly feasible or good practice to hold the tape more than 5 ft above the
ground; if the slope is more than 5ft per tape length it is necessary to break tape,
as the process is called

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Fundamental of Surveying Horizontal Distance Measurements

3.8 Correction for systematic errors in Taping

Steel tapes are calibrated under a specific temperature and tension. Change in
temperature, tension and mode of support affect the result of taping. The errors
caused by these sources behave according physical laws and can be expressed
with mathematic expressions. They are systematic errors.

1. Correction for standard

A steel tape will normally be provided with standardizing data, for
example it may be designated as 30m long under a tension of 50N at a
temperature of 20 C when laid on the flat. With use the tape may stretch
and it is imperative that the tape is regularly checked against a reference
tape kept specifically for this purpose.

2. Correction for tension (Pull correction)

Since a steel tape is elastic to a small extend it length is changed by
variation in the tension applied. The correction, which should be applied,
is

P  PS L
Cp 
AE

Where P is the tension applied in the field.

Ps is the standard/ calibration tension (tape at AU: 50N=5kp)
A is the cross sectional area of the tape.
E is Young’s modulus for the tape material (N/ mm2)
L is the observed length.
Note: The sign of the correction takes that of quantity (P-Ps)
To apply this correction a tension handle is needed.

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Fundamental of Surveying Horizontal Distance Measurements

3. Correction for sag

A tape supported only at the ends will sag in the centre by an amount
that is related to its weight and the pull (tension). In the case of a long tape
intermediate supports can be used to reduce the magnitude of the
correction.

The correction that is applied reduces the curved length to the chord
Length.

w 2 L3
Cs 
24P 2

where w is the weight of the tape per unit length

L is the observed length
P is the tension applied in the field.

Note: If the tape in used on a plane surface, which can be considered, flat
then no correction is applicable.
To apply this correction a tension handle is needed.

4 Correction for temperature

If a tape is used at a field temperature different from the
standardization temperature then the correction is

C t  L t  t s 

where  is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material

steel: 0.0000115 m/(m C)
invar: 0.000001 m/(m C)
t is the field temperature
ts is the standardization temperature
Note: The sign of the correction takes the sign of (t- ts).
To apply this correction a thermometer is needed.

5. Correction for slope

In surveying it is essential that horizontal lengths are determined. When a
distance lies along a uniform slope and when the difference in height between
the two end points has been determined it may be preferable to measure the
distance directly (see also figure 1).

Adama science and Technology university Department of Geomatics Engineering

Fundamental of Surveying Horizontal Distance Measurements

A slop
e di
stan
ce
h

horizontal distance

figure 1

Afterwards the horizontal distance can be computed by applying the following

correction:

h 2
Cg 
2s

where: h is the difference in height between the end points

S is the measured slope distance

6. Correction to mean sea level

In the case of long lines the relationship between the length measured on
the ground and the equivalent length at mean sea level has to be
considered.

distance (Lm)

earths surface
H

distance to msl (Lmsl)

mean sea level

)
0 km
637
(R =
ius
rad

In the measured length is Lm and the height of the line above datum is H
then the correction to be applied is

H
C msl   Lm
R

Adama science and Technology university Department of Geomatics Engineering

Fundamental of Surveying Horizontal Distance Measurements

Exercise on basic tape measurements

1. A survey line was measured with a tape, believed to be 20m long, a

length of 284.62m resulted. On checking, the tape was found to
measure 19.95m long.

a) What was the correct length of the line?

b) If the line measured is a slope distance and the difference in
height between the end points is 14.20m what would be the
reduced horizontal length used in the plotting of the survey?
c) What reading is required to produce a horizontal distance of
15.08m between two site pegs, one being 0.66m above the
other?
Solution

a) A length of 20m has been booked overall, but actually only a

length of 19.95m has been covered.

19.95  284.62
Correct length of line =  283.91m
20

b) the correction for slope has to be applied:

14.20 2
Cg: = = 0.36m
2  283.91

The horizontal distance is therefore: 283.91-0.36 = 283.55m

c) the following reading is required:

Slope distance = 0.66 2


 15.08 2  15.09m

Adama science and Technology university Department of Geomatics Engineering