Persian Language, Literature

and Culture

Critical approaches to the study of topics related to Persian literature and Iranian
culture have evolved in recent decades. The essays included in this volume col-
lectively demonstrate the most recent creative approaches to the study of the
Persian language, literature, and culture, and the way these methodologies have
progressed academic debate.
Topics covered include; culture, cognition, history, the social context of liter-
ary criticism, the problematics of literary modernity, and the issues of writing
literary history. More specifically, authors explore the nuances of these topics;
literature and life, poetry and nature, culture and literature, women and literature,
freedom of literature, Persian language, power, and censorship, and issues related
to translation and translating Persian literature in particular. In dealing with these
seminal subjects, contributors acknowledge and contemplate the works of Ahmad
Karimi Hakkak and other pioneering critics, analysing how these works have
influenced the field of literary and cultural studies.
Contributing a variety of theoretical and inter-disciplinary approaches to this
field of study, this book is a valuable addition to the study of Persian poetry and
prose, and to literary criticism more broadly.

Kamran Talattof is Professor of Iranian Studies at the University of Arizona and

the author of Modernity, Sexuality, and Ideology in Iran: The Life and Legacy of a
Popular Female Artist, which was among Choice’s Outstanding Academic Titles,
2011, and co-recipient of the L. Yarshater Book Award, 2012.
Iranian Studies
Edited by:
Homa Katouzian, University of Oxford
and Mohamad Tavakoli, University of Toronto

Since 1967 the International Society for Iranian Studies (ISIS) has been a leading
learned society for the advancement of new approaches in the study of Iranian
society, history, culture, and literature. The new ISIS Iranian Studies series pub-
lished by Routledge will provide a venue for the publication of original and inno-
vative scholarly works in all areas of Iranian and Persianate Studies.

1 Journalism in Iran
From mission to profession
Hossein Shahidi

2 Sadeq Hedayat
His work and his wondrous world
Edited by Homa Katouzian

3 Iran in the 21st Century

Politics, economics and conflict
Edited by Homa Katouzian and Hossein Shahidi

4 Media, Culture and Society in Iran

Living with globalization and the Islamic State
Edited by Mehdi Semati

5 Modern Persian Literature in Afghanistan

Anomalous visions of history and form
Wali Ahmadi

6 The Politics of Iranian Cinema

Film and society in the Islamic Republic
Saeed Zeydabadi-Nejad

7 Continuity in Iranian Identity

Resilience of a cultural heritage
Fereshteh Davaran
 8 New Perspectives on Safavid Iran
Empire and society
Edited by Colin P. Mitchell

9 Islamic Tolerance
Amīr Khusraw and pluralism
Alyssa Gabbay

10 City of Knowledge in Twentieth Century Iran

Shiraz, history and poetry
Setrag Manoukian

11 Domestic Violence in Iran

Women, marriage and Islam
Zahra Tizro

12 Gnostic Apocalypse and Islam

Qur’an, exegesis, messianism, and the literary origins of
the Babi religion
Todd Lawson

13 Social Movements in Iran

Environmentalism and civil society
Simin Fadaee

14 Iranian-Russian Encounters
Empires and revolutions since 1800
Edited by Stephanie Cronin

15 Iran
Politics, history and literature
Homa Katouzian

16 Domesticity and Consumer Culture in Iran

Interior Revolutions of the Modern Era
Pamela Karimi

17 The Development of the Babi/ Baha’i Communities

Exploring Baron Rosen’s Archives
Youli Ioannesyan

18 Culture and Cultural Politics Under Reza Shah

The Pahlavi State, New Bourgeoisie and the Creation of a Modern Society
in Iran
Bianca Devos and Christoph Werner
19 Recasting Iranian Modernity
International Relations and Social Change
Kamran Matin

20 The Sīh-rōzag in Zoroastrianism

A Textual and Historico-Religious Analysis
Enrico G. Raffaelli

21 Literary Subterfuge and Contemporary Persian Fiction

Who Writes Iran?
Mohammad Mehdi Khorrami

22 Nomads in Post-Revolutionary Iran

The Qashqa’i in an Era of Change
Lois Beck

23 Persian Language, Literature and Culture

New Leaves, Fresh Looks
Edited by Kamran Talattof
Persian Language,
Literature and Culture
New leaves, fresh looks

Edited by Kamran Talattof

First published 2015
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2015 Kamran Talattof
The right of the editor to be identified as the author of the editorial
material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been
asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN: 978-1-138-82621-2 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-315-73948-9 (ebk)

Typeset in Times New Roman

by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon, UK
In honor of Dr. Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak
7KLVSDJHLQWHQWLRQDOO\OHIWEODQN
Contents

List of figures xii

Acknowledgements xiv
Notes on contributors xv

Introduction: leading literary – on Ahmad

Karimi-Hakkak’s scholarship and service and
about this collection 1
K A M R A N T A LAT T OF

PART 1
Poetry and poetics 21

1 Soltân Valad and the poetical order: framing the ethos

and praxis of poetry in the Mevlevi tradition after Rumi 23
F R A N K L I N L EWI S

2 Three songs for Iran: gender and social commitment in the

poetry of Parvin E’tesami, Forugh Farrokhzad, and
Simin Behbahani 48
M A R T A S I M I D CHI E VA

3 Killed by love: ‘Eshqi revised – an Iranian poet’s quest

for modernization 80
S A H A R A L L A ME Z ADE

4 Rebellious action and “guerrilla poetry”: dialectics of art

and life in 1970s Iran 103
P E Y M A N V A HABZ ADE H
x Contents
PART 2
Fiction and prose 123

5 Explaining tragedy: the voice of ironic nondiscursivity

in Bahram Sadeqi and Mohammad Asef Soltanzadeh 125
M O H A M M A D ME HDI KHORRAMI

6 A postcolonial reading of Simin Daneshvar’s novels: the

spiritual and the material domains in Savushun, Jazira-ye
Sargardani, and Sarban-e Sargardan 141
RAZI AHMAD

7 Literature, art, and ideology under the Islamic Republic:

an extended history of the Center for Islamic Art and Thoughts 163
F A T E M E H S HA MS

PART 3
Culture, criticism, and the problematics of translation 193

8 Ventures and adventures of the Persian language 195

E H S A N Y A R S H AT E R

9 Social causes and cultural consequences of replacing

Persian with Farsi: what’s in a name? 216
K A M R A N T AL AT T OF

10 Ahmad Kasravi’s critiques of Europism and Orientalism 228

M O H A M A D TA VAKOL I - T ARGHI

11 Mutual comprehension and hybrid identities in the

bazaar: reflections on interviews and interlocutors in Tehran 239
A R A N G K E S H AVARZ I AN

12 The odyssey of Jalal Al-Ahmad’s Gharbzadegi – five

decades after 258
L I O R A H E N DE L MAN- BAAVUR

13 Marjane Satrapi’s Persepolis and the overarching

problematic of totalitarianism and democracy in
postrevolutionary Iran 287
S H A D I M A Z H A RI
 Contents xi
14 Accented texts: the case of Chahār Maqāle and
Mohammad Qazvini 302
SIMA DAAD

15 Lizard as Arab food: representation of Arabs and the

Shāhnāmeh scholarship 318
A B B A S J A M S HI DI

16 Iranian female authors and “the anxiety of authorship” 337

F I R O U Z E H D I ANAT

17 Living in lyric: the task of translating a modernist ghazal 354

SAMAD ALAVI

18 Satisfying an appetite for books: innovation, production,

and modernization in later Islamic bookbinding 365
JAKE BENSON

Index 395
Figures

18.1 Shādhilī hizb manuscript. A member of an Ottoman branch of

the Shādhilī Sufi order in the eighteenth-century used this
devotional hizb, a type of small pamphlet manuscript, for
reciting a daily ritual litany. It is a very thin, lightweight,
and inexpensive manuscript, faced with marbled paper and
covered in goatskin on the spine and foredge, with thin strips
of leather applied along the top and bottom edges of the
boards and flap, framing the boards in leather. Photo by
Jake Benson, Collection of Mohamed Zakariya. 367
18.2 Prayer by Abu al-Hasan al-Shadhīlī (d. 656 ah/1258 ce) Iran
or Turkey, 11th/17th century. Back cover and flap of a
leather-edge binding in brown goatskin, faced with
gold-flecked, pink colored paper, and further embellished
with partially gilt, die-stamped recessed matching leather
onlays. Walters Art Museum, W.578. 368
18.3 Ibn Rustam Khān Safī Qulī. Durrat al-Tāj (The Jewel in
the Crown), 1831. Remnants of an early nineteenth-century
Kashmiri jāmavār cloth, then a popular and relatively expensive
type of fabric yardage, are preserved on the face of this
leather-edge binding. Near East Section, African and Middle
Eastern Division, Library of Congress, Ms. 013.00.00.
Image courtesy of Yasmeen Khan. 371
18.4 Leather edge binding faced with Safavid-period termeh cloth.
From the collection of Ihtishām Nasīrī Amīnī. Reproduced
from Afshar, Sahhāfī-yi Sunnatī (1978), color plate 9. 372
18.5a Turkish translation of al-Shifā‘ bih Ta’rīf Huqūq al-Mustafà
and b (The Remedy by the Recognition of the Rights of the Chosen
One) by the Mālikī scholar ‘Iyād ibn Mūsa al-Yahsūbī (d. 1149).
1132 ah / 1720 ce. Upper cover and Foredge flap (5a) and
interior front (5b) Painted, gilt, and lacquered paper-faced
Ottoman binding with “turned-out” internal leather doublures.
Folger Shakespeare Library Shelf mark N.a.95. 375
18.6 al-Tarīqah al-Muhammadiyyah wa’l’-Sirah al-Ahmadiyyah, by
Birgivı Mehmet Efendi (d. 1573). Transcribed at the Medrese
Giyâsiye in Kayseri, 1120 ah/1708 ce. This composite leather
 Figures xiii
binding is faced with green goatskin with a red goatskin
spine, foredge flap, edges, and partially gilt die-stamped
recessed matching leather mandorla and detached finial
onlays. Note that the red leather subsequently darkened
over time on the exterior of the binding but is still quite
bright on the flap. Photo by Jake Benson, courtesy
of Joseph Walker. 376
18.7 Upper board of a composite leather binding faced with
suede, with wide red goatskin edges. Heavily embellished
with fully gilt die-stamped and recessed central mandorla
with detached top and bottom finials, decorative corner
onlays, and a partially gilt cartouche border comprising
both matching recessed and protruding leather onlays.
Seventeenth-century Ottoman muraqq’a concertina
calligraphy album attributed to Şeyh Hamdullah Amasi.
(d. 1520). Walters Art Museum, W. 672. 377
18.8 Qājār safīnah, circa 1800–1850 ce. Originally this oblong,
semi-limp binding for a Persian anthology was faced
with painted, gilt, and lacquered silk. Later, a
reddish-brown goatskin spine and edges were added to
the book when it was restored. Walters Art Museum,
W. 655. 378
18.9 The image depicts the lower part of the shop of a
bookbinder, named “El Tayyib ebn esh Sheikh el Embarak.”
Reproduced from Mary Eliza Rogers, “Books and
Bookbinding in Syria and Palestine’” Art Journal 30,
Part II (June 1, 1868): 114. Note the presence of a
European sewing frame resting on the floor on the right. 379
18.10 Lithograph edition of the Chahār Kitāb from
Tashkent, 1898 ce. Paper-faced binding with a leather
spine with cloth tape applied along the edges, with blind
die-stamped paper central mandorla with floating finial
onlays. Author’s collection. 381
18.11 Mantiq at-Tayr of Farīd ad-Dīn ‘Attār Nīshapūrī
(d~ 1221 ce) completed in 1305 ah/1887–1888 ce.
Framed binding faced with kāghadh-i māsh or
“mung bean” paper, red leather spine, edges, and
blind-stamped center panel. Author’s collection. 382
18.12 This Persian lacquer binding dated Z’ul Qa’adah 1300 ah/
a (exterior) October 1883 ce features illuminated photographic portraits
and of Mushīr as-Saltaneh Qājār (d. 1909 ce) inset within the
b (interior) internal doublures in place of traditional central panel
decoration. The workmanship and inclusion of the photos
suggest that they were produced by the Majm’a-yī Sanāyi’
in Tehran. Vever Collection, S.1986 1491, Arthur M.
Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. 386
Acknowledgements

A number of people have made the publication of this book which intends to
honor the career of Dr. Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak possible. Our community is
blessed by the presence of people like Fred Farshey in our midst who may not be
scholars in the strict sense of the word, but who read scholarly works and under-
stand the importance of scholarship on Persian literature and culture as an integral
part of the humanities in the twenty-first century, particularly in contexts related
to Persian and Iranian studies in American universities. It is in that spirit that, as
editor, I take particular pride in acknowledging the support this book has received
from Mr. Fred Farshey in the form of a generous publication subvention. I am also
thankful to Dr. Mohamad Tavakoli-Targhi for his support and help with the pub-
lication process and with organizing the event at ISIS. Dr. Homa Katouzian also
helped expedite this project. Finally, I must thank the contributors to this book
who worked with me diligently and in a timely matter; without their cooperation
and dedication to Dr. Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak, this book would naturally not exist.
Contributors

Razi Ahmad is a lecturer in the Center for Global and International Studies,
University of Kansas. He currently teaches the Persian language and lectures on
topics of religion, culture, and politics in the Middle East and the Persianate world.
He holds a master of philosophy in Persian literature from the Jawaharlal Nehru
University, New Delhi, and a PhD in Near Eastern studies from the University
of Arizona, Tucson. His areas of research and teaching include Persian language
and literature, Indo-Persian culture, religion, and nationalism.
Samad Alavi was appointed assistant professor of Persian civilization at the
University of Washington, in fall of 2013. A recent graduate of the University
of California, Berkeley, (December 2013), his dissertation investigates the
intersecting poetics and politics of four modern Persian poets: Sa’id Sultanpur,
Mohammad Reza Shafi’i Kadkani, Ahmad Shamlu, and Muhammad Mukhtari.
His literary translations of Persian poetry have appeared in a number of online
journals. Before arriving in Seattle, he also taught Persian language and litera-
ture at UC Berkeley and San Francisco State University.
Sahar Allamezade is a PhD candidate in the Comparative Literature Department
at the University of Maryland with a concentration on issues of gender and
sexuality in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in Victorian and
Persian literary traditions. Her work mainly examines men’s writings about
women and their vision of the growing Woman Question in Iran. Sahar’s other
research interests include cinema, queer studies, and folk tales. Born and raised
in Shiraz, Iran, she earned her bachelor’s degree in English translation train-
ing from Shiraz Azad University. In 2000, she left Iran and earned a master’s
degree in Victorian literature at the University of Buckingham. She has taught
various courses at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. She has par-
ticipated and presented at various national and international academic confer-
ences. One of her recent projects includes providing content for two issues of
the newly launched online journal Zannegar, a monthly journal focusing on
women’s issues. Sahar is married and lives in Washington, DC.
Jake Benson is the Curator of the Thesaurus Islamicus Foundation and Dar al-
Kutub Manuscript Project (TIF-DAK), a privately funded endeavour in Cairo
xvi Contributors
that assists the National Library of Egypt with the preservation, cataloguing,
and exhibition of their vast manuscript collections. A trained bookbinder and
conservator with over 20 years’ experience in preservation, he studied Arabic
at the American University in Cairo prior to his tenure as a Persian Flagship
Scholar at the University of Maryland, College Park. At that time, he worked
closely with Dr. Karimi-Hakkak on the interpretation and analysis of Persian
primary textual sources related to traditional book arts ranging from technical
treatises to prosaic correspondence as well as classical poetry.
Sima Daad obtained her PhD in comparative literature and textual studies from
the University of Washington in 2012. She is a lecturer at the University
of Washington, the author of the bilingual Farhang-e Estelahat-e Adabi
(Dictionary of Literary Terms), several articles on literary criticism and lan-
guage teaching in Persian academic and literary journals, a reviewer of Persian
Proficiency tests, and an examiner of English literature with International
Baccalaureate Diploma program. Her translation of Jerom McGann’s A
Critique of Modern Textual Criticism is under publication by Miras Maktoob
in Iran. She received her bachelor and master degrees in English language and
literature from the University of Tehran (1981) and taught English language
and literature at Iranian high schools, international diploma programs, and
colleges. She has taught Persian language, Iranian literature and film, courses
in comparative literature, and in the International English program at the
University of Washington. The title of her dissertation was “Medieval Persian
Texts and Modern Contexts: Mohammad Qazvini and the Modern Reception
of Chahār Maqāle.”
Firouzeh Dianat received her PhD from Morgan State University, Department of
English and Language Arts, in May 2013. Her dissertation was entitled “Where
I Am – Between Two Worlds: The Graphic Khaterat of Taj Al-Saltaneh and
Marjane Satrapi.” She is currently teaching Persian at L3 Stratis, Baltimore,
MD, and at Howard Community College, MD.
Liora Hendelman-Baavur (PhD) is a research fellow at the Alliance Center for
Iranian Studies (ACIS) and teaches at the Department of Middle Eastern and
African History, both in Tel Aviv University. Since 2005 she is the editor of Iran
Pulse, published online by the ACIS. Her research interest is modern Iranian
popular culture with emphasis on the 1960s and 1970s. With David Menashri
she is coeditor of Iran – Anatomy of Revolution (Hakibbutz Hameuchad, 2009,
in Hebrew). Her paper “Grotesque Corporeality and Literary Aesthetics in
Sadeq Chubak’s The Patient Stone” is forthcoming in the Journal for Iranian
Studies 47, 2014.
Abbas Jamshidi has received his Master’s degree from Shiraz University in
English language and literature and has taught English literature at Iran’s Azad
University. He is currently pursuing his doctoral studies at the University of
Maryland’s Comparative Literature Program. In his dissertation he examines
anti-Arab representation in Persian as exemplified in Sadeq Hedayat’s work
 Contributors xvii
and English literature as represented in the works of Salman Rushdie. More
specifically, he focuses on the genealogy of anti-Arab representation in these
literatures; racialization of Arabs as distinct from the Persians/Indians/British;
and how novel forms of representation continue to be crafted in the two liter-
ary traditions to demean and denigrate the Arabs. In a recent year-long trip to
India, he explored the role of India, specifically its local Parsi (Zoroastrian)
community, in the production of anti-Arab discourse over time.

Arang Keshavarzian is associate professor of Middle Eastern and Islamic

studies at New York University. He holds a PhD in politics from Princeton
University and is the author of Bazaar and State in Iran: the Politics of the
Tehran Marketplace. He has published essays on clergy-state relations, the
geopolitics of free trade zones in the Persian Gulf, and authoritarianism in the
Middle East in a number of edited volumes and journals, including Politics and
Society, International Journal of Middle East Politics, Geopolitics, and Middle
East Report. He is currently conducting research on the political economy of
the Persian Gulf during the long twentieth century.

Mohammad Mehdi Khorrami is professor of Persian language and literature at

New York University. His research is focused on the literary characteristics of
contemporary Persian fiction and classical Persian poetry. He has authored,
translated, and coedited numerous books and articles. Among his book-length
publications are Modern Reflections of Classical Traditions in Persian Fiction
and Sohrab’s Wars: Counter Discourses of Contemporary Persian Fiction,
which is a translated and edited collection of short stories; the coedited and
co-translated A Feast in the Mirror: A Collections of Short Stories by Iranian
Women; and the recently published co-translation of Fayz Muhammad Katib’s
The History of Afghanistan. He has just completed coediting a collection of
articles: Moments of Silence: The Authentic Literary and Artistic Narratives
of the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988). Recently, he published Literary Subterfuge
and Contemporary Persian Fiction: Who Writes Iran (Routledge, 2015) a
book that aims to identify particular aesthetic dynamics of the Persian literary
tradition (both classical and modern) that define Persian literary modernism.
This study also contributes to the efforts intending to promote alternative liter-
ary historiographies which rely on the development and evolution of “literary
objects.”

Franklin Lewis is an associate professor of Persian language and literature, and

associate chair in the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations
at the University of Chicago, where he teaches courses on Persian literature,
Islamic thought, Islamic mysticism, modern Middle Eastern cinema and fiction,
and translation history and practice. His publications include several translations
of modern Persian prose and poetry, as well as various articles on Hâfez, ‘Attâ r,
Sa’di, Najm al-Din Dâye, Persian literature, and the Qur’an, the Sufi orders and
the hagiographical tradition, and the writings of Bahâ’ Allâh and ‛Abd al-Bahâ.
He has also published several works on Mowlânâ Jalâl al-Din Rumi, including the
xviii Contributors
study Rumi: Past and Present, East and West; a book of literary translations of his
poems, Rumi: Swallowing the Sun; a guest-edited special journal issue focusing on
the current state of Rumi studies; forthcoming studies of the Masnavi, and an edi-
tion and translation of the discourses of Borhân al-Din Mohaqqeq of Termez, the
teacher who purportedly initiated Rumi in the mystic tradition.
Shadi Mazhari completed her PhD in French and francophone literature at
University College London in September 2012. Her thesis, entitled “The
Pre-and post-Revolutionary Political Representation of the Self in French-
Language Autobiographical Works by Two Iranian Exiles: Les Nuits féodales
by Fereydoun Hoveyda and Persepolis by Marjane Satrapi,” explores the repre-
sentation of the self as defying closure by the totalitarian systems of the Pahlavi
shahs and the mullahs, and the interlinking of the self with its sociopolitical
context, whereby dissent from dictatorship implies a mental space where demo-
cratic sensibility develops. Her research interests, however, include and extend
to twentieth- and twenty-first-century French literature and thought, compara-
tive criticism, francophone identities in visual arts, and autobiographical writ-
ing. Her overarching interests concern autobiographical writings and their links
with modern democracy and modern political philosophy, text and image, and
the relation of literature and art with political activism. Her recent article “The
Violation of Human Rights in Marjane Satrapi’s Persepolis” is due for publica-
tion by Critical Inquiry. Dr. Mazhari has also presented papers in conferences in
London, Sheffield, and Tehran. She holds an MA in critical theory and French
from University College London, in addition to a BA honours degree in French
literature from the University of Tehran.
Fatemeh Shams is a doctoral candidate in Oriental studies at Wadham College,
University of Oxford. She won the silver medal in the national Literature
Olympiad in 2000 in Iran. She holds a BA in sociology from Tehran University
and an MA in social anthropology from the Institute for the Study of Muslim
Civilisations, Aghakhan University, London. As a researcher, she has worked
on the history of poetry and power in Iran with particular focus on postrevolu-
tion Iran. As a teaching fellow at SOAS, University of London, and Oxford
during 2012–2013, she has taught classical Persian prose and poetry. She
is currently working as a teaching fellow at Oriental Institute, University of
Oxford, where she teaches Persian language and translation skills. Apart from
being an academic scholar, as a prize-winning poet Fatemeh won the Jaleh
Esfahani poetry award for the best young Persian poet in 2012 and received
her award from Islamil Kho’ei, the prominent contemporary Iranian poet in
London. Her first book of poetry, «88», was published by Gardoon Publishing
House in Berlin in June 2013. The title of her doctoral thesis is “Poetics and
Politics of Islamic Republic with Specific Reference to the Works of Qaysar
Aminpur.”
Marta Simidchieva has a PhD in Iranian studies from the Institute of Oriental
Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow (1989) and a BA in English
 Contributors xix
literature from the University of Tehran, Iran (1976), where she also started her
graduate work in Persian studies. She teaches courses on Islamic history, reli-
gion, and culture at the Department of Humanities, York University (Toronto).
Before coming to Canada in 1991, she was an assistant professor of Persian
literature and culture at the University of Sofia, Bulgaria. She is a member of
the editorial board of the journal Iranian Studies and has worked as a transla-
tor and staff editor with the Encyclopaedia Iranica at the Center of Iranian
Studies, Columbia University, and at Narodna Kultura Publishing House,
Sofia, Bulgaria. Her research interests focus on Persian literature and cultural
history, emphasizing issues of continuity and change, modernity and tradition,
and East-West cultural interaction.
Kamran Talattof (University of Michigan, 1996) is professor of Persian lan-
guage and literature and Iranian culture. His research and publications focus
on issues of gender, sexuality, ideology, culture, and language pedagogy. He
examines how cultural artefacts are created both within and in response to
dominant social conditions, political ideologies, and the dominant discourses
of sexuality. He traces the connections between literature, culture, and history.
Talattof is the author, coauthor, or coeditor of numerous books and articles
including the recently published award-winning Modernity, Sexuality, and
Ideology in Iran: The Life and Legacy of a Popular Female Artist (Syracuse,
NY: Syracuse University Press, 2011).
Mohamad Tavakoli-Targhi is professor of history and Near and Middle Eastern
civilizations at the University of Toronto and the chair of the Department of
Historical Studies at the University of Toronto-Mississauga. He has served
as the editor of Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle
East and has served on the editorial board of Iranian Studies. He is the author
of two books, Refashioning Iran: Orientalism, Occidentalism and Nationalist
Historiography (Palgrave, 2001) and Tajaddud-i Bumi (Vernacular
Modernity) (in Persian, Nashr-i Tarikh, 2003). He has authored numerous
articles, including “The Homeless Texts of Persianate Modernity,” in Iran –
Between Tradition and Modernity (Lexington Books, 2004); “Orientalist
Studies and Its Amnesia,” in Antinomies of Modernity (Duke Press, 2002);
“Eroticizing Europe,” in Society and Culture in Qajar Iran (Mazda, 2002);
“Women of the West Imagined,” in Identity Politics and Women (Westview
Press, 1994); “From Patriotism to Matriotism: A Tropological Study of Iranian
Nationalism, 1870–1909,” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies
(2002), and “Inventing Modernity, Borrowing Modernity,” Iran Nameh (2003).
Peyman Vahabzadeh is an associate professor of sociology at University of
Victoria, Canada. He is the author of Articulated Experiences: Toward a
Radical Phenomenology of Contemporary Social Movements (State University
of New York Press, 2003), A Guerrilla Odyssey: Modernization, Secularism,
Democracy, and the Fadai Period of National Liberation in Iran, 1971–1979
(Syracuse University Press, 2010), and Exilic Meditations: Essays on a
xx Contributors
Displaced Life (H&S Media, 2013). He is also the author of three short-story
collections, three books of poetry, one memoir, and a collected volume on
literary criticism – all in Persian. He was the guest editor of a special issue
of West Coast Line called “Iranian Emigration Literature” (36, no. 3, spring
2003) and the co-guest editor of the special issue of the Journal for Cultural
and Religious Theory called “Religion, Democracy, and the Politics of Fright”
(8, no. 2, spring 2007). His contributions have appeared in several refereed
journals and his essays, poems, short stories, and interviews have appeared in
English, Persian, Kurdish, and German.
Ehsan Yarshater is the director of the Center for Iranian Studies and Professor
Emeritus of Iranian Studies, Columbia University, and the founding editor of
the Encyclopaedia Iranica. Among his publications are Persian Poetry under
Shahrokh, Myths and Legends of Ancient Iran (both in Persian), and A Grammar
of Southern Tati Dialects and Persian Presence in the Islamic World. Among
the books he has edited are Highlights of Persian Art (with R. Ettinghausen);
the Cambridge History of Iran, volume 3 in two parts; and Persian Literature.
He is the general editor of the annotated translation of Tabari’s History (40
vols) and the founding general editor of the Persian Heritage Series, Persian
Studies Series, and Modern Persian Literature Series.
 Introduction
Leading literary – on Ahmad Karimi-
Hakkak’s scholarship and service and about
this collection
Kamran Talattof

In the last three decades, concepts like Iran and Iranica, Persian (both in the sense
of a language and in that of an ethnic group) and the Persian-speaking world,
have undergone historic changes. Many “contexts,” “reciprocal influences,” and
“cultural relations” that were invisible to the world at large a generation ago have
now burst into our view with explosive intensity.
(AKH)

Persian studies outside Persian-speaking societies and particularly in the West

have been essential and thriving in the modern period. In the United States for
example a few generations of American, Iranian, and Iranian American scholars
have produced an enormous amount of serious scholarship and have helped
establish Persian programs in nearly forty universities. In a sense, these efforts
continue the Persian studies that began in Europe in the seventeenth century when
a number of pioneers deeply and even ideologically interested in ancient Persian
civilization began to work on Iranian old languages, religions, and civilization
and for their purposes established departments and libraries and translated Persian
texts into European languages.1
Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak is one of the many contemporary outstanding scholars
in the field and one whom the contributors to this book intend to acknowledge
and honor for his contribution and his career on the occasion of his retire-
ment. I believe what brings us together to mark this occasion is perhaps a com-
mon cherished experience: we have been touched by the thoughts and ideas of
Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak directly or otherwise, and we have had the pleasure of
his acquaintance as his students, colleagues, and ultimately friends. This shared
involvement can possibly explain the subtle similarity of our understanding and
assertions regarding some essential issues related to Persian literature and Iranian
culture documented in the contributed articles. By participating in this project, we
intend to celebrate and appreciate his long history of seminal academic activities
and scholarly endeavors, his unrelenting intellectual travail on behalf of the field,
and the time he spent guiding many students in their scholarly work.
Dr. Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak earned his BA in English literature at Tehran
University in 1966. He received an MA in English literature from the University
of Missouri in 1974, and another MA in comparative literature from Rutgers
2 Kamran Talattof
University in 1977. Eventually, he completed his doctoral studies in comparative
literature at Rutgers University in 1979.
For almost two decades, he taught Persian language and literature at the
University of Washington and then in 2004 moved to the University of Maryland
to found and direct for many years the Center for Persian Studies at the School of
Languages, Literatures, and Cultures (now named the Roshan Institute for Persian
Studies).
During all these years, with many administrative and academic callings, which
included active participation in the International Society of Iranian Studies (where
he served as president from 2003 to 2005), he maintained a dynamic research
agenda. As the director of the Center for Persian Studies, he organized several
conferences on important and hitherto ignored topics, as evident by such titles
as “An International Conference on Iranian Jewry” (2008) and “An International
Conference Toward a Culture of Civil Liberties, Human Rights and Democracy
in Iran” (October 28–31, 2010). Under his leadership the center also hosted the
Ehsan Yarshater Lecture Series as well as many other lectures and academic
events.
Reviewing Karimi-Hakkak’s scholarly output and academic activities is per-
haps the best way to explain his personal interest in Iranian cultural studies, and
his disposition as well.

Poetic’s traders
Poetry and prosody have been Karimi-Hakkak’s major preoccupation. There is
hardly any other scholar who has focused on modern Persian poetry for so long
with such intensity. Among his key works on the inception and analysis of this
subject is his monograph titled Recasting Persian Poetry: Scenarios of Poetic
Modernity in Iran.2 In it, Karimi-Hakkak uses a semiotic model to explain the
poetic change in contemporary period due to Iran’s contact with Europe in the
nineteenth century and through the connection between early modern Persian
poetry and French free verse as a complex process of borrowings and adaptations.
He contends that through the production of numerous imaginary ideas about
European culture and literature and within a series of textual maneuvers and
cultural contestations, the new generations around the turn of the twentieth
century recast the classical tradition in a mold that could address new concerns.
This is an evocative, systematic, and theoretical attempt to redraw or complicate
the otherwise widely accepted strict line between the classical tradition and the
modern in Persian poetry. In further explaining and illustrating this interplay
between continuity and change, he applies the notion of ambivalence on which
Bakhtin and Lotman have pondered in different contexts. The appearance of
patriotic qasidas and political ghazals in the constitutional era, is, in his belief,
an evidence of textual cohabitation of “new and old elements, itself a sign of
increasing ambivalence within the system.3
His fascination with modern Persian poetry also resulted in the publication of many
other works, including the coedited volume on the poetry of Nima Yushij, Essays
 Introduction 3
on Nima Yushij, Animating Modernism in Persian Poetry (Leiden: Brill, 2004), the
pointedly conspicuous article on the poetry of Ahmad Shamlu, “A Well amid the Waste:
An Introduction to the Poetry of Ahmad Shamlu” in World Literature Today 51, no. 2
(Spring 1977): 201–206, and several other books and articles on the works of Abbas
Kiarostami and Esmail Khoi (Rattapalax 8 [2002]: 145–152) and Mehdi Akhavan Sales
(“Poet of Desires Turned to Dust: In Memoriam, Mehdi Akhavan-Saless” in World
Literature Today, 66, no. 1 [Winter 1991]: 18–25), to give a few examples.
In his article “Revolutionary Posturing: Iranian Writers and the Iranian
Revolution of 1979” (International Journal of Middle East Studies 23, no. 4
[November 1991]: 507–531), he focuses on the revolutionary poets to address
some broader literary and cultural phenomena in Iranian society. Exploring the
literary works produced around the theme of revolution, Karimi-Hakkak sheds
light on the “evolution of a community of literary meaning” and the revolutionary
process itself. He shows how literary production “as part of the system of signs”
helps to shape the culture. However, the most important question that the article
addresses is “why under certain social conditions attempts at fresh articulations
of such oppositions in communal myths and metaphors succeed in creating new
cultural artifacts, while under other conditions the system of cultural constraints
prevents such re-articulations from breaking through the complexities of discourse
and erecting new structures for cultural expression” (507).
In “Preservation and Presentation: Continuity and Creativity in the Contemporary
Persian Qasida,” Karimi-Hakkak problematizes the existing definition of qasida,
offers his own way of defining the concept, and exemplifies his case.4 He states that
in twentieth-century Iranian society qasida continued to be written, but the terms
governing its internal dynamics as well as its production and dissemination changed.

Modernist stereotyping of all classical poetic genres notwithstanding, the

Persian qasida has historically been used to express, record and serve a
staggering variety of emotions, situations and purposes. Having undergone
structural, thematic, even formal changes in the process of Iranian modernity
which are unique in the history of Persian poetry, the qasida has nonetheless
remained an important site for the inscription of many historical observations
and social or political visions.5

Despite this continuity, the concept of the qasida itself has not been fully defined
in the Persian or English scholarship on Persian poetry. Karimi-Hakkak uses
Bakhtin’s notion of genre to provide a specific definition of qasida. He writes,

Each literary work, according to Bakhtin, uses the resources of the genre in a
specific way in response to a specific individual experience. The genre is thus
changed slightly by each usage, but continues to “remember” its past uses so
long as it is drawn upon by new generations of poets and readers.

That is, contemporary poets try to preserve certain aspects of classical poetic
exemplars, but they “cannot help but make their textual creations, whatever their
4 Kamran Talattof
generic status, relevant to certain actually present conditions.”6 In this and in a
subsequent article, he uses this framework to analyze a number of early twentieth-
century qasida poems.7
In all of his work and generally in his studies of modern Persian poetry,
Karimi-Hakkak treats his subject with excitement, passion, and profound respect.
He makes the new poetry as interesting as the old trade.
Karimi-Hakkak has generously contributed to many encyclopedias, sometimes
with multiple entries. These include insightful entries on Persian literature, folk
literature, book publishing, gender issues in Forugh Farrokhzad’s poetry, and so
on, in such publications as Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia of Sex and
Gender: Men and Women in the World’s Cultures, Encyclopædia Iranica, and
The Encyclopedia of Folklore and Folk Literature.

Eagle’s eyes
Karimi-Hakkak is not blinded by his love of poetry, far from it. He has written
extensively about modern Persian fiction, and in many cases he has helped to
bring the attention of scholars to otherwise ignored literary issues and literary
activities in Iranian society. He pioneered in writing about literary works of such
authors as Sai’di Sirjani, Shahrnush Parsipur, and Fataneh Haj Seyyed Javadi. For
example, he gives an introduction in Persian to Parsipur’s book of short stories
entitled Adab-e Sarf-e Chai. One can argue that without the introduction, readers
would have had a hard time making sense of the meanings and even the genre
of the pieces. Explaining the short stories in the context of exilic literature, he
brought more attention to the volume. His article “A Storyteller and His Times:
Sa’idi-Sirjani of Iran” (World Literature Today 69, no. 3 [Summer 1994]: 516–
522) remains a unique contribution to this day on the writing of a thinker who was
otherwise known solely for his opposition to the theocracy. It was under Karimi-
Hakkak’s leadership that the International Society for Iranian Studies established
the Sa’idi Sirjani book award.

Bio-historiography
Constantly cognizant of such theoretical and topical interlocutors, Karimi-Hakkak
is resourceful and profound when he pens literary biography or historiography. In
his piece on the history of the Writers Association of Iran (Kanun-e Nevisandegan-e
Iran), he offers details and contextual information to exhibit and expound upon
the unique place this puzzling organization played in Iranian intellectual history.
He writes, the association’s “fortunes, consisting of periods of feverish activity
and lifeless dormancy, epitomize the pattern of intellectual life in Iran, reflecting
its problems and promises, its intellectual validity and artistic vitality, its ideals,
achievements, and failures.”8
After detailing the events that led a group of writers who were tired of censorship
to heed a government-sponsored attempt to create a writers’ association, Karimi-
Hakkak scrutinizes the “Statement Concerning the Writers Congress,” drafted
 Introduction 5
by this group of dissenting intellectuals. The statement not only announces the
creation of the association, but also demands and emphasizes the necessity of
freedom of expression and assembly. He continues by chronicling the ensuing
events and analyzing the subsequent activities of the founding members and going
over their other statements and announcements. Nowhere else had there ever been
an analysis of the activities of the association so properly conceptualized. In
particular, the association’s debate over a parliamentary bill about censorship is
illuminating in regard to the mindset of those authors.

In June 1968, Association members obtained a copy of the bill, studied its
details, and notified the Majles in a letter that in the view of the Association
the bill contained many loopholes and pitfalls which had to be corrected if
the law was to respond in some measure to the long-neglected need to protect
Iranian writers from print piracy and related problems.

In response to this letter, the Parliament’s Commission on Culture and the Arts
invited the association’s representative to discuss their concerns. One was sent
and “a laundry list of the shortcomings and inadequacies of the bill were discussed
one by one.”9 Any hope that such an interaction could have resulted in cultural
understating was, according to Karimi-Hakkak, shattered by the inauguration of
what became known as the armed struggle and the regime’s increasing suppression
of the press and intellectuals.
The association played a major role in giving rise to the revolutionary
discourse of 1976–1979 despite (or perhaps because of) its failure to fight against
the newly established and increasingly powerful system of censorship. Its role
in that revolution was very much similar to that of the other “nonconformist,
leftist, rebellious writers.”10 In particular, after the Shah’s White Revolution, these
writers and other intellectuals became even more suspicious of the Shah’s rule
and reforms. These authors often sought their answers in Marxism even when
they thought of the ideals of the Constitutional Revolution of 1906. Through the
review of the history of this organization, Karimi-Hakkak explains the “mutual
distrust and outright antagonism” between the intellectual community and the
ruling power.11
Notwithstanding the association’s important and decisive role in the rise of the
1976–1979 revolutionary movement and the downfall of the Shah, it continued
to be highly visible for a while thereafter though in constant and painful struggle
with the postrevolutionary religious regime. On this long journey, Karimi-Hakkak
writes,

Defeated and drained, Association members were forced to choose

between exile at home or migration abroad, between emotional or physical
homelessness. Those who have stayed are trying hard not to allow the prison-
house of the world to close in upon them; those who have left are increasingly
becoming aware of the need to open up new vistas of activity, new ways of
making themselves heard.
6 Kamran Talattof
He ends the essay with a thought-provoking, sober-minded statement:

No Iranian writer who lived through the Iranian Revolution remained

unaffected by the history of the Writers Association of Iran. Its agonizing
over questions of national identity and cultural integrity, over limits of
literature and politics, and over the nature of intellectualism in the national
life, its doubts over the character and purpose of the Iranian Revolution itself,
its initial joy and eventual despair, were all of immense importance both in
and of themselves and as part of a national experience.12

Karimi-Hakkak has also written several biographical essays in which he chroni-

cles and details multiple aspects of the life of his subjects, placing them in histori-
cal context, and these are often adorned with telling personal snapshots.

It was as if he were eyeing me on two levels, a constant surface look that

seemed simple and trusting, and a sharp occasional glance, skeptical and
testing, that penetrated at times all the way down into my very soul, fixing it
as if at the point of a needle.13

That is how he starts his article about the famed Mehdi Akhavan Saless and his
poetry on the occasion of his death in 1990. To continue his expedition into the
poet’s life story, Karimi-Hakkak travels back to a number of decisive moments.

It was his move to Tehran that brought the young Akhavan into contact with
the modernist movement in Iranian poetry. . . . In time he would become first
a high-school teacher of Persian literature and eventually, during the brief
thaw in the political climate in 1960 and early 1961, an editor of Farhang, the
journal of the Ministry of Education.14

Then the article gradually and logically arrives at the analysis of Akhavan’s famous
poem “Zemestan.” He writes, “In comparison with Akhavan’s later compositions,
‘Zemestan’ leaves the reader at an impasse from which the poet can envision –
and the reader can find – no release. For a moment, in the face of a devastated
landscape of frustrated desire, life itself seems frozen beyond all hope.”15 This
resembles the impasse portrayed at the end of the Book of Kings. And to overcome
matters, Akhavan suggests learning from the ideas of Zarathustra and Mazdak,
ancient Persian prophets. Karimi-Hakkak writes,

Reconciling the two, then, meant in the first place uniting those ancient forces
that, whatever their direction, had their origin in Iran’s pre-Islamic past. On
the plane of social perception, a reconciliation between these two ancient
Iranian strands of thought – one mystical, the other egalitarian – was in a
more common sense a combining of the will to individual salvation with an
undying desire for social justice, a fusion, as Akhavan’s contemporaries saw
it, of Nietzsche and Marx, both forces present in the Iran of the 1960s more
than at any other time in that culture’s modern history.16
 Introduction 7
Akhavan brought to the movement a solid background in the classical tradi-
tion and uncanny sense of dramatic storytelling, and a facility with words
that distinguishes his style from all the other members of that generation, one
that includes such notable figures as Ahmad Shamlu, Sohrab Sepehri, Forugh
Farrokhzad, and Nader Naderpour.
(AKH)

The article is replete with telling anecdotes, revealing accounts of their encounters,
and pertinent references to the poet’s works and activities. The piece ends with
a conversation Karimi-Hakkak had with the poet talking to him from England:

Akhavan told me in our last telephone conversation that he would apply again
next year to come to the United States. “Should we live on, of course,” he
added after a pause, quoting from his favorite poem. Then his voice dropped
suddenly, as if into the ocean that separated us. Barely two months after his
return to Tehran, Mehdi Akhavan Saless died of massive heart failure on
Sunday evening, 26 August 1990.17

Karimi-Hakkak’s article about the famed reform-minded author Ali-Akbar Sa’idi-

Sirjani starts with the account of his arrest by the postrevolutionary authorities and
pondering the penal codes under which he was accused and the reactions the arrest
caused in Iran’s intellectual and academic communities.

Beyond the obvious necessity of defending an imprisoned writer, Sirjani’s

fate provides an occasion for revisiting the issue of writing under severe
sociopolitical constraints. Totalitarian state structures habitually resort to
violence in order to silence writers whose works they perceive as undermining
their legitimacy or criticizing their policies. The more relevant the authorities
judge an oppositional stance enunciated through writing, the likelier they are
to suppress the works or to silence their author.18

With this background, he adds a new dimension to his literary-historical deliberation

on the works of Sirjani. From here, he embarks on writing a biography that is rooted
in the social reality and enriched by literary analysis. Perhaps allegory, parable,
and tales that “seem to be the author’s remembrance of a narrative recited from the
pulpit by a provincial preacher” can explain his style and forms; those which even
defined the open letter, which, “sealed the author’s fate in a way that no previous
writing of his – be it an anecdotal essay, a political allegory, or an open appeal – had
done. It went far beyond a plea of not guilty by an individual author and questioned
the legitimacy of the state and the authority of its spiritual leader.”19

In some of his vignettes and fictionalized sketches Sirjani stays at the level
of current events, depicting situations where futile efforts inspired by revolu-
tionary zeal for purity prove pitiably comical to everyone except those who
believe the power of the state to be unbounded. In others he delves into the
depths of Iranian history or probes the bottom layers of the culture to fetch the
8 Kamran Talattof
pearl of a single relevant episode about the trappings of power or mechanisms
for exercising it. In all such writings the butt of the joke seems to be the pious
pretension of purity by a few power-hungry and hypocritical politicians who
have mastered the art of dissimulation.
(AKH)

After explaining Sirjani’s sad destiny and its connection with his prolific writing
career, Karimi-Hakkak closes with

What Sirjani communicates is immediately relevant to his readers because

it is already present to them. In their movement from the diffuse, polyvalent
space of the culture to the dynamics of a definable interpretive ambience, his
narratives become most specifically political, meaningful, and relevant, for
the power vested in them comes directly from the culture.20

Finally, another article belonging to this streak of Karimi-Hakkak’s writing is his

work on Nima Yushij, with which, as part of a coedited book, I have even a closer
familiarity.21 This article challenges many of the existing accounts of Nima’s life
story. Indeed, “there are many romanticized accounts of Nima’s life crafted by
numerous disciples and admirers,”22 but this one, following the usual objective
methodology that combines the poet’s life events in the broader social and political
events of his time, Karim-Hakkak provides a groundbreaking account and analysis
of Nima’s life story, his work, and his role in the development of the new poetry.
The following paragraph outlines and demonstrates the content of the article.

As Nima grew up in the northern village of Yushij and its lush, green
surroundings, Iran was going through rapid and radical political, social, and
cultural changes. In direction and in tempo, Nima’s life reflects much of this
change, as we shall see in this essay. To a boy of his generation, the world
must have seemed in a state of perpetual flux. By the time he began to make
a name for himself, he had already contributed to the alteration of his society;
as he was drawn to poetry, Iran’s cultural jugular vein, he helped bring about
the greatest change of all. In the last decade of his life, Nima was viewed
increasingly as the embodiment not just of the desire for literary change, but
of its shape, as well. Yet just as he moved back and forth between his native
village and the capital city, he moved between old and new poetic styles all
his life. This constant undulating movement can provide us with the basic
trajectory within which this modernist poet’s life story can be imagined.23

With this, Karimi-Hakkak moves “beyond and behind Nima’s writings – and those
of his admirers – to capture the consciousness, profoundly social, that shapes the
poetry and to explore its meaning.”24 Nevertheless, this move includes meticulous
textual analysis of Nima’s many writings including an autobiographic sketch,
which Nima presented to the First Congress of Iranian Writers.
 Introduction 9
Even as the news of Nima’s death spread in the streets of Tehran, cultural
forces were at work to conceal the truth of that life behind layer upon layer
of reverential glorification.
(AKH)

These articles indicate Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak’s objective, analytical, informative,

and edifying approach to biography and literary history. In these and in fact in his
other historical or biographic writings, he has avoided the customary romanticized
accounts of the celebrities’ lives, the prevalent charming anecdotes through which
conclusions are drawn, the many doubtful memories constantly in circulation, shaky
impressions, hyperbolic appreciative homage, and subjective self-descriptions. In
his works, he has even taken unfavorable facts into account unabashedly.

What a good command of language!

Karimi-Hakkak has rendered beautifully a substantial amount of modern Persian
poetry and fiction into English. Of significance is his translation of a collection of
contemporary poems into English published as An Anthology of Modern Persian
Poetry (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1978). The date of the publication of this
book is telling. Published on the eve of the 1979 Revolution, it is yet another
indication of Karimi-Hakkak’s dedication to his discipline; it is in fact the first
anthology of Persian New Poetry published in an English volume. It includes
poems by twenty-six poets written in the 1950s and 1960s. Among the poets
are Yushij (1895–1960), Shamlu (1925–2000), Farrokhzad (1935–1967), and
Akhavan-Saless (1928–1990), to all of whom he returns in his later publications
for more translation or more analysis. This was a unique and long-lasting
contribution for its time.
In those early days, his translation of short stories by Sadeq Hedayat, G. H.
Saedi, Hushang Golshiri, and Ebrahim Golestan were instrumental in teaching
courses on contemporary Persian literature. He encouraged others to do the same
and wrote forewords to their resulting publications.

Prolific Both Ways

Karimi-Hakkak’s translation of Henry Fielding’s Tom Jones (1749) into Persian
should in my opinion be a must-read, an essential item, in Persian courses on
translation. It is precise, fluent, and powerful. It demonstrates the translator’s deep
connection with the long-lasting history of Persian rhetoric once developed in the
literary tradition of the northeastern province.
Karimi-Hakkak has also translated into Persian the works of V. Gordon Childe,
Pablo Neruda, Carl Sandburg, and a French scholarly work, Aux sources de la
nouvelle persane, by Christophe Balay and Michel Cuypers (Tehran: Anjuman-e
Iranshenasi-e Faranseh, 1987). The latter is an indication of his expertise in
French as well.
10 Kamran Talattof
Contributions, eloquently
Karimi-Hakkak has made significant contributions to the field through his
countless speeches in countless academic and cultural settings in the United States
and elsewhere. Many of these speeches have not been published, but the record
shows that they cover a wide array of topics related to Iranian culture and Persian
literature. The joy of attending his talks in usually packed rooms might be another
experience shared by the contributors to this volume and many of the readers.
Some of these oral contributions were made eternal when Karimi-Hakkak was
invited to recite and produce a number of books on tape. Among them are the
divan of Muhammad Taghi Bahar, the collected works of Iraj Mirza, and the
poems of Yushij. Sponsored by the Mehrgan Foundation, these electronic formats
include lectures on specific topics such as love or freedom in Persian literature.

We can perhaps say that each book is a bridge between thoughts and ideals,
between what has to be said and what has been said, between what has been
heard and what has not been uttered, and between what we have contem-
plated and what we have accomplished; all that we leave for the future.
(AKH)

Attaining an approach
In addition to the scholarly excitement his works engender, what distinguishes
Karimi-Hakkak’s work is his ability to navigate between the intrinsic and extrinsic
features of modern Persian literature, between the study of the components of each
literary piece and the literary output of the nation as a whole, between individual
creativity and the ideological exigency, and between the works of early twentieth-
century writers and those of contemporary expatriates. This is looking at the
structure and social dynamism simultaneously. It is being able to disintegrate
historically and integrate discursively.
With this methodology, Karimi-Hakkak has been able to identify the signifi-
cance of Persian literary works not only to their genres and their topics but also
to world literature. In order to do so, and inevitably, he has not been too worried
about the relevance of this body of work to specific moments in Iranian history,
simply because of the powerful autonomy that he assigns to aesthetics. It was
when he concerned himself with context that he illustrated how specific and origi-
nal the text engaged with the social situation.25
In sum, believing in the intimacy between facts and interpretation in litera-
ture, Karimi-Hakkak therefore proposes an alternative hermeneutic for explain-
ing literary preoccupations with social agencies, political activities, or cultural
institutions in each specific text, a hermeneutic that does not necessarily start with
reflection upon text-context relationships, a hermeneutic that takes into considera-
tion the significance of literary social structures.

We might well once again raise the question of how one conceptualizes – or
evaluates, to move the matter on to the axiological plane – those epitomes
 Introduction 11
of collective cultural construction, namely culture-specific encyclopedias,
works of scholarship that were once thought of, rather naively, simply as
“research tools.”
(AKH)

That congenial greeting

I would like to end this survey with another word about the person that Karimi-
Hakkak is. The contributors to this volume and those readers of this book who
know Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak have actually more in common: the pleasant
memory of their encounter with the man. To many, his unwavering welcoming
salutation upon encountering others is symbolic of his warm character, his good
intention, and his overall aspiration for not only the field of Iranian studies or
academia, but also for humanity in general. It might not be an easy contention
to prove, but I believe that the energy with which Karimi-Hakkak and several
other scholars of his generation worked to keep the field of Iranian studies and, in
particular, Persian literary studies alive in the aftermath of the 1979 Revolution
on the campuses of US universities would not have been fruitful without their
positive attitude, without their cheerfulness. The fruit of their optimism and
perseverance is the existence of several prestigious and vibrant Persian programs
across the nation that continue to thrive, against all odds.

This volume
The articles in this volume are connected not only by their authors’ relationship
with Karimi-Hakkak but also by their common effort in applying new approaches
to Persian and Iranian studies as well as the inspiration they have received from the
works of this man. I hope that the collection can show how critical approaches to the
study of topics related to Persian language and literature as well as Iranian culture
are evolving and how creative approaches to this study are being employed. In
that regard, the articles cover the more specific topics of literature and life, poetry
and nature, culture and literature, women and literature, freedom of expression,
Persian language, power and censorship, the problematics of literary modernity,
and the issues of writing literary history and translating literary works. In dealing
with these seminal subjects, some contributors contemplate how the works of
Karimi-Hakkak (and other pioneering critics) have influenced the field of literary
and cultural studies and, by doing so, celebrate the contribution of this prominent
scholar and academic leader. With this link and given the diversity of the topics,
the articles following this introduction fall into three broad categories that have
become the following sections: “Poetry and Poetics,” “Fiction and Prose,” and
“Culture, Criticism, and the Problematics of Translation.”
The book begins with the section “Poetry and Poetics” and Franklin Lewis’s
contribution “Soltân Valad and the Poetical Order: Framing the Ethos and Praxis
of Poetry in the Mevlevi Tradition after Rumi.” Bahâ’ al-Din Mohammad-e Valad,
better known as Soltân Valad (1226–1312), played a critical role in expounding
12 Kamran Talattof
the teachings of his father, Jalâl al-Din Rumi, in crafting the public presentation
of his family history, promoting and preserving its legacy, and in structuring the
Mevlevi order beyond Konya. Lewis reviews and examines Soltân Valad’s poeti-
cal works including his Divân, but especially his narrative mas·navis, looking for
evidence of a Mevlevi theory of poetry. Lewis demonstrates that despite Rumi’s
immense output of nearly sixty thousand lines of devotional, ritual, and mystical
verse, Soltân Valad nevertheless maintains an ambivalent or apologetic stance
toward the composition of poetry, arguing that the poetry of his father and himself
is prompted by divine inspiration rather than clever endeavor and a desire for
reward and recognition. And yet, Soltân Valad, while attempting to promote his
father’s poetry and legacy, and acknowledging its influence over him, also adopts
certain techniques and declines to adopt others, in order to differentiate himself
and his own poetic approach from that of his father.
The articles in this section also include analyses of Persian poetry with an
emphasis on gender and politics. Marta Simidchieva’s “Three Songs for Iran:
Gender and Social Commitment in the Poetry of Parvin, Forugh, and Simin”
explores the factors behind the enduring relevance and popularity of three poems,
one each by Parvin E’tesami, Forugh Farrokhzad, and Simin Behbahani, by
applying to her analysis the notions of “literary topicality” and “referentiality” as
used by Karimi-Hakkak. These three contemporary poems promote the assump-
tion that while the initial impetus for a poem’s popularity might be its engage-
ment with the highly relevant social issues of its time (that is, its topicality), its
longevity is ensured by the stylistic devices that translate the “rage of the day”
problems into more nebulous symbols and allegories (that is, its referentiality),
which can be appropriated by other social actors and applied with equal success to
other historical circumstances. In supporting this contention, Simidchieva’s arti-
cle situates the poems in the historic events taking place during their composition
and proposes that these works reflect women’s visions of their agency as citizens
(as articulated by three influential female literary voices) and their role as social
actors at key junctures of modern Iranian history.
In “Killed by Love: ‘Eshqi Revised; An Iranian Poet’s Quest for Modernization,”
Sahar Allamezade writes about Mirzadeh ‘Eshqi (1894–1924), who was mostly
admired by his contemporaries and is known to critics for his ardent national-
ism. She redirects and extends Karimi-Hakkak’s implementation of the notion
of ambivalence where he uses these notions to “suggest that in the seemingly
traditional patriotic qasidas and political ghazals of the Constitutional era, we can
see the ‘interplay between continuity and change at the level of the artistic text.’”
Allamezade employs this notion of ambivalence and the state of in-betweenness
and extends it to the issues of women put forth by such “new intellectuals” as
‘Eshqi. She contends it is true that ‘Eshqi’s poems may well have brought some
attention to the cause of women’s unveiling at that time. Nevertheless, his fatal-
istic tone in both poems and the violent suggestion of “annual bloodbath,” of
punishing treachery, in the conclusion of “The Three Tableaux” point to the pri-
macy of political discourse, and the unsophisticated nature of the discourse on
women’s issues. This article concludes that ‘Eshqi’s radical views may well have
 Introduction 13
undermined women’s unveiling instead of proposing a constructive solution to
the cause at hand.
In “Rebellious Action and ‘Guerrilla Poetry’: Dialectics of Art and Life in 1970s
Iran,” Peyman Vahabzadeh puts a literary spin on a previous extensive research on the
rise and fall of the guerrilla movement in Iran. His article draws on the initiation of the
urban guerrilla movement and its tremendous impact on Persian poetry in the 1970s.
It argues that the relationship between the guerrilla movement, as the highest expres-
sion of rebellious action, and the poetry of dissident literary figures in this period was
indeed a dialectical one. To this end, the article shows the representation of the heroic
guerrilla and the poetic depiction of both the demeaning conditions of the country
and the rebellious militant voice within a type of poetry – known as guerrilla poetry –
contributed to the popularity of the elusive Fadai Guerrillas and other militant groups,
as I have discussed in Chapter 3 of The Politics of Writing in Iran (2000). According
to the author, this poetic movement was partially enabled by the social sensibilities
with which the modernist movement in Persian poetry was born.
The articles in the “Fiction and Prose” section employ theoretical approaches
in the analysis of a number of important contemporary novels. Mohammad Mehdi
Khorrami’s “Explaining Tragedy: The Voice of Ironic Nondiscursivity in Bahram
Sadeqi and Mohammad Asef Soltanzadeh” builds upon the assumption that discur-
sive, content-oriented approaches to many contemporary works of Persian fiction
have led to reductive readings that inevitably have ignored numerous components
of these works. Khorrami mentions a variety of methodologies that others have
used to construct alternative readings and thus remedy any shortcoming, but he
proposes the approach that is primarily informed by concepts related to Russian
formalists, including the “critique of everyday life.” In order to demonstrate the
applicability of this approach, the article offers close readings of Bahram Sadeqi’s
“Sarasar Hadeseh” (“Action-Packed”) and Mohammad Asef Soltanzadeh’s
“Damad-e Kabol” (“The Bridegroom of Kabul”) and “ . . . ta Mazar” (“ . . . to
Mazar”), emphasizing their lack of affiliation with prevalent discourses.
Razi Ahmad’s “A Postcolonial Reading of Simin Daneshvar’s Novels: The
Spiritual and the Material Domains in Savushun, Jazira-ye Sargardani, and
Sarban-e Sargardan” provides an analysis of nationalism as reflected in the seminal
works of Simin Daneshvar (1921–2012). Using a postcolonial theoretical frame-
work, he analyzes the “material” and the “spiritual” domains of Iranian society as
represented in Daneshvar’s novels. In her fiction, Daneshvar creates a material
dimension that acknowledges the influence of the West in promoting modernity
but juxtaposes it with a spiritual one that resists its intrusion. She also uses the
spiritual domain as a literary tool to subvert state-sponsored narratives of national
identity and hegemonic sociocultural policies. To show Daneshvar’s ideology-
driven representation of the spiritual sphere, Ahmad divides her writings into pre-
and postrevolutionary works, taking a cue from my episodic literary movement
based on their sociopolitical discourse. Ahmad contends that Daneshvar achieves
her objectives by creating liminal and hybrid characters and spaces, attaching var-
ying degrees of importance to the Islamic or ancient Iranian heritage, and depict-
ing Muslim religious characters sympathetically or unsympathetically according
14 Kamran Talattof
to changing sociopolitical conditions. This, I believe, parallels Karimi-Hakkak’s
work on Daneshvar’s “Kayd al-Khainin.”
Next Fatemeh Shams’s article, “Literature, Art, and Ideology under the Islamic
Republic: An Extended History of the Center for Islamic Art and Thoughts” tack-
les the complex and eventful history of the highly significant Center for Islamic
Art and Thoughts (Howzeh-ye Honar va Andisheh-ye Islāmi). Having been left
grossly understudied in both Persian and English scholarship, Howzeh is arguably
the most influential state-sponsored cultural institution after the 1979 Revolution
and therefore the subject of precise evaluation in this article. It was established
in 1980, as part of the nationwide Islamization campaign launched by the newly
established state as an alternative cultural institution to the prerevolutionary secu-
lar literary associations such as the Writers’ Association of Iran. The article shows
that Howzeh, along with the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance, gradually
took over the official cultural scene and played a formative role in shaping the
postrevolutionary official literary scene. Here too, I see another a parallel with
another work of Karimi-Hakkak on the Writers Association of Iran.
The section, “Culture, Criticism, and the Problematics of Translation” covers
a variety of subjects and periods. In “Ventures and Adventures of the Persian
Language,” Ehsan Yarshater writes about the Persian language that of all the
Iranian languages of Persia, current or defunct, Persian is the only language with
a clear pedigree. The article explains the older forms of Persian including Middle
Persian or Pahlavi, which was originally the language of the Persian tribes who
settled in southern Persia and became the official language of the Sassanid state
under their rule (224–651 ce). Middle Persian itself was derived or was in fact a
simplified continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids (550–
330 bce).
I return to the question of Persian versus Farsi in a revised and expanded arti-
cle entitled, “Social Causes and Cultural Consequences of Replacing Persian with
Farsi: What’s in a Name?” The article explains further why such a substitution
happens, who does it, and, finally, what the negative aspects of this replacement are.
The problem of the name of this language in English and other European languages
is a contemporary topic and dilemma. And it is only one of many cultural issues
with which Iranians grapple. The problematics of the name of the language are sim-
ilar to those of the name of the country, the reform of the Persian alphabet, the tasks
facing the Academy of the Persian Language in regard to the fast-paced changes in
technology and the information industry, all of which require urgent attention.
In “Ahmad Kasravi’s Critiques of Europism and Orientalism,” Mohamad
Tavakoli-Targhi thoughtfully connects Ahmad Kasravi’s ideas with those of the
thinkers who wrote before and after him. A prominent Iranian journalist, linguist,
historian, lawyer, and religious reformer, Kasravi promoted religious homogene-
ity and an Islam-based polity but was also critical of Shi’ism and clerical hiero-
cracy in Iran. He was an advocate of language reform but was highly critical of
Persian canonical texts. He served as a defense lawyer for the founders of the
communist Tudeh Party but was a fervent antagonist of communism. And, most
pertinent to the topic of this article, Kasravi was alarmed by the Iranian adoration
 Introduction 15
of Europe, a phenomenon that he called Europism. He viewed the Iranian mimicry
of modern European norms as an “illness,” as a “trap” that instead of promoting
civilization and humanism would contribute to war and to social devastation. With
the exception of scientific innovations, he explained that Iranians could improve
their own modes of life and legal and administrative structures without needing to
import unsuitable European norms – norms that had promoted individual greed,
social inequality, and world war. These are some of Kasravi’s ideas and thoughts
that Tavakoli-Targhi carefully traces through to later prominent Iranian thinkers.
Arang Keshavarzian in “Mutual Comprehension and Hybrid Identities in the
Bazaar: Reflections on Interviews and Interlocutors in Tehran” recounts and ana-
lyzes over a year of field research conducted with merchants in the Tehran bazaar
in the early 2000s. Rather than treating these interviews as data or facts to recon-
struct or retrieve a history of the bazaar, he explores how notions of identity,
difference, and hybridity are formulated. What emerges is the distinct manner in
which discussions and information were presented by these bazaari merchants
and how their interactions with the author were fundamentally shaped by their
expectations, assumptions, and knowledge of various dimensions of the author’s
identity, such as his Iranian background, upbringing in the United States, educa-
tion, and gender. While the variety of views and perceptions reflect the interests,
experiences, and identities of these interviewees, ultimately they also indicate how
these bazaaris, and possibly many other Iranians, think about social and political
relationships and give meaning to the world. These exchanges also imply that
cultures cannot be fully translated as is sometimes assumed in the social sciences.
In “The Odyssey of Jalal Al-Ahmad’s Gharbzadegi – Five Decades After,”
Liora Hendelman-Baavur examines the status of Jalal Al-Ahmad’s best known
book five decades after it was published in its first thousand copies. According to
her essay and research, Gharbzadegi continues to evoke reactions and interest in
Al-Ahmad’s intellectual and literary legacy. This article is thus concerned with
the mass appeal attributed to Gharbzadegi in prerevolutionary Iran and its alter-
nating significance and conceptualization in the postrevolutionary era. More spe-
cifically, it explores why Al-Ahmad’s essay is credited by Iranian studies scholars
with shaping the minds and actions of an entire generation of young intellectuals
and how, despite being hotly debated and politically controversial, it became the
best known and most cited – and doubtless the most influential – textual site for
the emerging discourse of retreats from modernity. By probing the postrevolu-
tionary discourse on Gharbzadegi, the article argues that a unique combination
of timing, style, format, and content, as well as the author’s reputation, sociopo-
litical connections, and above all the emergence of the Islamic Republic, gave
Al-Ahmad’s essay the edge in acquiring titles such as “the ideological ferment
that ultimately led to revolution.”
“Marjane Satrapi’s Persepolis and the Overarching Problematic of Totalitarianism
and Democracy in Postrevolutionary Iran” by Shadi Mazhari analyzes scenes of
Marjane Satrapi’s representation of the self in her autobiographical comic Persepolis,
where the self, defying closure by the totalitarian system of the clerics, refuses to be
confined to a fixed national identity. The article explores the interlinking of the self
16 Kamran Talattof
with its sociopolitical context, whereby dissent from dictatorship implies a mental
space where democratic sensibility develops. Mazhari’s theoretical framework is
Claude Lefort’s reflection on the birth of modern democracy and human rights
during the eighteenth-century revolutions. From there, Mazhari concludes that
Satrapi’s adoption of French and the Enlightenment tradition helps to define the
self in terms of “the political,” that is, the decision to dissent from the demand
that all subjects’ lives must conform to the official discourse of totalitarianism. The
democratic significance of Satrapi’s opposition to the 1979 Revolution’s theocratic
aftermath finds confirmation in Lefort’s analysis of the French Revolution of 1789.
Sima Daad’s “Accented Texts: The Case of Chahār Maqāle and Mohammad
Qazvini” is drawn from a study on Chahār Maqāle and its critical edition by
Mohammad Qazvini in the sociocultural contexts of its original composition and
its twentieth-century reproduction. Setting out from current debates in textual
criticism, the article makes it clear that every version of the work is a unique event
informed by the sensibility of a particular milieu that environed the production (or
reproduction for that matter) of each version. Viewed as such, departures from the
author’s text at various stages of transmission and editing are explained in relation
to the historical situation. By the same token, Qazvini’s rendition of Chahār
Maqāle must be received as one version of the author’s work “appropriated” to
demands and concerns of cultural and sociopolitical sensibility in Iran during the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries in national and international arenas.
In “Lizard as Arab Food: Representation of Arabs and the Shāhnāmeh
Scholarship,” Abbas Jamshidi analyzes “Isfahān Nesf-e Jahān” (“Isfahān, Half
of the World,” 1932) by Sadeq Hedayat, which recounts the author’s visit to the
Iranian central city of Isfahan via a journey through the adjacent desert. After
leaving the religious city of Qom, the car he had hired breaks down, providing
him with an opportunity to spend time in the desert nature and its host of insects
and animals. The descriptions in this section mainly focus on an animal loosely
identified as “of the lizard genus”. Despite the timidity of other lizards, this one
lingers long enough in sight to inspire a description by Hedayat. In Jamshidi’s
understanding, Hedayat breaks away from “objective narration” and resorts to “an
expression of ideological prejudice.” He believes that “Hedayat’s travelogue is
mostly driven by a factual narration that offers detached, objective observations.”
From this rather personal understanding, the author moves on to a larger body
of work which also deals with “anti-Arab” representation in modern Persian
literature, focusing on how in the seventeenth century certain Persian intelligentsia
who migrated to India used that country’s relative freedom to promote anti-Arab
representation. In The Politics of Writing in Iran: A History of Modern Persian
Literature, I have addressed Joya Saad’s The Image of Arabs in Modern Persian
Literature. He examines the so-called Dasātiri movement, which is considered a
neo-Zoroastrian movement in India, arguing that the Dasātiri anti-Arab writing
found in India has impacted modern Iranian writers too. He exemplifies this
notion by drawing attention to Ākhundzādeh (d. 1878) and by showing how this
thinker had drawn on the Dasātiri texts to conceptualize his critique of Persian
culture in general.
 Introduction 17
Life narratives have been a medium for Iranian female authors to resist
gender and class discrimination and also to construct identities that inspire,
instruct, and resist gender and class discrimination. Firouzeh Dianat’s “Iranian
Female Authors and ‘the Anxiety of Authorship’” examines the writings of Bibi
Khanum Astarabadi’s The Vices of Men, Tahereh Qurrat al-Ayn’s poetry, Taj
Al-Saltana’s memoir, Crowning Anguish: Memoirs of a Persian Princess from
the Harem to Modernity, and the poetry of Parvin Etesami, Forugh Farrokhzad,
and Simin Behbahani and links their expressions into recent life narratives inside
and outside Iran to find out how female authors have managed to give birth to
their voices, languages, and media of expressions. This paper suggests female
authors have transformed and inspired each other in the process of self-liberation.
Yet, the transformation of language and form continue as still female authors
are exploring media of self-deconstruction and reconstruction to resist gender
and class disparity. Although patriarchy has marginalized women and has denied
them from their rights, women did not retreat into “angelic silence.”
Female authors, in the processes of uncovering and discovering self, have
framed their narratives by forms used by male authors; nevertheless, they have
managed to give birth to their voices, languages, and modes of expressions. Female
voices have been ignored, disregarded, or accused of plagiarism; however, female
authors have resisted false accusations and denial as they have criticized women’s
subjugation. They have transformed and inspired each other in the process of
self-liberation.
Samad Alavi’s “Living in Lyric: The Task of Translating a Modernist Ghazal”
reflects on the critical processes involved in translating a single poem from Persian
into English. Focusing on one particularly challenging but rich lyrical piece by the
popular poet and scholar Muhammad Riza Shafi’i Kadkani (b. 1939), the article
highlights the cultural, historical, and aesthetic resonances that the translator must
confront as he or she brings the text to life in its new language. The article argues
that Shafi’i’s poem “Az Būdan u Surūdan” (“On Living and Lyric”) on the one
hand comments directly upon the Iranian sociopolitical events in 1971, the year
it appeared, and on the other hand draws extensively from the poet’s profound
familiarity with classical Persian poetics. Thus to create a sense of fidelity toward
the original poem, the English translator must recover some of both the modern,
politically symbolic codes and the semblance of a premodern, lyrical form. After
reflecting on the process and proposing new approaches toward reconciling the
myriad challenges that arise, the article concludes with the translator’s complete
version of the poem under consideration.
Finally, in “Satisfying an Appetite for Books: Innovation, Production,
and Modernization in Later Islamic Bookbinding,” Jake Benson writes on the
fluctuating changes in style of bookbinding craft techniques in the Islamic world,
which are often described in terms of fashion when in reality they are often
developed to meet practical demands. Over time, these techniques evolved from
scribal practices of the Late Antique period into a distinct trade. “Instead of an
individual scribe producing an entire manuscript from start to finish, a specialized
bookbinder would focus strictly on producing the cover of a manuscript, often in a
18 Kamran Talattof
range of styles depending on their patron’s taste and budget.” Benson’s numerous
findings include the changes in the techniques in subsequent centuries. He ends
this fascinating journey by writing on the contemporary era.

One Indo-Persian treatise, the Kashf al-Sinā’at va Makhzan al-Bezā’at, or

‘Muntakhab-i Muhammadī’, compiles both traditional and foreign techniques
for making inks, dyes, and paper coatings, as well as novel adaptations of
traditional methods, such as application paper marbling techniques for the
decoration of the edges of text block in the European manner.

He concludes that “When considered together with surviving physical evidence,

these documents help to explain why, how, and to what extent the bookbinding
trade dramatically changed in the Early Modern period.”
As these summaries indicate, the topics and disciplinary fields vary. However,
they also collectively indicate that interdisciplinary approaches might be the best
way to illuminate the complexity of these subjects, very similar to the approach
Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak has espoused in many of his works; namely, an advocacy
of the use of literary and cultural theories in the context of Iranian social history
whether constructed within the text or documented in the official historiography.26
In a sense, what Stephen Greenblatt once termed as “cultural poetics” defines
Karimi-Hakkak’s work and its evident influence in the pages of this volume.27
While I have always advocated for textual scrutiny as part of any type of analy-
sis, I hope readers see here the connection between the power of Iranian social
discourses and the marginality of the success and ephemerality of the aesthetics
of the literary output in the contemporary era; a connection which must be under-
stood somehow. And let us hope for the sprouting of new leaves in Persian literary
and cultural studies and for fresh insights into our debates.

Notes
1 For information on this development see, Nikki Keddie, “Introduction and Notes on
Contributors,” Iranian Studies (Special issue on Iranian Studies in Europe and Japan,
edited by Rudi Matthee and Nikki Keddie) 20, no. 2–4 (1987): i–vii.
2 Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak, Recasting Persian Poetry: Scenarios of Poetic Modernity in
Iran (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1995).
3 Ibid., 15. In addition to this book, he has provided analysis of poetry in other pub-
lications such as “The Unconventional Parvin: An Analysis of Parvin E’tesami’s
‘Jula-ye Koda’ (God’s Weaver),” in Once a Dewdrop: Essays on the Poetry of
Parvin E’tesami, ed. Heshmat Moayyad (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 1993), pp. 117–
140; “Preservation and Presentation: Continuity and Creativity in the Contemporary
Persian Qasida,” in Qasida Poetry in Islamic Asia and Africa: Classical Traditions
and Modern Meanings, vol. 1 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996), pp. 253–280; “Beyond
Translation: Interactions between English and Persian Poetry,” in Iran and the
Surrounding World, 1500–2000: Interactions between Iran and the Neighboring
Cultures, ed. Nikki Keddie and Rudi Matthee (Seattle: University of Washington
Press, 2002), pp. 36–60; “A Well amid the Waste: An Introduction to the Poetry
of Ahmad Shamlu,” World Literature Today 51, no. 2 (1997): 201–206; “Satire in
Classical Persian Poetry.” Lowh III: 103–114; etc.
 Introduction 19
4 “Preservation and Presentation: Continuity and Creativity in the Contemporary Persian
Qasida,” in Qasida Poetry in Islamic Asia and Africa: Classical Traditions and Modern
Meanings, vol. 1 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996), pp. 253–280.
5 Ibid.
6 Ibid.
7 See also, “Four Modern Persian Qasidas,” in Qasida Poetry in Islamic Asia and Africa:
Eulogy’s Bounty, Meaning’s Abundance, An Anthology, vol. 2 (Leiden: E. J. Brill,
1996), pp. 192–215.
8 Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak, “Protest and Perish: A History of the Writers’ Association of
Iran,” Iranian Studies 18, nos. 2/4, special issue, “Sociology of the Iranian Writer”
(Spring–Autumn 1985): 199.
9 Ibid., 199.
10 Ibid., 190.
11 Ibid.
12 Ibid., 226.
13 Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak, “Poet of Desires Turned to Dust: In Memoriam Mehdi
Akhavan Saless,” World Literature Today 65, no. 1 (Winter 1991): 18.
14 Ibid., 18.
15 Ibid., 19.
16 Ibid., 20.
17 Ibid., 24.
18 Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak, “A Storyteller and His Times: ‘Ali-Akbar Sa’idi-Sirjani of
Iran” World Literature Today 68, no. 3 (Summer 1994): 516.
19 Ibid., 521.
20 Ibid., 522.
21 This is the article he wrote on the poet in our coedited volume. See Ahmad Karimi
Hakkak, “Nima Yushij: A Life,” in Essays on Nima Yushij: Animating Modernism in
Persian Poetry, ed. Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak and Kamran Talattof (Leiden: Brill, 2004).
22 Ibid., 12.
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid.
25 One of the surprising places where Karimi-Hakkak’s preoccupation with methodology
becomes highly evident is in his book reviews, which he actively pursued from the
earliest days of his career until the early 2000s.
26 In addition to his articles discussed above, see Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak, “Literature and
Historical Transformations,” Andisheh-ye Azad 5 (1980): 10–13.
27 Stephen Greenblatt is considered to be the founders of New Historicism, the theoretical
and critical practices which have collectively also been referred to as “cultural poet-
ics.” (See Stephen Greenblatt, “Towards a Poetics of Culture,” in The New Historicism,
ed. H. Aram Veeser [London: Routledge, 1989], 1–14.) We too have tried to understand
our subject through its cultural, intellectual, and literary contexts.

References
Greenblatt, Stephen. “Towards a Poetics of Culture.” In The New Historicism, edited by
H. Aram Veeser. London: Routledge, 1989.
Karimi-Hakkak, Ahmad. “Beyond Translation: Interactions between English and Persian
Poetry.” In Iran and the Surrounding World, 1500–2000: Interactions between Iran
and the Neighboring Cultures, edited by Nikki Keddie and Rudi Matthee. Seattle:
University of Washington Press, 2002.
———.
“Four Modern Persian Qasidas.” In Qasida Poetry in Islamic Asia and Africa:
Eulogy’s Bounty, Meaning’s Abundance, An Anthology, vol. 2. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996.
———.
“Literature and Historical Transformations.” Andisheh-ye Azad 5 (1980).
20 Kamran Talattof
———.
“Nima Yushij: A Life.” In Essays on Nima Yushij: Animating Modernism in Persian
Poetry, edited by Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak and Kamran Talattof. Leiden: Brill, 2004.
———.
“Poet of Desires Turned to Dust: In Memoriam Mehdi Akhavan Saless.” World
Literature Today 65, no. 1 (Winter 1991).
———.
“Preservation and Presentation: Continuity and Creativity in the Contemporary
Persian Qasida.” In Qasida Poetry in Islamic Asia and Africa: Classical Traditions and
Modern Meanings, vol. 1. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996.
———.
“Protest and Perish: A History of the Writers’ Association of Iran” Iranian Studies
18, nos. 2/4, special issue, “Sociology of the Iranian Writer” (Spring–Autumn 1985).
———.
Recasting Persian Poetry: Scenarios of Poetic Modernity in Iran. Salt Lake City:
University of Utah Press, 1995.
———.
“Satire in Classical Persian Poetry.” Lowh III: 103–114.
———.
“A Storyteller and His Times: ‘Ali-Akbar Sa’idi-Sirjani of Iran.” World Literature
Today 68, no. 3 (Summer 1994).
———.
“The Unconventional Parvin: An Analysis of Parvin E’tesami’s ‘Jula-ye Koda’
(God’s Weaver).” In Once a Dewdrop: Essays on the Poetry of Parvin E’tesami, edited
by Heshmat Moayyad. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 1993.
———.
“A Well amid the Waste: An Introduction to the Poetry of Ahmad Shamlu.” World
Literature Today, 51, no. 2 (1997).
Keddie, Nikki. “Introduction and Notes on Contributors.” Iranian Studies (Special issue
on Iranian Studies in Europe and Japan, edited by Rudi Matthee and Nikki Keddie) 20,
no. 2–4 (1987): i–vii.
References

Introduction: leading literary – on Ahmad

Karimi-Hakkak’s scholarship and service
and about this collection

Greenblatt, Stephen. “Towards a Poetics of Culture.” In The

New Historicism, edited by H. Aram Veeser. London:
Routledge, 1989.

Karimi-Hakkak, Ahmad. “Beyond Translation: Interactions

between English and Persian Poetry.” In Iran and the
Surrounding World, 1500–2000: Interactions between Iran
and the Neighboring Cultures, edited by Nikki Keddie and
Rudi Matthee. Seattle: University of Washington Press,
2002.

———. “Four Modern Persian Qasidas.” In Qasida Poetry in

Islamic Asia and Africa: Eulogy’s Bounty, Meaning’s
Abundance, An Anthology, vol. 2. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996.

———. “Literature and Historical Transformations.”

Andisheh-ye Azad 5 (1980).

20 Kamran Talattof

———. “Nima Yushij: A Life.” In Essays on Nima Yushij:

Animating Modernism in Persian Poetry, edited by Ahmad
Karimi-Hakkak and Kamran Talattof. Leiden: Brill, 2004.

———. “Poet of Desires Turned to Dust: In Memoriam Mehdi

Akhavan Saless.” World Literature Today 65, no. 1 (Winter
1991).

———. “Preservation and Presentation: Continuity and

Creativity in the Contemporary Persian Qasida.” In Qasida
Poetry in Islamic Asia and Africa: Classical Traditions and
Modern Meanings, vol. 1. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996.

———. “Protest and Perish: A History of the Writers’

Association of Iran” Iranian Studies 18, nos. 2/4, special
issue, “Sociology of the Iranian Writer” (Spring–Autumn
1985).

———. Recasting Persian Poetry: Scenarios of Poetic

Modernity in Iran. Salt Lake City: University of Utah
Press, 1995.

———. “Satire in Classical Persian Poetry.” Lowh III:

103–114.
———. “A Storyteller and His Times: ‘Ali-Akbar
Sa’idi-Sirjani of Iran.” World Literature Today 68, no. 3
(Summer 1994).

———. “The Unconventional Parvin: An Analysis of Parvin

E’tesami’s ‘Jula-ye Koda’ (God’s Weaver).” In Once a
Dewdrop: Essays on the Poetry of Parvin E’tesami, edited
by Heshmat Moayyad. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 1993.

———. “A Well amid the Waste: An Introduction to the Poetry

of Ahmad Shamlu.” World Literature Today, 51, no. 2
(1997).

Keddie, Nikki. “Introduction and Notes on Contributors.”

Iranian Studies (Special issue on Iranian Studies in
Europe and Japan, edited by Rudi Matthee and Nikki Keddie)
20, no. 2–4 (1987): i–vii.
1 Solṭân Valad and the poetical order:
framing the ethos and praxis of poetry in
the Mevlevi tradition after Rumi

have in mind here.

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