PALEOCEANOGRAPHY, VOL. 26, PA4208, doi:10.

1029/2011PA002126, 2011

Northeastern Pacific oxygen minimum zone variability

over the past 70 kyr: Impact of biological production
and oceanic ventilation
Olivier Cartapanis,1 Kazuyo Tachikawa,1 and Edouard Bard1
Received 27 January 2011; revised 28 July 2011; accepted 31 July 2011; published 29 October 2011.

[1] During the last glacial period, the Oxygen Minimum Zone (OMZ) within the
northeastern Pacific Ocean strengthened and weakened on a millennial time scale,
demonstrating a tight linkage with northern high latitude climate, although the precise
mechanisms responsible remain unknown. Core MD02–2508, retrieved off Baja California,
was analyzed for major and trace elements (Br, Ca, Ti, Fe, Mn, and Sr) using a XRF scanner
and redox‐sensitive trace elements (Cu, Ni, Cd, As, V, Cr, Mo, and U) using the ICP‐MS.
The trace element content, the Fe/Ti ratio, and Br‐based organic carbon exhibit higher
values during the Holocene and during warm Dansgaard‐Oeschger events than during the
Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), stadials, and Heinrich (H) events. A principal component
analysis of the element/Al ratio indicated that the following two main factors controlled
the chemical composition of the sediments: (1) export production, as represented by
organic carbon, that was lower during cold periods; and (2) regional intermediate water
oxygenation, as represented by U and Mo variability, that was not supported by a change
in export production. The latter suggests that intermediate water oxygenation improved
during H events, but slightly deteriorated during late Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 3 and
MIS 2. A local biogeochemical effect, forced by atmospheric processes, impacted the
LGM and H events in the same manner. Whereas regional intermediate oceanic circulation
varied in an opposite manner during the LGM and H events, possibly as a result of the
global reorganization of intermediate water circulation during the LGM.
Citation: Cartapanis, O., K. Tachikawa, and E. Bard (2011), Northeastern Pacific oxygen minimum zone variability over the past
70 kyr: Impact of biological production and oceanic ventilation, Paleoceanography, 26, PA4208, doi:10.1029/2011PA002126.

1. Introduction Ocean and the Arabian Sea [Schulz et al., 1998; Schulte et al.,
1999; Altabet et al., 2002; Ortiz et al., 2004]. Proxy records
[2] Records of the oxygen isotope composition in Green-
and modeling studies suggest that the OMZ intensified during
land ice cores show seesaw‐like air temperature variations at interstadials (warm DO events), and weakened during sta-
the millennial‐scale over the last glacial period that are often
dials (cold DO events) and H events, although the mechan-
referred to as Dansgaard‐Oeschger events (DO) [Dansgaard
isms responsible for these teleconnections remain unknown.
et al., 1993; Johnsen et al., 2001]. A few cold DO events in
[3] The intensification of the OMZ occurs as a result of
Greenland were associated with an ice rafted debris layer in
higher primary production and/or less oxygen supplied
the North Atlantic Ocean and are referred to as Heinrich
through oceanic ventilation. Several studies, conducted along
events (H), that corresponded to large continental ice dis-
the American margin within the northeastern Pacific Ocean,
charges into the ocean [Heinrich, 1988; Broecker et al.,
display evidence for a reduction in exported biogenic fluxes
1992]. Anomalously fresh water inputs into the North
[Dean et al., 1997; Hendy et al., 2002; van Geen et al., 2003;
Atlantic Ocean are thought to have impacted North Atlantic
Hendy et al., 2004; Ivanochko and Pedersen, 2004; Ortiz
Deep Water (NADW) formation and to have reduced pole- et al., 2004; Hendy and Pedersen, 2005; Dean et al.,
ward heat transport, leading to a large temperature decrease
2006; Hendy and Pedersen, 2006; Dean, 2007], and of a
over the North Atlantic Ocean [Clement and Peterson, 2008,
higher pore water oxygen content during cold periods (last
and references therein]. H‐DO scale climate variability is glacial maximum (LGM) and stadials) [Dean et al., 1997;
thought to have extended to lower latitudes into Oxygen
Cannariato and Kennett, 1999; van Geen et al., 2003; Hendy
Minimum Zones (OMZ) within the northeastern Pacific
et al., 2004; Ivanochko and Pedersen, 2004; Hendy and
Pedersen, 2005; Dean et al., 2006; Dean, 2007; Nederbragt
1
et al., 2008]. Based on a simple advection‐diffusion model,
CEREGE, Aix‐Marseille Université, CNRS, IRD, College de France,
Technopole de l’Arbois, Aix en Provence, France.
calibrated with chlorofluorocarbons, both ventilation and
productivity changes are suggested to have had a strong
Copyright 2011 by the American Geophysical Union. impact on the dissolved oxygen content in the present
0883‐8305/11/2011PA002126 northeastern Pacific Ocean [van Geen et al., 2006]. In fact, a

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lower organic carbon content within the sediments during eastern Pacific OMZ on glacial/interglacial, as well as H‐DO
cold events can be explained by either reduced productivity timescales. For this objective, we selected core MD02–2508
linked to weaker coastal upwelling [Hendy et al., 2004; Ortiz (MD08; 23°27.91′N, 111°35.74′W, 606 m water depth,
et al., 2004; Dean et al., 2006], and/or by better oxygenation Figure 1), retrieved from the northern limit of the present
of the water column due to enhanced ventilation [Zheng et al., OMZ within the Eastern Tropical North Pacific (ETNP).
2000; Hendy et al., 2004; Ivanochko and Pedersen, 2004; The core’s location is highly sensitive to changes in pro-
Hendy and Pedersen, 2005; Dean, 2007]. ductivity and ventilation, and thus to OMZ extension and
[4] Our study sought to evaluate the relative importance of intensity through time.
productivity and ventilation changes as the processes [5] In this work, we present a geochemical data set that
responsible for modulating the past variability of the north- includes a decadal‐resolution elemental analyses of the

Figure 1

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sediment (detrital fraction, carbonates, and organic matter, Baumgartner, 2002]. NPIW is formed by intense cooling
as well as some redox‐sensitive elements) obtained using and sea ice formation within the Okhotsk and Bering Seas
an X‐ray fluorescence (XRF) core scanner, and the con- [Talley, 1991; Takahashi, 1998; Shcherbina et al., 2003]
centrations of a series of redox sensitive trace elements and flows equatorward to approximately 20°N where it turns
measured using an Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass westward [Hendy and Kennett, 2003, references therein],
Spectrometer (ICP‐MS). We focused our attention on two and then mixes with Equatorial Subsurface Waters ((ESsW)
categories of trace elements that become insoluble under see below; Figure 1b) [Durazo and Baumgartner, 2002].
oxygen‐depleted conditions in the sediment ‐ elements whose The oxygen content of NPIW decreases from the source area
dissolved concentration in the water column is “nutrient‐like” toward the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, due to organic
(e.g., Cd, Cu, and Ni) and elements whose dissolved con- matter degradation and mixing with highly oxygen‐depleted
centration is conservative (e.g., U and Mo). If the water ESsW. All of these processes contribute to the formation
column is sufficiently depleted in dissolved oxygen (such as of an OMZ at intermediate water depths (500–1000 m,
in the OMZ), “nutrient‐like” elements are preserved in the Figure 1c) within the Eastern Subtropical North Pacific
sediments and expected to indicate export production (see (ESTNP) [Paulmier and Ruiz‐Pino, 2009].
section 3.2 for detail); whereas conservative elements are [8] South of 20°N, the water properties at intermediate
expected to essentially vary with the pore water oxygen water depths (100–700m) are very different from those of
content, which reflects the bottom water oxygen concen- northern water masses as a result of a southern origin [Hendy
tration and local export production [Calvert and Pedersen, and Kennett, 2003; Bostock et al., 2010, and references
1996; Nameroff et al., 2002; Algeo and Maynard, 2004; therein]. AntArctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) combined
Tribovillard et al., 2006]. Using a statistical analysis, we with SubAntarctic Mode Water (SAMW), is formed at southern
attempt to separate the effect of export production and high latitudes and spreads over the South Pacific Ocean
bottom water oxygenation in order to provide information [McCartney, 1977]. A positive evaporation/precipitation
on the mechanisms linking high and low latitude climate. balance in the central South Pacific Ocean increases surface
The proposed mechanisms are discussed herein by comparing and subsurface water salinity. The water mass then zonally
our results to other proxy records and modeling studies. crosses the Pacific Ocean basin via the Equatorial Under-
Current (EUC) and reaches the Central American coast
2. Modern Hydrographic Settings while mixing with northern component water. The resulting
and Productivity ESsW (34.5 to 35.0 psu) [Durazo and Baumgartner, 2002]
that mixes with upwelled North Pacific deep water corre-
[6] Surface and subsurface oceanography within the sponds to “Southern Component Intermediate Water,” as
eastern North Pacific Ocean margin is mainly driven by the referenced by Hendy and Kennett [2003]. The oxygen
California Current System (Figure 1a), the northeastern content of ESsW is highly depleted (0.2mL/L) below 100 m
section of the North Pacific Gyre [Tomczak and Godfrey, between 10°N and 25°N, as a result of its distance from the
2003]. The California Current (CC) transports the cool formation zone, high productivity along its pathway (equa-
and fresh water mass, referred to as Subarctic Water (SW) torial and coastal upwelling), and slow ventilation. The upper
[Durazo and Baumgartner, 2002], southward along the ETNP OMZ corresponds to the ESsW (Figure 1c) [Paulmier
North American margin from Vancouver Island (50°N) to and Ruiz‐Pino, 2009]. Denitrification occurs in the upper
25°N, and then turns westward off Baja California (World water column within the ETNP and increases the d 15N of
Ocean Atlas 2005 [Hickey, 1998]). SW occupies the upper residual nitrate within the ESsW [Voss et al., 2001; Pichevin
300 m of the water column within the northeastern Pacific et al., 2010].
Ocean, and is characterized by low salinity (32.5 to 34.0 psu) [9] ESsW is transported northward along the margin
(Figure 1b). As a result of active renewal, SW also displays a off Baja California by the California Undercurrent (CU,
high oxygen content (5 mL/L, [van Geen et al., 2006]) Figure 1a) within subsurface water (roughly 200–300m
(Figure 1c). [Hickey, 1998; Pierce et al., 2000; Durazo and Baumgartner,
[7] From the lower limit of the CC down to approximately 2002; Pérez‐Brunius et al., 2006; Gay and Chereskin, 2009]).
1000 m, North Pacific Intermediate Water (NPIW) occupies Despite the fact that the CU has been identified to have
the water column along the California margin [Durazo and a nearly continuous flow between the Santa Barbara Basin

Figure 1. Mean annual SST and a simplified map of surface and intermediate depth currents (a). Surface currents are indi-
cated with dark gray arrows (CC for the California Current, SEC for the South Equatorial Current), whereas the current and
flow direction of the water mass at intermediate depths are shown with light gray arrows (EUC for the Equatorial Under-
Current, NPIW for North Pacific Intermediate Water). Coastal subsurface currents are indicated with a white arrow (CU for
the California Undercurrent). The position of core MD02–2508 (red diamond) and the cores discussed in the text (white
dots) are also indicated. The white dot filled with a cross corresponds to the NH15P core and the sediment trap study
by [Nameroff et al., 2002]. (b) The salinity and (c) the oxygen content from oceanographic transects taken along the
North American margin (100 km wide, right upper panel). Major water masses are displayed in Figure 1b as follows: SW
for Subarctic Waters transported with CC and ESsW (for Equatorial Subsurface Water). The position of the OMZ in the
Eastern Tropical North Pacific (ETNP) and the Eastern SubTropical North Pacific (ESTNP) are shown in Figure 1c. Figure 1
was generated using the Ocean Data View software (http://odv.awi.de) from the World Ocean Atlas 2005 data set (http://www.
nodc.noaa.gov/OC5/WOA05/pr_woa05.html).

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Figure 2. (a) The Seawifs chlorophyll‐a concentration (mg/m3) estimation for May 2000 for Baja Cali-
fornia (http://reason.gsfc.nasa.gov/Giovanni/). The analyses and visualizations provided in Figure 2a were
produced using the Giovanni online data system, developed and maintained by the NASA GES DISC
[Acker and Leptoukh, 2007]. (b) The mean SST for Baja California during May 2000 [Zaytsev et al.,
2003]. The core MD02–2508 site is indicated with a yellow star.

(34°N) and 50°N [Pierce et al., 2000], CU behavior is not reducing the east/west pressure gradient and associated
well‐known off Baja California. Worth noting is that the upwelling.
water mass transported by the CU (derived from ESsW) may
be the main nutrient source during coastal upwelling at the 3. Materials and Analytical Strategy
core site [Durazo and Baumgartner, 2002; Ladah, 2003] and
displays high d15N due to denitrification within the northern 3.1. Materials and Age Model
extent of the ETNP [Kienast et al., 2002]. [12] Core MD02–2508 was collected from the continental
[10] The MD08 core site is situated below the northern slope off the south Baja California peninsula by the R.V.
end of the ETNP subsurface (100–500 m) OMZ corre- Marion‐Dufresne during the coring campaign MD126‐
sponding to ESsW, and within the intermediate depth ESTNP MONA (IMAGES VIII, summer 2002). At present, the core
OMZ (500–1000m), corresponding to NPIW (Figure 1c). As site is located within oxygen depleted NPIW (Figures 1b
a result, the MD08 core site is highly sensitive to ventilation and 1c).
variations both within subsurface and intermediate water [13] Sediment within the core consisted of hemipelagic
depths. silty clayey muds containing biogenic and mineral fractions.
[11] Off Baja California margin, maximum surface pro- Several intervals displayed millimetric to centimetric scale
ductivity occurs during spring and early summer [Thomas laminations composed of light colored biogenic remains
et al., 2001] when intense southward winds induce coastal and dark‐colored organic matter and terrigenous sediment
upwelling [van Geen and Husby, 1996; Zaytsev et al., 2003]. [Blanchet et al., 2006] (Figure 3). Physical properties mea-
During May, the typical high‐productivity season for Baja sured aboard indicated that lithologic changes are associated
California, the distribution of chlorophyll‐a in surface water with color and density characteristics, with the dark, organic‐
(greater than 10 mg/m3) correlates to that of low sea surface rich laminae exhibiting lower density (Figure 3) [Beaufort
temperature (SST, 14°C to 16°C) along the coast (Figure 2). et al., 2002; Blanchet et al., 2007].
In general, productivity between 40°N and 20°N along the [14] The age model was first developed using fourteen
14
western American margin is higher during early summer C dates determined from the benthic foraminifer Uvigerina
[Thomas et al., 2001] since the North Pacific Ocean’s high peregrina, two dates determined from the planktonic fora-
pressure cell strengthens and the continental low deepens. minifera Globigerinoides ruber, and the Blake magnetic
The resulting east‐west pressure gradient induces stronger excursion [Blanchet et al., 2007]. In order to refine this
equatorward winds that favor enhanced upwelling. In con- chronology and to develop a more accurate age model with
trast, during winter, the North Pacific High weakens while respect to Greenland climate variations, we used a visual
the Aleutian Low strengthens and extends southward, correlation of the wet bulk density (WBD) obtained from the
GEOTEK logger and the lightness (L*) obtained by spec-

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Figure 3. The isotopic composition of the north GRIP ice core (d18O‰/SMOW) based on the SS09sea
time scale [Johnsen et al., 2001], the wet bulk density (WBD), and the lightness (L*) of core MD02–2508
[Beaufort et al., 2002]. Black triangles indicate the position of the tie points used for building the age
model. Crosses indicate intervals dated by 14C (see text). Gray vertical bars indicate laminated intervals
[Blanchet et al., 2007].

trophotometry [Beaufort et al., 2002] as compared to the humic or fulvic acids [Nameroff et al., 2002; Algeo and
NGRIP isotopic oxygen record (based on the SS09sea Maynard, 2004; Tribovillard et al., 2006]. During organic
time scale [Johnsen et al., 2001]) (Figure 3). Based on our matter degradation within the water column and within the
current knowledge, such layers of OMZ sediments are gen- sediment, these elements are released into seawater and pore
erally formed during warm periods (section 1) [cf. Dean et al., water. Oxygen depletion in the water column minimizes
2006; Dean, 2007]. Indeed, off the Baja California margin at remineralization of the organic fraction [Guidi et al., 2008].
a site very close to the MD08 location (core PC08, Figures 1b A low oxygen content within the water column, and a high
and 1c), physical properties of the sediments, such as the export production produces a depletion of dissolved oxygen
diffusive spectral reflectance (an indicator of the organic in pore water. Under such pore water conditions, these
carbon content), were used to successfully build an accurate elements would be preserved in sediments in insoluble forms
age model with respect to the Greenland ice core isotopic (e.g., sulfides) and can be used as an indicator of export
record [Ortiz et al., 2004; Marchitto et al., 2007]. Cores production [Calvert and Pedersen, 1993, 1996; Tribovillard
MD08 and PC08 have very similar trace element contents and et al., 2006; Calvert and Pedersen, 2007]. Note that we use
variabilities (section 4.2) indicating an equivalent sedimen- the term “export production” for the carbon and nitrogen
tation regime. component of organic matter (R2 = 0.94 between C and N,
[15] Additionally, the new age model presented here data not shown) that reaches the seafloor, excluding the
shows reasonable agreement to the age model of Blanchet phosphorous fraction for which no data is available.
et al. [2007], supporting the validity of our dating approach [17] The behavior of U and Mo is different from the
with an offset smaller than 2 kyr for the last 40 kyr B.P. and “nutrient‐like” elements because they are not directly
5 kyr between 40 kyr and 70 kyr B.P. The estimated sedi- involved in the biological cycle. Their accumulation in
mentation rate was approximately 43 cm/kyr during the sediments is essentially controlled by the oxygen content of
Holocene, decreased to 15 cm/kyr during the LGM, and pore water that is, in turn, determined by bottom water
was between 20 and 50 cm/kyr during Marine Isotope oxygenation and local organic rain (see an example with
Stage (MIS) 3 (auxiliary material).1 Laminated intervals Pailler et al. [2002]). In suboxic pore water ([O2] between
correspond to interstadial periods within the Greenland ice 2ml/l and 0.2ml/l), soluble U(VI) is reduced to highly insol-
core (Figure 3). uble U(IV) that precipitates and accumulates in the sediment
via diffusion across the water/sediment interface. U accu-
3.2. Analytical Strategy mulation may be promoted by the kinetic effect, in areas
[16] In order to distinguish between changes in oxygen of low sedimentation rates [Klinkhammer and Palmer,
concentration caused by biological production as opposed to 1991; Algeo and Maynard, 2004; Tribovillard et al., 2006].
ocean ventilation we used a series of trace element records. Molybdenum precipitates in pore water as insoluble sulfides
Trace elements, for which the dissolved concentration pro- under anoxic conditions ([O2] < 0.2ml/l) in the presence of
file is nutrient‐like, such as Cd, Cu, and Ni, are considered free H2S. The diffusion of dissolved Mo from oxic/suboxic
to be associated with marine organic matter since they bottom water toward anoxic pore water maintains the pre-
are incorporated into the particulate organic fraction during cipitation and favors enrichment in the sediment, although
growth or scavenged by the organic phase, in particular Mo scavenging by organic matter and/or Mn oxides from
the water column can also contribute to the accumulation
1
Auxiliary materials are available in the HTML. doi:10.1029/ [Shimmield and Price, 1986; Tribovillard et al., 2006].
2011PA002126.

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[18] Arsenic, V, and Cr display a mixed feature for the tion of the measurements was between 200 mm and 0.5 cm
two categories. Arsenic accumulation in sediment is mainly (corresponding to the decadal time scale).
linked to diffusion from the overlying waters and the trap- [22] The total organic and inorganic carbon content of the
ping of pyrite or other sulfide phases [Böning et al., 2004]. core can be found in the work given by Blanchet et al.
Dissolved V and Cr generally display a conservative behavior [2007]. Briefly, the bulk sediment carbonate content was
in an oxic water column, but can be scavenged onto organic determined from the total and organic carbon content in bulk
matter in an anoxic water column and trapped in anoxic sediment using a FISONS NA 1500 elemental analyzer.
sediment [Böning et al., 2004; Tribovillard et al., 2006]. Once the total carbon was analyzed, the carbonate was
Since the affinity for binding to organic matter and the sen- removed with 1M HCl. The uncertainty associated with the
sitivity of pore water oxygenation are different for each trace carbonate and nitrogen content obtained using this method
element, it should be possible to separate the impact of bio- is estimated to be ∼3% (1s) [Pailler and Bard, 2002;
logical production and pore water oxygenation. Blanchet et al., 2007].
[19] Such a simplified interpretation of trace element
behavior for the Baja California region was validated by 4. Results
data obtained from a previous study of the modern bio-
geochemical cycles in the water column and in the sediment 4.1. High Resolution Measurements of Major
[Nameroff et al., 2002]. A series of trace elements was and Minor Elements for the Last 70 kyr
analyzed in seawater, material from sediment traps, and [23] Bromine, Ti, Cl, Ca, Sr, Fe, and Mn were measured
sediment samples collected just south of Baja California using XRF in order to determine the rapid variability of
within the present OMZ (23.5°N, 106.5°W, near core site TOC, the terrigenous fraction, carbonates, and redox con-
NH15P, Figure 1). Dissolved Cd displayed a nutrient‐like ditions. The Br content of marine sediment can be used as a
profile, while the Cd content in particulate material was proxy for TOC, although part of the Br signature is also
characterized by a strong enrichment relative to the litho- related to the pore water content [Croudace et al., 2006;
genic fraction, with a similar pattern to TOC. Particulate Cu Mayer et al., 2007; Ziegler et al., 2008]. A best fit between
displayed a gradual increase with water depth, likely the Br intensity and TOC was obtained using a logarithmic
reflecting continuous scavenging onto organic matter [Boyle relationship (R2 = 0.85, Figure 4a) rather than a linear
et al., 1977; Tribovillard et al., 2006]. Dissolved U, Mo, and relationship. The log‐relationship is likely formed by the
V in the water column displayed conservative profiles, fact that sediment rich in TOC is more porous and part of
whereas U and V values in settling particulate material were the Br signal is derived from pore water. Since the vari-
not enriched as compared to the lithogenic fraction. The ability in the Br/Cl ratio (here Cl is an indicator of pore
results support the assumption that any U and V enrichment water) was similar to that of the Br intensity, we used the
in the sediment is essentially related to anoxic/suboxic logarithmic relationship in order to convert the Br intensity
conditions in pore water. Therefore, Cd, Ni, and Cu were to the TOC content (Figure 4a).
clearly associated with the settling particulate organic frac- [24] Br‐based TOC varied between 5 and 15% for the past
tion, while U and Mo accumulation was mainly linked to 70 kyr, with the highest values occurring during the Holo-
pore water oxygenation. cene (10 to 15%) and the lowest values occurring during
MIS2 and the late MIS3 (5 to 8%, Figure 4a). Millennial to
3.3. Bulk Sediment Chemistry centennial scale variability (between 5 and 10%) was
[20] Quantitative bulk sediment chemistry was analyzed at superimposed on this long‐term trend, with higher values
10 cm resolution (corresponding roughly to 500 years) with occurring within laminated intervals (corresponding to
an ICP‐MS (Agilent 7500ce) at CEREGE. Approximately warm DO events, Figure 3). Lower values were observed for
160 samples of well‐homogenized freeze‐dried sediment bioturbated intervals (corresponding to H events and stadials).
(30 mg) were dissolved in a mixture of ultrapure acids [25] In addition to Br, the intensity ratio of Compton scatter
(0.6 mL of 15M HNO3 and 0.3 mL of 22M HF) using a (incoherent) to Rayleigh scatter (coherent) as obtained from
microwave (CEM Mars 5) digestion procedure. In order to XRF measurements displayed a similar variability to TOC,
assess the accuracy of the measurements for all of the ele- with higher values for laminated layers (Inc/Co, Figure 4a)
ments analyzed (Al, Ti, Fe, Mn, Ca, Sr, V, Cr, Ni, Cu, As, since Compton scatter is inversely proportional to the mass
Mo, Cd, and U), we digested and analyzed geostandards that absorption coefficient of the sample. The ratio represents the
spanned the concentration range of our samples: MAG‐1 variations of the relative proportion of light to heavy ele-
(marine mud), BE‐N (basalt), and GSD12 (river sediment). ments [Croudace et al., 2006], and is, therefore, a semi-
The estimated analytical uncertainty was less than 5%. quantitative indicator of organic matter.
Blank levels for the total digestion procedure were lower [26] In order to monitor millennial scale terrigenous
than 2% of the mean measured concentration for all of the fraction variability, we used the XRF‐based Ti content
elements. (Figure 4a). Although Al is often utilized as a terrigenous
[21] In order to capture the rapid variability of elemental indicator, the XRF analysis of this element within wet
composition, high resolution XRF measurements for Ca, Sr, sediments is highly influenced by the pore water content
Ti, Fe, and Br were performed on the archived portion of the [Tjallingii et al., 2007]. Our approach was supported by a
split sediment core at CEREGE using a core scanner tight correlation between the Al and Ti concentrations
(ITRAX, COX Analytical Systems). A Mo X‐ray source obtained using ICP‐MS (R2 = 0.95, Figure 4a). Over the
was used at 30 kV and 45 mA, with a 15 s counting time. studied period, the Al concentration ranged between 2 and
Depending on the lamination thickness, the spatial resolu- 5%, whereas the Ti concentration ranged between 1000 and

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Figure 4a. The relative abundance of Br, Ti, Ca, and Sr (peak area), and the ratio between incoherent
and coherent scattering for core MD02–2508 over the past 70 kyr obtained using the XRF core scanner.
Concentrations of Al (%), Ti (mg/g), and Sr (mg/g) were obtained from ICP‐MS measurements, whereas
TOC and CaCO3 concentrations (%) were obtained using a CNS elemental analyzer (Blanchet et al.,
2007). Gray vertical bars indicate laminated intervals. The high TOC content (red diamond) corre-
sponds to the anomalously high C/N ratio (16.5 [Blanchet et al., 2007]) that is possibly related to the
contribution of continental organic carbon. The relationship between the Br intensity and the TOC used
here is, as follows: TOC (%) = 7.5446 * Ln(Br intensity) ‐ 54.837.

2500 mg/g. By assuming that the Al concentration in the record, with the lowest value occurring during the Holocene
terrigenous phase was constant and equal to the value for the and during laminated intervals of MIS3 (Figure 4a). The
Upper Continental Crust (UPC, 8%), [McLennan, 2001], we similarity between Sr and Ca indicates that most of the Sr
determined that the terrigenous fraction accounted for was from carbonates (Figure 4a).
between 30 and 60% of bulk sediment (Figure 4a). The Ti [28] By using Ti as a terrigenous indicator, we examined
XRF intensity displayed lower values within laminated the Mn/Ti and Fe/Ti ratios obtained from an XRF scan and
intervals, during the Holocene, and for the beginning of ICP‐MS measurements as redox indicators (Figure 4b). Mn/Ti
MIS3, while the highest content occurred between 20 and ratios were approximately uniform around 0.075 g/g for the
50 kyr B.P. and during MIS4 (Figure 4a). entire period studied, and were much lower than the terrige-
[27] Ca XRF counts (1,000 to 70,000 in peak area) were nous reference of 0.12 g/g (see details within the caption of
correlated to carbonates obtained using a CNS analyzer Figure 4b). The result suggests that Mn oxides were lost from
(R2 = 0.6), and displayed a negative correlation with TOC the sediment [Nameroff et al., 2002, 2004] and that the pore
on a millennial time scale (Figure 4a). The Ca content water was never completely oxic at the MD08 core location
obtained by ICP‐MS analysis was in agreement with the during the period studied. In contrast, the Fe/Ti ratio ranged
CaCO3 content that ranged from 14 to 42% for the entire from 9 to 11 g/g, which is higher than the estimated terrige-

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Figure 4b. The bromine intensity obtained by XRF, and the calibrated Fe/Ti ratios and Mn/Ti ratios (g/g)
obtained using a combination of XRF and ICP‐MS measurements. The blue line shown on the high reso-
lution Fe/Ti corresponds to a 250 year running mean. The gray vertical bars indicate laminated intervals.
Since the Ti content within terrigenous material may vary with grain size, we evaluated the lithogenic ele-
mental ratio by combining the composition of the Upper Continental Crust (UPC) with the Al/Ti ratio
obtained from core MD08, as follows: M/Ti(ref) = M/Ti(UPC) * mean Al/Ti(MD08). The calculated lithogenic
reference was 7g/g for Fe/Ti and 0.12g/g for Mn/Ti.

nous reference (7 g/g). Additionally, the Fe/Ti ratio varied [Nameroff et al., 2002], indicating that enrichment of Cu
with the Br intensity, with higher values found for the and Cd was essentially associated with organic matter.
Holocene and for glacial laminated intervals, possibly due to [30] The U content within MD08 sediment was between
the formation of pyrite under reducing conditions. 7 and 25 mg/g (Figure 4c), and again, the mean U/Al ratio
(4 × 10−4 g/g) was more than ten times higher within MD08
4.2. Trace Element Variability for the Past 70 kyr sediment than in the UPC (3.5 × 10−5 g/g). Furthermore,
[29] All of the trace elements analyzed for this study (V, the U/TOC ratio within Holocene sections of the core (1 ×
Cr, Ni, Cu, As, Mo, Cd and U) displayed similar patterns to 10−4 g/g) was approximately five times higher than that
Br‐based TOC, with higher concentrations in laminated within sediment traps [Nameroff et al., 2002]. The Mo/Al
layers and lower values in bioturbated layers (Figure 4c). ratio within MD08 sediment ranged between 1.0 × 10−4 g/g
Element/Al ratios were much higher than the respective and 2.0 × 10−3 g/g, indicating a strong enrichment as com-
ratios for the UPC and displayed close variability to the pared to the UPC value (0.19 × 10−4 g/g). The Mo/TOC ratio
respective elemental content on glacial/interglacial and (200 mg/g) was much higher than within settling particulate
millennial scales during MIS 3 (Figure 4c). For example, Cu material (50 mg/g [Nameroff et al., 2002]). Barium, com-
ranged between 50 and 80 mg/g, with higher values during monly used as an export production proxy, displayed very
the Holocene (60 to 80 mg/g) and lower values during late different variability from other analyzed elements, with a
MIS3 and MIS2 (around 50 mg/g, Figure 4c). Millennial broad peak centered at 7.5 kyr without any clear millennial‐
scale variations were superimposed onto this trend with scale change (auxiliary material). Since we suspect barite
higher values found within some of the laminated intervals. dissolution and dissolved Ba remobilization under reducing
The Cu/Al ratio (roughly 2 × 10−3 g/g) was nearly ten times conditions [Schenau et al., 2001; Nameroff et al., 2002,
higher than the UPC ratio (3.1 × 10 −4 g/g [McLennan, 2004], we choose not to use this element in this study.
2001]). Cadmium had a baseline at 2 mg/g and peaks that [31] In general, the similar variability observed for the
reached concentrations of 15 mg/g within laminated layers element/Al ratios and the trace element concentration for
and during the Holocene. The Cd/Al mean ratio (approxi- core MD08 are a testament to the fact that the observed trace
mately 2 × 10−4 g/g) was more than one hundred times element enrichments were not produced by a change in
higher than the UPC ratio (1.2 × 10−6 g/g). Cu/TOC and Cd/ lithogenic inputs (Figure 4c). Our results are in excellent
TOC ratios at the core top (700 and 50 mg/g, respectively) agreement with measurements performed for Mn, Cd, Cr,
were similar to the respective value in settling particulate Cu, Mo, Ni, and V for the core PC08 site located close to
material (approximately 650 and 30 mg/g, respectively) MD08 (Figure 1) [Dean et al., 2006].

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Figure 4c. The bulk sediment concentrations of V, Cr, Ni, Cu, As, Mo, Cd, U, and the respective ele-
ment/Al ratios. Gray vertical bars indicate the laminated intervals.

4.3. Principal Component Analyses of Element/Al [33] The first principal component (PC1, Figure 5a and
Ratios Table 1), explained 76% of the data set variance, and dis-
[32] In order to extract the dominant modes of variability played relatively high loadings (slightly above 0.3) for
in relation to their mode of accumulation, we applied a almost all of the ratios except for the elements linked to
Principal Component Analysis using the AnalySeries soft- carbonates (CaCO3 and Sr with loadings around 0.15), and
ware [Paillard et al., 1996] to the element content which to pore water oxygenation (U and Mo with loadings of 0.25
was normalized to Al (TOC, CaCO3, V, Cr, Fe, Ni, Cu, As, and 0.26 respectively, Table 1). PC1 displayed a striking
Sr, Mo, Cd, and U, Table 1). The results indicated that 92% similarity to the TOC/Al and Br‐based TOC/Ti ratios
of the total variance could be expressed by three principal (Figure 5a). A strong correlation between trace elements
components (PC) (Table 1). (Cd, Ni and Cu) and TOC (R2 = 0.67, 0.89, 0.67, respec-

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Table 1. The Results of a Principal Component Analyses for the early MIS3 values (40 cm/kyr), may have partly contributed
Al‐normalized Elemental Ratio in the MD02–2508 Corea to higher PC3 values during the LGM (Figure 5c). However,
PC1 (0.76) PC2 (0.11) PC3 (0.053)
overall there was a good correlation between PC3 and a
previously published record of bottom water oxygenation
TOC 0.34 −0.01 −0.25 (ODP 1017 955m [Cannariato and Kennett, 1999], see
CaCO3 0.14 0.67 0.20
V 0.32 −0.11 −0.14
section 5.3), supporting the theory that PC3 represents bottom
Cr 0.35 0.00 −0.11 water oxygenation.
Fe 0.22 −0.07 −0.14
Ni 0.34 0.05 −0.19 5. Discussion
Cu 0.34 0.01 −0.21
As 0.32 −0.09 0.02 [36] A principal component analysis performed on core
Sr 0.16 0.65 0.11 MD08 revealed the presence of two independent compo-
Mo 0.26 −0.24 0.30
Cd 0.31 −0.07 0.02
nents (PC1 and PC3), suggesting that two distinct factors
U 0.25 −0.18 0.80 modulated the past intensity and extension of the OMZ off
a
the coast of Baja California.
The three principal components were derived from 12 elemental ratios
that explained 76% (PC1), 11.4% (PC2), and 5.3% (PC3) of the total
[37] Important to note is that export production is deter-
variance. mined by the interplay between primary production, remi-
neralization in the water column, and the transport processes
tively) was observed for MD08 and compared well with of particulate matter. Coastal upwelling, which drives pro-
sediment trap results [Nameroff et al., 2002] indicating that ductivity, is intimately linked to the shape and angle of the
PC1 could represent export production determined by a coastline relative to the dominant winds [Zaytsev et al., 2003]
combination of primary productivity, remineralization at that may have changed due to sea level variations [Giraud
subsurface water depths, and transport processes of partic- and Paul, 2010]. However, MD08’s distance from the shore-
ulate matter. line (100 km) likely attenuated the potential influence of any
[34] PC2 displayed the highest loadings for CaCO3 and Sr change in the position of major coastal upwelling cells on
(0.67 and 0.65, respectively; Table 1 and Figure 5b) and was biogenic matter transport toward the core site. Moreover, the
closely related to the carbonate components. Since the car- width of the continental shelf above 100 m deep (the typical
bonates/terrigenous ratio can vary at least partly with both range for glacial/interglacial sea level change [Waelbroeck
CaCO3 production and preservation, we examined some et al., 2002]) is approximately a tenth of a kilometer. There-
selected foraminiferal shells from laminated high‐organic fore, organic matter retention near the coast and transport
content intervals (Holocene and interstadials events) using processes from the coast toward the core site would not
scanning electron microscopy. Some planktonic foraminif- drastically change with sea level variations. The overall
eral shells displayed clear evidence of dissolution, in the negative correlation between TOC and terrigenous elements
form of peeled calcite layers and the formation of cracks, and carbonates indicates that calcitic and terrigenous ballast
as reported by [Dittert and Henrich, 2000], indicating that minerals are not likely responsible for TOC variations within
the CaCO3 content within the MD08 core was in part the sediments. Thus, we assumed that vertical transport
influenced by preservation. However, we could not reliably processes had a minor influence on variations of export
separate the influence of CaCO3 production/preservation productivity.
and dilution by the terrigenous fraction in the present data [38] Below, we discuss the variability of PC1 and PC3 in
set. As a result, the variability of PC2 associated with the terms of local export production and bottom water oxy-
CaCO3 content is not discussed further. genation, respectively. We compared PC1 and PC3 vari-
[35] PC3 (Figure 5c and Table 1) explained 5.3% of the ability with other paleoceanographic proxy records and
data set variance, and U and Mo showed the highest modeling experiments in order to clarify the following points:
loading (0.80 and 0.30, respectively) (Table 1). On glacial/ (1) primary productivity, (2) subsurface water oxygenation,
interglacial timescales, PC3 displayed the highest values and (3) intermediate water oxygenation on millennial and
during MIS2, and late and early MIS3, whereas low values glacial/interglacial timescales. Our final objective is to pro-
were seen during MIS1 and mid‐MIS3. On a millennial pose mechanisms that could potentially be responsible for
timescale, the lowest values were seen mainly within bio- transferring the climate signal from the high northern Atlantic
turbated stadial layers. Uranium and Mo are two elements Ocean latitudes to the northeastern tropical Pacific Ocean
that we considered as indicators of pore water oxygenation. OMZ.
The dissolved oxygen content in pore water varies with the 5.1. Atmospheric‐Driven Upwelling Variability and its
overlying bottom water oxygen content and local export Impact on Primary Productivity
production. Since PC1 represents export production and since
[39] Our interpretation of PC1 as an export production
part of U and Mo enrichment related to export production was
already taken into account in PC1, we concluded that PC3 indicator is supported by low‐resolution microfossil assem-
blages for core MD08 that have indicated reduced productivity
indicates bottom water oxygenation controlled by oceanic
during cold periods [Murdmaa et al., 2010]. The benthic
circulation. Consistent with this interpretation, the U/TOC
foraminiferal abundance in PC08 (Figure 1) also suggested a
ratio and PC3 displayed a similar variability (Figure 5c).
decrease in export production during DO stadials [Ortiz et al.,
Authigenic U accumulation could have been influenced by a
2004]. Therefore, proxy records are in agreement, indicating a
change in the sedimentation rate [Algeo and Maynard, 2004;
decrease in primary or export production off Baja California
Tribovillard et al., 2006]. A lower sedimentation rate during
during cold periods on both orbital and millennial timescales.
the LGM (20 cm/kyr), as compared to the Holocene or to

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Figure 5. (a) The PC1, the TOC/Al ratios, and the XRF Br based TOC/Ti ratios. The blue vertical bars
indicate H events. The top black horizontal line corresponds to the laminated intervals. (b) The PC2, the
CaCO3/Al ratios, and the XRF based Ca/Ti ratios. The blue vertical bars indicate H events. The top black
horizontal line corresponds to the laminated intervals. (c) The PC3, the U/Al ratios, and the U/TOC ratios.
The blue vertical bars indicate H events. The top black horizontal line corresponds to the laminated intervals.

[40] Since wind driven upwelling influences primary timescales, lower primary productivity, based on a reduced
productivity not only at the studied site but also along the planktonic foraminiferal flux (Globigerinoides bulloides)
entire northeastern Pacific Ocean margin [Thomas et al., [Hendy et al., 2004], was reported during stadials and some H
2001], we compared the PC1 trend to biological produc- events (H1, H3, H4 and H5) at the ODP1017 site (Figure 6).
tivity indicators from different cores in this area. On glacial/ The results are consistent with PC1, supporting the idea of
interglacial timescales, lower glacial productivity was regional scale productivity changes both on millennial and
inferred from TOC and carbonates at the ODP1017 core site glacial‐interglacial timescales.
(34°N, 121.6°W [Hendy et al., 2004]) (Figure 1), and TOC [41] What mechanisms could have reduced upwelling
and opal at the NH15P core site (22.4°N, 106.3°W during cold periods? During glacial periods, the size and
[Ganeshram and Pedersen, 1998]) (Figure 1). On millennial height of the Laurentide and the Cordilleran ice sheets

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Figure 6. The isotopic composition of the north GRIP ice core (d18O‰/SMOW) based on the SS09sea
time scale [Johnsen et al., 2001], the PC1 and Br counts (this study), the d15N of the NH15P and
ODP1017 cores, and the G. bulloides flux in ODP1017 [Hendy et al., 2004]. Gray vertical bars indicate
DO warm periods; blue vertical bars indicate H events.

increased drastically [Benson et al., 2003]. Intense cooling was propagated to high and midlatitudes in the North Pacific
and changes in the topography of the region likely favored Ocean via increased westerly winds over the Eurasian
the establishment of an extended and persistent anti‐cyclo- continent [Clement and Peterson, 2008]. Modeling studies
nic cell over the North American continent [Kutzbach and using fresh water perturbations have indicated that cold SST
Wright Jr., 1985; Romanova et al., 2006]. The develop- and enhanced eastward winds in the northern Pacific Ocean
ment of a continental high‐pressure cell could have induced (30°N–60°N, [Mikolajewicz et al., 1997; Okumura et al.,
weaker southward winds or a wind direction reversal along 2009]) were associated with a deepening of the Aleutian
the northwestern American coast, thus reducing coastal Low, which produced a northward wind stress anomaly along
upwelling. the North American margin, reducing coastal upwelling.
[42] On a millennial timescale, changes in the Cordilleran
ice sheet extension [Benson et al., 2003] combined with 5.2. Subsurface Water Column Oxygenation
modification of snow cover over the northwestern American [43] The decrease in export production during cold periods
continent, may have had a significant impact on atmospheric can be alternatively explained by better oxygenation of the
circulation, in a manner similar to glacial periods. Indeed, subsurface layer at core MD08, and therefore, to the lower
extended high pressure over the northern American conti- preservation of organic compounds in the water column
nent during stadials is consistent with a southward shift in [Guidi et al., 2008]. The oxygen supplied to subsurface water
major midlatitude climate patterns, such as storm tracks and at the MD08 site could have been modulated by mixing
jet streams [Asmerom et al., 2010; Wagner et al., 2010]. proportion of ESsW and SW (Figure 1) and the dissolved
Additionally, North Atlantic Ocean cooling during H events oxygen content of these water masses. In order to trace

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Figure 7. The isotopic composition of the north GRIP ice core (d18O‰/SMOW) based on the SS09sea
time scale [Johnsen et al., 2001], PC3 in MD08 core, and the benthic foraminiferal assemblages within
the ODP1017 core [Cannariato and Kennett, 1999]. Oxic assemblages indicate bottom water [O2] >
1.5ml/l, suboxic corresponds to 0.3 < [O2] < 1.5ml/l, and dysoxic assemblages to [O2] < 0.3ml/l.

oxygenation conditions at subsurface depth, we used pre- during millennial cold events. Alternatively, stronger winds
viously published d15N values recorded for bulk sediments. and lower temperatures in the northern Pacific Ocean during
Sedimentary d15N from the OMZ reflects the dissolved H events likely increased the ventilation of SW [Mikolajewicz
oxygen content at the subsurface depth and/or local pro- et al., 1997], and could promote the southward penetration
ductivity [Ganeshram et al., 2000]. However, further vari- of this well‐oxygenated water mass. Thus, better oxygena-
ability can be expected by laterally transported water masses tion at the subsurface depth at the core MD08 site during
that are characterized by different d15N values [Voss et al., H events could also be explained by a higher proportion of
2001; Kienast et al., 2002; Pichevin et al., 2010]. SW relative to ESsW.
[44] During the glacial period (30 kyr to 15 kyr), sedi- [46] Taken together, biological production and subsurface
mentary d15N values from cores NH15P [Ganeshram et al., oxygenation worked in the same manner in reducing export
2000] (Figure 6) and MD24 [Pichevin et al., 2010], under- production during glacial and millennial cold periods.
lying ESsW (Figure 1), were lower than for the Holocene,
suggesting reduced productivity and/or a higher oxygen 5.3. Millennial Scale Variability in Intermediate Depth
content in the ESsW. In the past, it has been suggested that Ventilation
the northward penetration of a southern water mass within [47] One of the most important results obtained from this
the equatorial Pacific Ocean was promoted during the gla- study was the distinct behavior of intermediate oceanic
cial period [Herguera et al., 2010]. Moreover, the world- ventilation on millennial and orbital timescales. On millen-
wide reduction of d15N in glacial sediment could be related nial timescale, the PC3 suggested an increase in the oxygen
to increased ventilation in the high latitude Southern Ocean supply to the intermediate water masses in which core
[Galbraith et al., 2004; Muratli et al., 2010]. Therefore, we MD08 had been bathed during H events (H1, H4, H5, and
propose that the subsurface depth at the MD08 site was possibly H3 events, Figure 7). Since core MD08 is presently
principally occupied by ESsW, for which the dissolved bathed in NPIW (Figure 1), the millennial‐scale bottom
oxygen concentration was higher than present during the water oxygen variability at MD08 may be associated with
glacial period. the active production of NPIW and/or with a greater oxygen
[45] On a millennial timescale, the d 15N record from the content in NPIW during H events. Such a hypothesis is
ODP1017 site [Hendy et al., 2004] (Figure 1) displayed consistent with the variability in benthic assemblages at site
more oxygenated conditions during H events (H3, H4, and ODP1017, also located within the NPIW pathway from the
H5) and stadials (Figure 6). Even though this site is located formation zone of this water mass to the MD08 site, which
under SW, the sedimentary d 15N record was strongly indicates an increased proportion of oxic and suboxic taxa
influenced by the seawater d15N value of ESsW, since the during H events (Figure 7).
California Undercurrent transported seawater d 15N signal [48] What physical processes could have induced the
highly modified by denitrification within the ESsW [Kienast active production of NPIW and/or more oxygen content in
et al., 2002]. Therefore, lower d15N values for ODP1017 NPIW during millennial cold events? The reconstructed
can be interpreted as the higher oxygenation of ESsW SST record from the Okhotsk Sea, the actual NPIW for-

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mation zone, displays high amplitude temperature variations lation (AMOC). A deeper sinking depth for glacial NPIW
with cooler SSTs during stadials [Harada et al., 2006]. Cold (GNPIW) is consistent with a stagnant ventilation within the
SSTs during stadials in the Okhotsk Sea could have North Pacific Ocean at depths bathed by modern NPIW, and
enhanced seasonal sea ice formation, leading to increased may explain why H2 and H3 events are only partially evi-
surface salinity by brine formation. The salinity increase dent during late MIS3 and MIS2 at the MD08 core location.
combined with colder SSTs may favor NPIW production. However, we acknowledge that the temporal resolution of
Indeed, several modeling studies have determined an enhanced our record may be too low to resolve these events.
ventilation at intermediate depths within the North Pacific [51] Therefore, an unanswered question is why GNPIW
Ocean during H events [Saenko et al., 2004; Timmermann would have sunk deeper in the past than it does under
et al., 2005; Schmittner et al., 2007; Okazaki et al., 2010]. modern conditions, when upper intermediate and subsurface
Cooler SSTs and wind induced mixing, which influences water (ESsW depth range, Figure 1) from a southern origin
North Pacific Ocean subsurface water ventilation (in the displays greater oxygenation (cf. Section 5.2.). A possible
subarctic water depth range, cf. section 5.2), could also pro- explanation is that high‐latitude North Pacific Ocean surface
mote atmospheric oxygen dissolution in the surface NPIW water once had a higher density as a result of a change in
precursor, increasing the dissolved oxygen content in NPIW. local temperature. Since the LGM is likely the coldest
[49] On a global scale, modeling studies indicate the interval of the studied period, an increase in density due to a
general reorganization of oceanic circulation [Marchal et al., lower temperature and brine water formation could have had
1998] and a teleconnection between the North Atlantic and an impact on the GNPIW sinking depth. Additionally, deep
Pacific Oceans on a millennial scale. While NADW forma- water formation within the north Pacific and Atlantic Oceans
tion in the North Atlantic Ocean weakened due to fresh seems to display a negative correlation [Saenko et al., 2004].
water input during H events, salt transport from low lati- AMOC was reduced during the LGM [McManus et al., 2004;
tudes toward high northern latitudes in the Atlantic Ocean Curry and Oppo, 2005] leading to weak ventilation within the
was reduced and was diverted toward the North Pacific Atlantic Ocean below 2000 m, while North Pacific Ocean
Ocean through the Southern Ocean [Saenko et al., 2004; intermediate ventilation was enhanced below 1500 m but
Timmermann et al., 2005], and favored intermediate water reduced above 1500 m [Herguera et al., 2010]; ventilation
formation within the northwestern Pacific Ocean. Reduced within subsurface water of the northeastern tropical Pacific
water vapor transport from the equatorial Atlantic Ocean Ocean increased (ESsW depth range, cf. Section 6.2.).
toward the Pacific Ocean across the Panama Isthmus during [52] Our results indicate that this pattern, consistent with
H events [Leduc et al., 2007], could further increase salinity the Atlantic/Pacific seesaw as described by Saenko et al.
within the North Pacific Ocean. As a result, both atmo- [2004], was maintained during late MIS3 and MIS2. As a
spheric changes in the high latitude North Pacific Ocean and result, the global reorganization of oceanic circulation dur-
oceanic processes that were triggered in the North Atlantic ing the last glacial maximum impacted North Pacific Ocean
Ocean, could have contributed to millennial scale variations circulation that was activated and deepened by GNPIW.
of ventilation at intermediate depths in the northeastern [53] Since bottom water oxygenation and export produc-
Pacific Ocean OMZ. tion worked in an opposite manner during late MIS3 and
MIS2, the results of this period could provide insight
5.4. Reduced Intermediate Depth Ventilation During regarding the relative importance of the two factors on OMZ
Late MIS3 and MIS2 variability. Even though the bottom water oxygen content
[50] In contrast to millennial cold events, PC3 suggested a seems to be lower than at present, the laminated layers are
reduced oxygen content at intermediate depths at the less abundant and the trace element concentrations are
MD08 location (606m) during the glacial period (the late generally low (Figure 4c). The observation is in line with the
MIS3 and MIS2, Figure 7). At sites ODP893 (576 m, not previous study, indicating that high productivity is required
shown) and ODP1017 (955 m [Cannariato and Kennett, to form laminated sediment sequences and to intensify the
1999]) (Figure 7), a lower oxygen content was suggested OMZ [van Geen et al., 2003]. Therefore, we propose that
by benthic foraminiferal assemblage: the proportion of high export production is the most fundamental parameter for
dysoxic and suboxic taxa increased in upper intermediate OMZ variability off Baja California.
waters (500–1000 m) during the glacial period in the north-
eastern Pacific Ocean. We propose that this variability is 6. Conclusions
related to a change in the ventilation depth of NPIW. Past
studies, based on the carbon isotopic composition of benthic [54] We studied core MD02–2508 (606 m water depth)
foraminifera, have proposed that glacial NPIW was deeper retrieved off the coast of Baja California, at the northern
that today during the LGM (roughly 1000–4000 m as com- limit of the present OMZ in the equatorial North Pacific
pared to 500–1500 m in the modern ocean [Keigwin, 1998; Ocean, using decadal‐resolution XRF measurements (Ca,
Matsumoto et al., 2002; Herguera et al., 2010]). The modi- Sr, Ti, Fe, Br) and a series of trace elements (Cu, Ni, Cd, As,
fied circulation pattern observed by [Herguera et al., 2010] is V, Cr, Mo, and U) at a ∼500 yr resolution measured using
consistent with the foraminiferal Cd/Ca ratio record from the the ICP‐MS. The data have allowed us to better constrain
northeastern Pacific Ocean, which displayed an opposite the potential mechanisms controlling past OMZ intensity on
ventilation trend between 800 and 1600 m during the last both millennial and glacial/interglacial timescales.
deglaciation [van Geen et al., 1996]. Deep water formation in [55] The Br‐based high resolution TOC estimate displayed
the North Pacific Ocean during the LGM was also proposed millennial‐scale variability that was very similar to the (DO)
in a recent modeling study [Okazaki et al., 2010], as a and (H) events observed for the d18O records of Greenland
response to reduced Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circu- ice cores, confirming a tight linkage between northern high

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PA4208 CARTAPANIS ET AL.: PAST NE PACIFIC OMZ VARIABILITY PA4208

latitude climate and the northeastern Pacific Ocean OMZ Benson, L., S. Lund, R. Negrini, B. Linsley, and M. Zic (2003), Response
during the past 70 kyr. All of the trace elements analyzed of North American Great Basin Lakes to Dansgaard‐Oeschger oscilla-
tions, Quat. Sci. Rev., 22(21–22), 2239–2251, doi:10.1016/S0277-3791
indicated a very similar pattern to Br‐TOC, with higher (03)00210-5.
(lower) values during warm (cold) periods. In addition, U Blanchet, C. L., N. Thouveny, and T. de Garidel‐Thoron (2006), Evidence
and Mo displayed a broad increase over late MIS3 and MIS2 for multiple paleomagnetic intensity lows between 30 and 50 ka BP from
a western Equatorial Pacific sedimentary sequence, Quat. Sci. Rev.,
that was not indicated by other trace elements. Using a 25(9–10), 1039–1052, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.09.001.
principal component analysis, we identified two major fac- Blanchet, C. L., N. Thouveny, L. Vidal, G. Leduc, K. Tachikawa, E. Bard,
tors that explain past OMZ variability off Baja California: and L. Beaufort (2007), Terrigenous input response to glacial/interglacial
[56] 1. Export productivity was a major factor regulating climatic variations over southern Baja California: A rock magnetic
approach, Quat. Sci. Rev., 26(25–28), 3118–3133, doi:10.1016/j.quas-
OMZ intensity, and was determined by the interplay cirev.2007.07.008.
between primary productivity in relation to coastal upwell- Böning, P., H.‐J. Brumsack, M. E. Böttcher, B. Schnetger, C. Kriete,
ing and subsurface oxygenation. Based on a comparison J. Kallmeyer, and S. L. Borchers (2004), Geochemistry of Peruvian near‐
surface sediments, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 68(21), 4429–4451,
with other proxy records and modeling studies, we propose doi:10.1016/j.gca.2004.04.027.
that coastal upwelling was reduced during millennial cold Bostock, H. C., B. N. Opdyke, and M. J. M. Williams (2010), Characteris-
events and glacial periods as a result of reduced southward ing the intermediate depth waters of the Pacific Ocean using d 13C and
winds. The subsurface oxygen content is estimated to have other geochemical tracers, Deep Sea Res., Part I, 57(7), 847–859,
doi:10.1016/j.dsr.2010.04.005.
been higher during cold periods, either through the contri- Boyle, E. A., F. R. Sclater, and J. M. Edmond (1977), The distribution of
bution of highly oxygenated Subarctic Water during mil- dissolved copper in the Pacific, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 37(1), 38–54,
lennial cold events or through an increase in the oxygen doi:10.1016/0012-821X(77)90144-3.
Broecker, W., G. Bond, M. Klas, E. Clark, and J. McManus (1992), Origin
content in Equatorial Subsurface Water during the glacial of the northern Atlantic’s Heinrich events, Clim. Dyn., 6(3–4), 265–273.
period, as a result of changes within the Southern Ocean. Calvert, S. E., and T. F. Pedersen (1993), Geochemistry of recent oxic and
Weaker or smaller northeastern Pacific Ocean OMZ during anoxic marine sediments: Implications for the geological record, Mar.
Geol., 113(1–2), 67–88, doi:10.1016/0025-3227(93)90150-T.
cold periods are at least partly explained by reduced pro- Calvert, S. E., and T. F. Pedersen (1996), Sedimentary geochemistry of
ductivity and enhanced subsurface oxygenation on glacial/ manganese: Implications for the environment of formation of mangani-
interglacial and millennial time scales. ferous black shales, Econ. Geol., 91(1), 36–47, doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.
[57] 2. Bottom water oxygenation, as inferred from the 91.1.36.
Calvert, S. E., and T. F. Pedersen (2007), Chapter fourteen elemental proxies
PC3, was mostly related to U and Mo variability that was for palaeoclimatic and palaeoceanographic variability in marine sediments:
not supported by the export production change. Based on a Interpretation and application, in Developments in Marine Geology: Proxies
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Yvon Balut (IPEV), and the team of the IMAGESVIII‐MONA cruise ceanography, 20, PA1017, doi:10.1029/2004PA001021.
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Garcia was thanked for technical assistance while finishing trace element mate from 250‐kyr ice‐core record, Nature, 364(6434), 218–220,
analyses by ICP‐MS. We thank R. Zahn (Editor), H. Bostock, T. Jilbert, doi:10.1038/364218a0.
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that have greatly improve the manuscript. We are grateful to MESR and the oxygen depletion along the margin of western North America during
Collège de France for providing salary support to O. Cartapanis. Paleocli- the past 60,000 years: Teleconnections with Greenland Ice and the Cariaco
mate work at CEREGE is supported by grants from the Collège de France, Basin, Quat. Sci. Rev., 26(1–2), 98–114, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.
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