A

MAJOR PROJECT REPORT

ON

REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES

IN THE PARTIAL FULFILLEMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
SUBMITTED BY
K. ANURAG 17BH5A0316

A. RAJASHEKAR 17BH5A0326
MD SAMEER 17BH5A0302

UNDER THE GUIDENCE OF

MR. K.S.S. CHANDRA KIRAN Asst.Prof

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ST. MARYS ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(APPROVED BY AICTE, ACCREDITED BY NAAC, AFFILIATED TO JNTUH)

DESHMUKHI (V), POCHAMPALLY (M),
YADADRI BHUVANGIRI
DISTRICT-508284 TELANGANA
2016-2020
CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report titled " REGENERATIVE

BRAKING SYSTEM FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES ” That is being
submitted by

K. ANURAG 17BH5A0316

A. RAJASHEKAR 17BH5A0326
MD SAMEER 17BH5A0302

In final year of study in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of the degree bachelor of technology in MECHANICAL ENGINEERING is a
record of bonafide work carried out, during the year 2016-2020. The results
embodied in this dissertation have not submitted to any other university or
organization for the award of any other degree.

PROJECT INCHARGE HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

R. BHARGAV Asst.Prof K. ASHOK Asst.Prof
EXTERNAL EXAMINER
DECLARATION
This is to certify that work reported in the present thesis titled

“REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES ” a

record of work done by me in the department of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
in St Mary ’s engineering college, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,
Hyderabad.

No part of the thesis is copied from books/journals/internet and wherever

the portion is taken, the same as duly referred in the text, the reported work based
on

project work-done by me and not copied from any other source.

K. ANURAG 17BH5A0316

A. RAJASHEKAR 17BH5A0326
MD SAMEER 17BH5A0302
Signature of the students
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We owe a great thanks to a great many people who helped and supported us to
complete the project work.

Our deep thanks to Asst.Prof MR. K.S.S. CHANDRA KIRAN, the guide of our

project for guiding and correcting various documents with attention and care. He
has taken pain to go through the project and make necessary correction when

needed. And we are also grateful to respected HOD K. ASHOK and to our respected
principal Dr. T G ARUL for permitting us to utilize all the necessary facilities of
the

institution. We are thankful to our project in-charge Asst. prof. Mr. R. BHARGAV
and all other faculties & staff members of our department for their kind co-operation
and help. Not forgetting our parents for providing everything, such as money for the
project requirements. And they give support which is the most needed for this project

Lastly, we would like to express our deep appreciation towards our classmates.
They were helpful that when we combined and discussed together.

We have done this project not only for marks but also to increase our
knowledge. Thanks again to all who helped us.
K. ANURAG 17BH5A0316

A. RAJASHEKAR 17BH5A0326
MD SAMEER 17BH5A0302
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO BRAKES 1
1.2 CHARACTERSTICS 3
CHAPTER 2- LITERATURE REVIEW 4

CHAPTER 3 - REQUIREMENT ANALYSIS 7

3.1 REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM 8

3.2 ELEMENTS OF THE SYSTEM 9

3.3 CONVERSION OF K.E TO M.E 11

3.4 CONVERSION OF K.E TO E.E 12

CHAPTER 4- CONSTRUCTION 13
 4.1 CONSTRUCTION 13
4.2 PRINCIPLE 13
4.3 COMPONENTS USED 15
CHAPTER 5- WORKING PRINCIPLE 49
5.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE 49

5.2 REGENERATIVE BRAKING EFFICIENCY 49

5.3 ADVANTAGES OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING 50

5.4 DISADVANTAGES OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING 50

CHAPTER 6-

RESULT 51
SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE 52
CONCLUSION 53
REFERENCES 54
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE NO.

FIGURE : 4.3.1.1 A SIMPLE 2-POLE DC ELECTRIC MOTOR 18
FIGURE:4.3.1.2 THREE-POLE DESIGN 20
FIGURE:4.3.1.3 3-POLE DC MOTOR 20
FIGURE:4.3.2 BATTERY SYMBOL 23
FIGURE:4.3.2.1 BATTERY CELL 25
FIGURE:4.3.2.2 SIX SINGLE 2. 1-VOLT CELLS 26
FIGURE : 4.3.2.3 LEAD ACID BATTER DISCHARGE CYCLE 26
FIGURE:4.3.2.4 FULLY CHARGED BATTERY IS CONNECTED TO A LOAD 26
FIGURE:4.3.2.5 RECHARGE A 12-VOLT LEAD ACID BATTERY 27
FIGURE : 4.3.2.6 FULLY RECHARGED USING A FIXED CHARGING VOLTAGE 28
FIGURE : 4.3.2.7 ACID WILL BEGIN TO SETTLE AND CONCENTRATE 29
FIGURE : 4.3.2.8 LINE ART DRAWING OF A DRY CELL 32
FIGURE : 4.3.2.10 A DEVICE TO CHECK BATTERY VOLTAGE 34
FIGURE : 4.3.2.11 AN ANALOG CAMCORDER BATTERY [LITHIUM ION]. 37
FIGURE : 4.3.2.12 CHAIN CONSTRUCTION 45
ABSTRACT
Zero emissions producing and propel the vehicle wheels with own

battery energy possible only by Electric vehicles. Energy conversion progression

completes with little amount of heat lost only. These advantages influences

internationally made the electrical vehicle as the new generation transport for the
automobile engineering. Electric vehicles incorporated with regenerative braking
system. However, electrical automobile on a solitary charge assortment

meaningfully less than the motorized automobile. By this system, reuse energy
about on fifth of the energy generally lost through put on the brakes.

Lack of a serious impact on the development and popularization of

electric vehicle, to overcome this hurdle by involving principle of energy regaining
method in design of electric mobility operative manner. The mechanism of electric
motor ’s braking method encompassing converts parts of kinetic dynamisms of

automobile as electric power while braking. This electric power passes to the battery
for further battery charges and electric mobility mileage increases compared to
conventional engines. When driving in decelerating the inertia of the vehicle wheels
through the transmission of energy to pass

through to the motor, to control electrical engineering with the

generating electricity a way work refreshes for power battery and achieve the
regeneration of braking energy.

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO BRAKES

A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a moving
system. It is

used for slowing or stopping a moving vehicle, wheel, axle, or to prevent its motion,
most often

accomplished by means of friction. The term 、Braking ’ in a moving vehicle means the
application of

the brakes to reduce its speed or stop its movement, usually by depressing a pedal.
The braking

distance is the distance between the time the brakes are applied and the time the
vehicle comes to a

complete stop. In braking systems on conventional vehicles, friction is used to

counteract the forward

momentum of a moving vehicle. As the brake pads rub against the wheels or a disc that
is connected

to the axles, excessive heat energy is created. This heat energy dissipates into the
air, wasting as

much as 30 percent of the vehicle's generated power. Over time, this cycle of friction
and wasted

heat energy reduces the vehicle's fuel efficiency. More energy from the engine is
required to replace
the energy that was lost by braking.

Most of it simply gets released in the form of heat and becomes useless. That energy,
which could

have been used to do work, is essentially wasted. The solution for this kind of this
problem is

Regenerative Braking System. This is a new type of braking system that can recollect
much of the
car & kinetic energy and convert it into electrical energy or mechanical energy. The
energy so

produced can then be stored as mechanical energy in flywheels, or as, electrical

energy in the
automobile battery, which can be used again.

There are 7 multiple methods of energy conversion in RBSs including spring, flywheel,
electromagnetic and hydraulic. More recently, an electromagnetic-flywheel hybrid RBS
has emerged

as well. Each type of RBS utilizes a different energy conversion or storage method,
giving varying
efficiency and applications for each type. The effect of regenerative brakes is less
at lower speeds as

compared to that at higher speeds of vehicle. So the friction brakes are needed in a
situation of

regenerative brake failure, to stop the vehicle completely.

A. Conventional Braking Systems in Automobiles : The term 、Braking ’ in a moving

vehicle

means the application of the brakes to reduce its speed or stop its movement,
usually by

depressing a pedal. The braking distance is the distance between the time the
brakes are

applied and the time the vehicle comes to a complete stop. In braking systems
on
conventional vehicles, friction is used to counteract the forward momentum of a
moving

1
vehicle. As the brake pads rub against the wheels or a disc that is connected to
the axles,

excessive heat energy is created. This heat energy dissipates into the air, wasting
as much as

30 percent of the vehicle's generated power. Over time, this cycle of friction and
wasted heat

energy reduces the vehicle's fuel efficiency. More energy from the engine is
required to
replace the energy that was lost by braking.

B. Regenerative Braking Systems in Automobiles : Every time we step on our car's brakes,
we

are actually wasting energy. As we know that energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed.

It can be just converted from one form to another. So when our car slows down, the
kinetic
energy that was propelling it in the forward direction has to go somewhere. Most of
it simply

gets released in the form of heat and becomes useless. That energy, which could
have been

used to do work, is essentially wasted. The solution for this kind of this problem
is

Regenerative Braking System. This is a new type of braking system that can
recollect much

of the car's kinetic energy and convert it into electrical energy or mechanical
energy.

Regenerative braking is one of the emerging technologies of automotive industry

which can

prove to be very beneficent. Using regenerative braking system in a vehicle not

only results

in the recovery of the energy but it also increases the efficiency of vehicle (in
case of hybrid
vehicles) and saves energy, which is stored in the auxiliary battery.

Driving an automobile involves many braking events, due to which higher energy
losses

takes place, with greater potential savings. With buses, taxis, delivery vans and
so on there is

even more potential for economy. As we know that the regenerative braking, the
efficiency is

improved as it results in an increase in energy output for a given energy input to

a vehicle.

The amount of work done by the engine of the vehicle is reduced, in turn reducing
the
amount of energy required to drive the vehicle.
This advancement of technology in braking system controls the speed of the vehicle
by

converting some amount of the vehicle ’s kinetic energy into another useful form of
energy.

The energy so produced can then be stored as mechanical energy in flywheels, or as,
electrical energy in the automobile battery, which can be used again by the vehicle.
A regenerative brake is an energy recovery mechanism which slows a vehicle or
object down

by converting its kinetic energy into another form, which can be either used
immediately or

stored by a short term storage system. Energy normally dissipated in the brakes is
directed by
a power transmission system to the auxiliary battery during deceleration. The
stored energy
can be converted back into kinetic energy and used whenever the vehicle is to be
accelerated.

2
The magnitude of the portion available for energy storage varies according to
the type of

storage, drive train efficiency, drive cycle and inertia weight. The effect of
regenerative

brakes is less at lower speeds as compared to that at higher speeds of vehicle.

So the friction
brakes are needed in a situation of regenerative brake failure, to stop the
vehicle completely.

1.2 CHARACTERSTICS OF IDEAL REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM

To be successful a regenerative braking system should ideally have the following

properties:

• Efficient energy conversion

• An energy stores with a high capacity per unit weight and volume
• A high power rating so large amounts of energy can flow in a short space of

• Not require over complicated control systems to link it with the vehicle
transmission

• Smooth delivery of power from the regenerative system

• Absorb and store braking energy in direct proportion to braking, with the
least delay and

loss over
• A wide range of road speeds and wheel torques.
3
CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature search focused mainly on topics related to electric vehicles (EV),
hybrid electric

vehicles (HEV) and fuel cell powered hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEV). We reviewed the
books

related to simulation, critical analysis, and empirical research in detail using

available software. In

addition, a system based on alternative energy sources has been attempted to some
extent. However,

more emphasis is placed on literature related to fuel savings objectives rather than
on environmental
savings on global warming and studies undertaken to reduce the components of harmful
emissions.

The most important documents to mention here, this paper details the requirements and
potential

benefits of infrastructure development, challenges and opportunities for the design

and deployment

of emerging infrastructures associated with plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs). From

battery

manufacturing to communication and control between the vehicle and the grid, the
authors have been

able to maximize the benefits of the opportunity to reduce fuel consumption, which is
crucial to

providing safe, clean electricity.

Holms et al (2010) described the operation of an electric vehicle and compared it with
existing

internal combustion engines and hybrid electric vehicles. The report provided details
of the
advantages and disadvantages of electric vehicles, along with future technological
prospects.

Eberhard et al. (2005) tested a Tesla Roadster EV with a lithium-ion battery for
energy-efficient from

well to wheel and emissions from the well to the wheel in a paper on the "21st century
electric

vehicle". Compared to natural gas engines, hydrogen fuel cells, diesel engines,
gasoline engines and

hybrid gas / electric vehicles, the energy efficiency from the well to the wheel is
high and the Tollla
Roadster EV has very low emissions from the well to the wheel.

Santos et al (2006) studied power converters and controls for electric traction, and
discussed
solutions in this paper during development. Focus was on strategy and configuration
issues of the

power converter (controller), protection and control of the power train. The study
vehicle used 11

KW - 48 V DC motor. Because this motor requires a high current value of about 200A, it
was

important to consider stability issues in the proposed architecture. DC-DC power

converters have

been discussed in detail to achieve energy conservation and low power consumption
according to
motor operation requirements in forward and reverse operation of the vehicle. This
paper describes

the reason for the need / importance of the variable output current control of the
converter rather than

the voltage control under the intuitive correlation of throttle control and torque.
ICE guarantees the

protection and safety of motors, controllers, and several electrical and mechanical
components. The
current control method, especially the sliding mode control, was discussed.
4
Chetan Kumaar Maini (2005) pointed out in his paper the potential need for the design
and

development of a globally competitive compact electric concept vehicle for India and
concluded that

EVs are the best solution to reduce urban pollution and a significant social and
economic benefit and

will result in the implementation of EVs and HEVs. The report also describes the role
of
governments and communities around the world in promoting and accelerating EV programs.

Marinescu et al., (2010) FISITA F 2010 A-089 presented aspects of a diesel electric
hybrid concept

car. The diesel powertrain is mounted in a classical position on the front side and
the powertrain is

mounted on the rear side. Performance tests of prototype vehicles with electric power
units and
diesel powertrain, a four-wheel drive concept, have not yet been performed in the
laboratory.

The proposed model-based integrated power transfer control for energy management and
emission

management for reduced hazardous tailpipe emissions and reduced operational emissions
of hybrid

electric vehicles is presented in this paper. Kessels et al. (2010) FISITA SF 2010 A-
096 the cost of

the vehicle was considered important. This case study is presented for a heavy-duty
hybrid electric

vehicle equipped with SCR-deNOx, and until the time temperature of the system after
treatment is

low, the proposed control system focuses on emissions management and the subsequent
treatment

system is hot enough Energy management will take the place of control. The results
demonstrate a
trade-off between operating costs and emissions derived from the proposed integrated
powertrain
control.

Carlson et al (2008) conducted dependence studies by evaluating differences in fuel

averages for two

models of hybrid electric vehicles at previously defined urban driving routes at wide
ambient

temperatures (-14 。C to 31 。C) At ambient temperature. Given the fuel mileage

provided by HEV,
performance changes for low and high temperature effects on HEV operational efficiency
have been

investigated for roads in pre-defined cities on the road compared to existing vehicle
technology. The

results showed that battery power control limits and engine operation vary
dramatically with
temperature.

Chau et al. (2002) dealt with various aspects of the vehicle in order to derive
maximum fuel

economy, minimum emissions, minimum system cost and excellent driving performance. In
this

paper author focused on power management strategies for drive trains. Power flow
control for
various HEVs is also elaborated.

Uzunoglu et al. (2007) in his paper describe the design and modeling of fuel cell /
ultra-capacitor (FC
/ UC) based hybrid vehicle power systems, as well as the development of power flow
control

5
strategies, simulation models. FC supplied basic power and UC supplied additional
power during

peak power demand or load switching. To develop a fairly accurate model to overcome
the FCrelated

difficulties, we have explored large, very complex and costly FC technology systems to
improve

system efficiency for vehicle applications using proton exchange membrane fuel cells
(PEMFCs).

Attempts have been made to develop model / executable options that can supply power
under
transient operating conditions such as start-up, sudden load change and acceleration.

Ahluwalia et al. (2005) noted that the standard US drive cycle used for fuel
consumption works at
20% of the rated output of the engine. He said the fuel cell is more efficient at
partial load than rated

load. The authors have been working to evaluate the feasibility of FCEV fuel economy
improvement

by direct hydrogen compression FC system as an energy conversion device and

Hybridization of

energy storage system (ESS) of lithium ion battery pack and sedan vehicle in other
drive

Hybridization degree.

This work was done by keeping the combined power rating of the FC system and the ESS
constant.

As a result, the FC system has been reduced in size as the degree of hybridization
(DOH) increases

by increasing the ESS. Fuel economy of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles was found based on
mileage per
gallon equivalent (mpgge).

Ogburn et al. (2000) described the design and construction of a fuel cell hybrid
electric vehicle

conversion. The model was developed using an adviser on a small fuel cell stack and
the model

verification was completed with Virginia Tech - FCHEV in EPA (US Environmental
Protection

Agency) city and highway driving cycle. Compared to the model v / s test data of the
total fuel cell

system energy production, the total energy consumption of the vehicle energy storage
system and the

total vehicle electric energy usage within 10%, the accuracy of the overall vehicle
fuel efficiency is
within 1% I have noticed driving cycles and within 6% on the highway.
Assanis et al. (2001) described a method for integrating vehicle and engine
simulations in this article.

The feed-forward model of engine simulation has been modified to allow connection with
vehicle

models, and an engine component adjustment routine has been added to facilitate engine
sizing

studies. Within the proposed performance criteria, a design optimization framework was
used to find

the optimal overall engine size, battery pack and motor combination for minimum fuel
consumption.
The researchers completely skipped the emission model.
Hofmman et al (2004) pointed out that the influence of design specifications on
secondary power

sources (with an understanding of motors considered as secondary power sources) could

improve
fuel economy, emissions, comfort, driving and safety (Eg, rated power, storage
capacity, and energy

6
conversion efficiency), including the efficiency of brake energy recovery. This paper
describes

problem statements and realized output drive functions (relationships related to drive
train topology,

technology, or control) to determine optimal hybrid drive train topology and component
technologies

aimed at improving specific drive functions. The paper also focuses on the sensitivity
analysis of

design input variables. They concluded that fuel economy increases significantly with
increasing
secondary power rating, battery size and energy conversion efficiency.

Burke, (2007) described the application of batteries and Ultracapacitors to electric

energy storage

devices for electric vehicles and charge-hold hybrid electric vehicles. The study
focused on lithium-

ion batteries and carbon / carbon ultra-capacitors. This describes the energy density
and power

density characteristics of battery and ultra-capacitor technologies. Comparing

simulation results for

energy consumption, fuel economy, and grid power usage in federal and highway driving
cycles,

EVs using lithium-ion batteries can be engineered to accelerate to 240 km with

accelerations
comparable to conventional ICE vehicles.
7
CHAPTER-3
REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM
3.1 REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM

A regenerative brake is an apparatus, a device or system which allows a vehicle to

recapture and

store part of the kinetic energy that would otherwise be ' lost' to heat when
braking.Honda's patented

IMA (Integrated Motor Assist) concept is quite simple - use an efficient Otto engine
supplemented
by an electric motor when additional power is needed. Also referred to as a 'hybrid'
system because it

uses two power sources, the IMA concept allows the Civic Hybrid to use a smaller
gasoline engine

without any significant loss in performance. This system is especially effective due
to the fact that

acceleration requires a significantly higher power than needed for cruising on a level
road (where

vehicles spend most of their time). An engine more powerful than needed has to work
under low load

most of the time, condition where its efficiency is lower than under high loads, thus
worsening the

vehicle's fuel economy. The electric motor-generator positioned between the engine and
transmission

assists the engine when accelerating and recovers energy to store in batteries when
braking or

decelerating, allowing it to operate independently without the need for a grid power
supply. When

the Civic Hybrid is coasting or its brakes are applied, its electric motor becomes a
generator,

converting forward momentum (kinetic energy) into electrical energy, instead of

wasting it as heat

during conventional braking. Energy is stored in a battery pack located behind the
rear seat in the

trunk. If the state of charge of the batteries is low, the motor-generator will also
recharge them while
the Civic Hybrid is cruising.

A. Brake A brake is a machine element and its principle object is to absorb energy
during

deceleration. In vehicle brakes are used to absorb kinetic energy whereas in hoists or
elevators

brakes are also used to absorb potential energy. By connecting the moving member to
stationary

frame, normally brake converts kinetic energy to heat energy. This causes wastage of
energy and
also wearing of frictional lining material.
B. Regenerative Braking System Regenerative Braking System is the way of slowing
vehicle by

using the motors as brakes. Instead of the surplus energy of the vehicle being wasted
as unwanted
heat, the motors act as generators and return some of it to the overhead wires as
electricity. The

vehicle is primarily powered from the electrical energy generated from the generator,
which burns

gasoline. This energy is stored in a large battery, and used by an electric motor that
provides motive

force to the wheels. The regenerative braking taking place on the vehicle is a way to
obtain more
efficiency ; instead of converting kinetic energy to thermal energy through frictional
braking, the

8
vehicle can convert a good fraction of its kinetic energy back into charge in the
battery, using the

same principle as an alternator. Therefore, if you drive long distance without braking,
you ’ll be

powering the vehicle entirely from gasoline. The Regenerative Braking System comes
into its own

when you’re driving in the city, and spending a good deal of your time braking. You
will still use

more fuel in the city for each mile you drive than on the highway, though.
(Thermodynamics tells us

that all inefficiency comes from heat generation. For instance, when you brake, the
brake pedals heat

up and a quantity of heat, or energy, is lost to the outside world. Friction in the
engine produces heat
in the same way. Heat energy, also, has higher entropy than, say, electric, meaning
that it is less
ordered.).

C. Definition Braking method in which the mechanical energy from the load is converted
into

electric energy and regenerated back into the line is known as Regenerative Braking.
The Motor
operates as generator.

D. Regenerative Braking for Hybrid Vehicle in most electric and hybrid electric
vehicles on the

road today, this is accomplished by operating the traction motor as a generator,

providing braking

torque to the wheels and recharging the traction batteries. The energy provided by
regenerative
braking can then be used for propulsion or to power vehicle accessories.
The use of a hybrid power unit is most suitable in application where :
1. The vehicle is operated in traffic with frequent stops or a highly variable
speed.

2. Annual mileage is sufficient to pay off the initial investment in the hybrid
system.
3. The vehicle and the driving pattern is such that acceleration resistance is
dominant.

3.2 ELEMENTS OF THE SYSTEM

There are three basic element required which are necessary for the working of
regenerative braking

system. A. Energy Storage Unit (ESU) The ESU performs two primary functions.
1. To recover & store braking energy.
2. To absorb excess engine energy during light load operation.

The selection criteria for an effective energy storage includes

1. High specific energy storage density
2. High energy transfer rate

The energy recaptured by regenerative braking might be stored in one of three devices :

electrochemical battery, a flywheel, in a regenerative fuel cell. Regenerative and

Batteries: With this
system, the electric motor of a car becomes a generator when the brake pedal is
applied. The kinetic

9
energy of the car is used to generate electricity that is then used to recharge the
batteries. With this

system, traditional friction brakes must also be used to ensure that the car slows
down as much as
necessary.

Thus, not all of the kinetic energy of the car can be harnessed for the batteries
because some of it is

" lost" to waste heat. Some energy is also lost to resistance as the energy travels
from the wheel and

axle, through the drive train and electric motor, and into the battery. For example,
the Toyota Prius
can only recapture about 30% of the vehicles kinetic energy.

The Honda Insight is another vehicle in addition to the Prius that is on the market
and currently uses

regenerative braking. In the Insight there are two deceleration modes : When the
throttle is engaged,

but the brake pedal is not, the vehicle slows down gradually, and the battery receives
a partial charge.
When the brake pedal is depressed, the battery receives a higher charge, which slows
the vehicle

down faster. The further the brake pedal is depressed, the more the conventional
friction brakes are

employed. In the Insight, the motor/generator produces AC, which is converted into DC,
which is

then used to charge the Battery Module. The Insight, as well as all other regenerative
systems, must

have an electric controller that regulates how much charge the battery receives and
how much the
friction brakes are used. Regenerative and
Flywheels :

In this system, the translational energy of the vehicle is transferred into rotational
energy in the

flywheel, which stores the energy until it is needed to accelerate the vehicle. The
benefit of using

flywheel technology is that more of the forward inertial energy of the car can be
captured than in

batteries, because the flywheel can be engaged even during relatively short intervals
of braking and

acceleration. In the case of batteries, they are not able to accept charge at these
rapid intervals, and

thus more energy is lost to friction. Another advantage of flywheel technology is that
the additional

power supplied by the flywheel during acceleration substantially supplements the power
output of
the small engine that hybrid vehicles are equipped with.
Flywheel The energy of a flywheel can be described by this general energy equation,

flywheel is the system:

E in-E out= ∆E system

Where, E in= the energy into the flywheel.

E out= the energy out of the flywheel.
∆E system= the change in energy of the flywheel.

An assumption is made that during braking there is no change in the potential energy,
enthalpy of the
flywheel, pressure or volume of the flywheel, so only kinetic energy will be
considered. As the car is

10
braking, no energy is dispersed by the flywheel, and the only energy into the flywheel
is the initial
kinetic energy of the car.

:The equation can be simplified to,

MV2/2= ΔE flywheel
Where,

m= the mass of the car.

v = the initial velocity of the car just before braking.

The flywheel collects a percentage of the initial kinetic energy of the car, and this
percentage can be

represented by n fly. The flywheel stores the energy as rotational kinetic energy.
Because the energy

is kept as kinetic energy and not transformed into another type of energy this process
is efficient. The

flywheel can only store so much energy, however, and this is limited by its maximum
amount of

rotational kinetic energy. This is determined based upon the inertia of the flywheel
and its angular

velocity. As the car sits idle, little rotational kinetic energy is lost over time so
the initial amount of

energy in the flywheel can be assumed to equal the final amount of energy distributed
by the

flywheel.
:The amount of kinetic energy distributed by the flywheel is therefore :
K.E flywheel= n fly × MV2/2

3.3 CONVERSION OF KINETIC ENERGY TO MECHANICAL ENERGY

USING FLYWHEEL ENERGY STORAGE :

A flywheel is a type of energy storage system which is used to store mechanical energy
and then

release the stored energy when needed for acceleration. Flywheel is a heavy,
high-speed rotating

disc that builds up kinetic energy (the force that causes movement) as it spins. The
amount of energy

stored depends upon how heavier it is and how fast it rotates. Heavier weight and
faster rotation

results in higher energy storage. We can relate it to a discus thrower in the Olympics.
He winds-up,

building an increasing store of force and energy as he spins, and then releases the
disc and sends it
flying through the air.

The method of transmission of energy directly to the vehicle is more efficient rather
than first storing
it in the battery, as it does not consist of the conversion of energies. As, during
the recharging of

battery, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy and during discharging
electrical

energy is converted into mechanical energy. So, due to these conversions transmission
loses occur

and the efficiency reduces. As, in the other case, there are no transmission loses
since mechanical

energy stored in the flywheel is directly transferred to the vehicle in its original
form. As the energy
is supplied instantly and efficiency is high, these types of systems are used in F-1
cars.

11
3.4 CONVERSION OF KINETIC ENERGY TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
USING ELECTRIC MOTOR :

The most common form of regenerative brake involves using an electric motor as an
electric

generator. The working of the regenerative braking system depends upon the working
principle of an

electric motor, which is the important component of the system. Electric motor gets
activated when

some electric current is passed through it. But, when some external force is applied
to activate the
motor (during the braking), then it behaves as a generator and generates electricity.

This means that whenever motor runs in one direction, the electric energy gets
converted into

mechanical energy, which is then used to accelerate the vehicle and whenever the motor
runs in

opposite direction, it performs functions of a generator, which then converts

mechanical energy into

electrical energy, which makes it possible to utilize the rotational force of the
driving axle to turn the

electric motors, which results in regenerating electric energy for storage in the
battery and

simultaneously reducing the speed of the car with the regenerative resistance of the
electric motors.
This electricity is then used for recharging the battery.
12
CHAPTER-4
WORKING OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM
4. 1CONSTRUCTION
The working model consist of an electric geared motor (Torque 12kg-cm, speed 100 RPM)
which is

attached to the input shaft 1. Shaft 1 consist of wheel and brake unit and it is also
consisting of the
pulley mounted on shaft 1 which is parallel to shaft 2.

This system consists of total 3 shafts in which shaft 1 and shaft 2 is parallel to
each other. While the

shaft 3 is connected to the shaft 2 through the sprocket used. The second timing
pulley, sprocket is

mounted on the shaft 2. Shaft 2 has been cut in two parts such that the further third
part is become

shaft 3 and when motion is provided from input shaft and when the brake is applied
only the shaft 1

and half portion of shaft 2 is stopped. The shaft 3 keeps on rotating while other the
two shafts are

stopped by the braking force. The shaft 3 is directly attached to the flywheel which
is made of mild

steel material to absorb the energy coming out from the shaft 3.A dynamo is connected
to the

flywheel by means of 2 gear pair for which gear ratio is 1 : 1. Dynamo converts the
rotational

mechanical energy to electrical energy. This energy we can show in the multi meter
which can
display the ampere and voltage generated.

The timing pulley is made of Teflon material while the timing belt is made of polymer.
Potentiometer which regulates the voltage is used for varying the speed. By regulating
the voltage,

we can vary the input speed from which different readings are taken by connecting
different load.

4.2 PRINCIPLE

When voltage is applied to the input shaft, wheel starts rotating in clockwise
direction. This

clockwise motion is also transferred to the second shaft through the timing pulley and
hence the

sprocket to the shaft 3. We are using Timing pulley since its efficiency is 99.99%
hence, the friction
losses are neglected. Motion which is transmitted to the sprocket shaft is carried to
the third shaft

from which flywheel is connected. Motion of the shaft is transmitted to the flywheel
and it is
connected to 1 : 1 gear ratio gear with the dynamo. The dynamo is used to convert the
rotational

energy to the mechanical energy. Basically its work is to store the energy. When we
apply the brake

the motor continues to work but the wheel gets stopped and thus the sprocket shaft
also gets stopped

but the flywheel keeps on rotating which stores the waste energy of the wheel lost due
to friction or
heat to the atmosphere.
13
Now this rotating mechanical energy is transferred to the dynamo from where battery or
any

equipment is connected which can work by taking this energy. Dynamo connected to the
flywheel

means of gear pair converts rotational mechanical energy to electrical energy.

Potentiometer which

regulates the voltage is used for varying the speed. By regulating the voltage, we can
vary the input
speed from which different readings are taken by connecting different load.

A regenerative brake is a vitality recuperation instrument which moderates a vehicle

or protest

around changing over its active vitality into another shape, which can be either
utilized instantly or

put away until required [17-21]. This appears differently in relation to ordinary
stopping

mechanisms, where the overabundance motor vitality is changed over to warm by rubbing
in the

brake linings and hence squandered. The most well-known type of regenerative brake
includes

utilizing an electric engine as an electric generator. In electric railroads the

created power is

nourished once more into the supply framework [22-26], though in battery electric and
half breed

electric vehicles, the vitality is put away synthetically in a battery [27-31],

electrically in a bank of
capacitors, or mechanically in a turning flywheel.

Water driven cross breed vehicles utilize pressure driven engines and store vitality
in type of packed

air. Vehicles driven by electric engines utilize the engine as a generator when
utilizing regenerative
braking : it is worked as a generator amid braking and its yield is provided to an
electrical load ; the

exchange of vitality to the heap gives the braking impact. Regenerative braking is
utilized on half

and half gas/electric autos to recover a portion of the vitality lost amid halting.
This vitality is spared
in a capacity battery and utilized later to control the engine at whatever point the
auto is in electric
mode [32-36].

Early cases of this framework were the front-wheel drive changes of stallion drawn
taxis by Louis
Antoine Krieger (1868-1951). The Krieger electric landaulet had a drive engine in
every front wheel

with a moment set of parallel windings (bifilar loop) for regenerative braking. In
England, the

Haworth arrangement of "regenerative control" was presented by tramway administrators

in the

mid1900s, since it offered them monetary and operational advantages as clarified by A.

Haworth of

Leeds in some detail These included tramway frameworks at Devonport (1903),

Rawtenstall,
Birmingham, Crystal Palace-Croydon (1906) and numerous others [37-39].

Backing off the speed of the autos or keeping it close by on plunging inclinations,
the engines

functioned as generators and braked the vehicles. The cable car autos likewise had
wheel brakes and

track shoe brakes which could stop the cable car ought to the electric slowing
mechanisms come up
short. In a few cases the cable car auto engines were shunt twisted rather than
arrangement wound,

14
and the frameworks on the Crystal Palace line used arrangement parallel controllers.
Taking after a

genuine mischance at Rawtenstall, a ban was put on this type of footing in 1911. A
quarter century,
the regenerative slowing mechanism was reintroduced [40-45].

Regenerative braking has been in broad use on railroads for a long time. The Baku-
Tbilisi Batumi

railroad (Transcaucasia Railway or Georgian rail route) began using regenerative

braking in the mid-
1930s. This was particularly powerful on the precarious and unsafe Surimi Pass. In
Scandinavia the

Kiruna to Nervi railroad conveys press mineral from the mines in Kiruna in the north
of Sweden
down to the port of Nervi in Norway right up 'til today.

The rail autos are loaded with a great many huge amounts of iron mineral in transit
down to Nervi,

and these trains create a lot of power by their regenerative braking. From Riksgränsen
on the national

outskirt to the Port of Nervi, the trains utilize just a fifth of the power they
recover. The recovered

vitality is adequate to control the unfilled prepares go down to the national fringe.
Any

overabundance vitality from the railroad is pumped into the power matrix to supply
homes and
organizations in the locale, and the rail route is a net generator of power [46-50].
4.3 COMPONENTS USED

1. Motor

2. Chain Drive
3. Dynamo

4. Disc Brake
5. Battery
6. Frame

7. Electronic Circuit
8. Shafts
9. LED

4.3.1 TYPES OF DC MOTORS :

A DC motor is a mechanically commutated electric motor powered from direct current DC).
The
stator is stationary in space by definition and therefore so is its current. The
current in the rotor is

switched by the commutator to also be stationary in space. This is how the relative
angle between the

stator and rotor magnetic flux is maintained near 90 degrees, which generates the
maximum torque.

DC motors have a rotating armature winding (winding in which a voltage is induced) but
non-
rotating armature magnetic field and a static field winding (winding that produce the
main magnetic

15
flux) or permanent magnet. Different connections of the field and armature winding
provide different

inherent speed/torque regulation characteristics. The speed of a DC motor can be

controlled by

changing the voltage applied to the armature or by changing the field current. The
introduction of

variable resistance in the armature circuit or field circuit allowed speed control.
Modern DC motors
are often controlled by power electronics systems called DC drives.

The introduction of DC motors to run machinery eliminated the need for local steam or
internal

combustion engines, and line shaft drive systems. DC motors can operate directly from
rechargeable

batteries, providing the motive power for the first electric vehicles. Today DC motors
are still found
in applications as small as toys and disk drives, or in large sizes to operate steel
rolling mills and
paper machines.

Brush :

A brushed DC electric motor generating torque from DC power supply by using internal
mechanical

commutation, space stationary permanent magnets form the stator field. Torque is
produced by the

principle of Lorentz force, which states that any current-carrying conductor placed
within an external

magnetic field experiences a force known as Lorentz force. The actual (Lorentz) force
(and also

torque since torque is F x l where l is rotor radius) is a function for rotor angle
and so the green

arrow/vector actually changes length/magnitude with angle known as torque ripple)

Since this is a

single phase two pole motor the commutator consists of a split ring, so that the
current reverses each

half turn (180 degrees).The brushed electric motor generates torque directly from DC
power supplied
to the motor by using internal commutation, stationary magnets and rotating electrical
magnets.

Like all electric motors or generators, torque is produced by the principle of Lorentz
force, which

states that any current-carrying conductor placed within an external magnetic field
experiences a
torque or force known as Lorentz force. Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low
initial cost,
high reliability, and simple control of motor speed. Disadvantages are high
maintenance and low life-

span for high intensity uses. Maintenance involves regularly replacing the brushes and
springs which

carry the electric current, as well as cleaning or replacing the commutator. These
components are

necessary for transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the spinning
wire windings of
the rotor inside the motor. Brushes are made of conductors.

Brushless :

Typical brushless DC motors use a rotating permanent magnet in the rotor, and
stationary electrical

current/coil magnets on the motor housing for the rotor, but the symmetrical opposite
is also
possible. A motor controller converts DC to AC. This design is simpler than that of
brushed motors

16
because it eliminates the complication of transferring power from outside the motor to
the spinning

rotor. Advantages of brushless motors include long life span, little or no maintenance,
and high

efficiency. Disadvantages include high initial cost, and more complicated motor speed
controllers.

Some such brushless motors are sometimes referred to as "synchronous motors" although
they have
no external power supply to be synchronized with, as would be the case with normal AC
synchronous motors.

Uncommitted :
Other types of DC motors require no commutation.

• HOMOPOLAR MOTOR – A homopolar motor has a magnetic field along the axis of
rotation

and an electric current that at some point is not parallel to the magnetic
field. The name
homopolar refers to the absence of polarity change.

Homopolar motors necessarily have a single-turn coil, which limits them to very low
voltages. This
has restricted the practical application of this type of motor.
 • BALL BEARING MOTOR – A ball bearing motor is an unusual electric motor that
consists

of two ball bearing-type bearings, with the inner races mounted on a common
conductive

shaft, and the outer races connected to a high current, low voltage power
supply. An

alternative construction fits the outer races inside a metal tube, while the
inner races are

mounted on a shaft with a non-conductive section (e.g. two sleeves on an

insulating rod).
This method has the advantage that the tube will act as a flywheel. The
direction of rotation is

determined by the initial spin which is usually required to get it going.

• DC motors are configured in many types and sizes, including brush less, servo,
and gear

motor types. A motor consists of a rotor and a permanent magnetic field stator.
The magnetic

field is maintained using either permanent magnets or electromagnetic windings.

DC motors
are most commonly used in

• Variable speed and torque.

• Motion and controls cover a wide range of components that in some way are used
to generate

and/or control motion. Areas within this category include bearings and bushings,
clutches and

brakes, controls and drives, drive components, encoders and resolves,

Integrated motion

control, limit switches, linear actuators, linear and rotary motion components,
linear position

sensing, motors (both AC and DC motors), orientation position sensing,

pneumatics and
pneumatic components, positioning stages, slides and guides, power transmission
(mechanical), seals, slip rings, solenoids, springs.

17
• Motors are the devices that provide the actual speed and torque in a drive system.
This

family includes AC motor types (single and multiphase motors, universal, servo
motors,

induction, synchronous, and gear motor) and DC motors (brush less, servo motor,
and gear
motor) as well as linear, stepper and air motors, and motor contactors and
starters.

• In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A

current-

carrying conductor generates a magnetic field ; when this is then placed in an

external

magnetic field, it will experience a force proportional to the current in the

conductor, and to

the strength of the external magnetic field. As you are well aware of from playing
with

magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while like
polarities (North

and North, South and South) repel. The internal configuration of a DC motor is
designed to

harness the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an

external
magnetic field to generate rotational motion.

• Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a
magnet or

winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding

with a
"South" polarization).

• Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator,
commutator, field

magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors (and all that Beamers will see),
the

external magnetic field is produced by high-strength permanent magnets1. The

stator is the

stationary part of the motor -- this includes the motor casing, as well as two or
more

permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together with the axle and attached
commutator)
rotates with respect to the stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally on a
core), the

18

windings being electrically connected to the commutator. The above diagram shows a
common motor layout -- with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets.

• The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such that
when

power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnet(s)
are
misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the stator's
field magnets.

As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next commutator contacts,
and

energize the next winding. Given our example two-pole motor, the rotation reverses
the

direction of current through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's
magnetic field,
and driving it to continue rotating.

• In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles (three is a
very

common number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the commutator. You can
imagine

how with our example two-pole motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of its
rotation

(perfectly aligned with the field magnets), it will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile,
with a two-

pole motor, there is a moment where the commutator shorts out the power supply
(i.e., both

brushes touch both commutator contacts simultaneously). This would be bad for the
power
supply, waste energy, and damage motor components as well.

• Yet another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it would exhibit a high
amount of
torque ” ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce is cyclic with the position
of the rotor).

• So since most small DC motors are of a three-pole design, let's tinker with the
workings of

one via an interactive animation (JavaScript required) :

• You' ll notice a few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a
time (but two

others are "partially" energized). As each brush transitions from one commutator
contact to

the next, one coil's field will rapidly collapse, as the next coil's field will
rapidly charge up

(this occurs within a few microsecond). We'll see more about the effects of this
later, but in
the meantime you can see that this is a direct result of the coil windings' series
wiring :

• There's probably no better way to see how an average dc motor is put together,
than by just
opening one up. Unfortunately this is tedious work, as well as requiring the
destruction of a
perfectly good motor.

20

• This is a basic 3-pole DC motor, with 2 brushes and three commutator contacts.

RESISTORS:

A Resistor is a heat-dissipating element and in the electronic circuits it is

mostly used for

either controlling the current in the circuit or developing a voltage drop across it,
which could be

utilized for many applications. There are various types of resistors, which can be
classified

according to a number of factors depending upon :

> Material used for fabrication

> Wattage and physical size
> Intended application

> Ambient temperature rating

> Cost

Basically the resistor can be split in to the following four parts from the
construction view point.

(1) Base

(2) Resistance element

(3) Terminals

(4) Protective means.

The following characteristics are inherent in all resistors and may be
controlled by design

considerations and choice of material i.e. Temperature co–efficient of resistance,

Voltage co –

efficient of resistance, high frequency characteristics, power rating, tolerance &

voltage rating of

resistors. Resistors may be classified as

(1) Fixed
(2) Semi variable
(3) Variable resistor.
CAPACITORS

The fundamental relation for the capacitance between two flat plates separated
by a dielectric
material is given by : -
C=0.08854KA/D
Where : -

C= capacitance in pf.
K= dielectric constant

A=Area per plate in square cm.

D=Distance between two plates in cm
Design of capacitor depends on the proper dielectric material with particular type of
application. The

dielectric material used for capacitors may be grouped in various classes like Mica,
Glass, air,

ceramic, paper, Aluminum, electrolyte etc. The value of capacitance never remains
constant. It

changes with temperature, frequency and aging. The capacitance value marked on the
capacitor

strictly applies only at specified temperature and at low frequencies.

4.3.2 LED (Light Emitting Diodes) :

As its name implies it is a diode, which emits light when forward biased.
Charge carrier

recombination takes place when electrons from the N-side cross the junction and
recombine with the

holes on the P side. Electrons are in the higher conduction band on the N side whereas
holes are in

the lower valence band on the P side. During recombination, some of the energy is
given up in the

form of heat and light. In the case of semiconductor materials like Gallium arsenide
(GaAs), Gallium

phosphate (Gap) and Gallium arsenide phosphate (Gasp) a greater percentage of energy
is released

during recombination and is given out in the form of light. LED emits no light when
junction is
reverse biased.

4.3.3 BATTERY :

In our prototype, we use 12v battery and they have variety of uses in our daily life.
From consumer

electronics to robotics, from health care products to industries, almost every second
device we use

has one battery or the other. Batteries have become an indispensable part of our lives.
We cannot

comprehend living without cell phones, torches, laptop computers, music players like
the iPod, but
how do we power them up? Answer lies in the batteries. Similarly, cars are one of the
main modern

day necessities which use batteries to power the head lamps and backlights. In
electricity, a battery

is a device consisting of one or more electromechanical cells that convert stored

chemical energy

into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first battery (or "voltaic pile")
in 1800 by
Alessandro Volta and especially since the technically improved Daniel cell in 1836,
batteries have

become a common power source for many household and industrial applications. According
to a

2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each
year, [2] with 6%
annual growth.

There are two types of batteries : primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are
designed to be

used once and discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are
designed to be

recharged and used multiple times. Batteries come in many sizes, from miniature cells
used to power

hearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby
power for
telephone exchanges and computer data centers.
22
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy It
consists of a

number of voltaic cells ; each voltaic cell consists of two half-cells connected in
series by a

conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes

electrolyte and the

electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or
negative electrode ; the

other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively
charged ions)

migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers
the battery, cations

are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons
are removed) at

the anode. [23] The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected
by the electrolyte.
Some cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. A separator between half-
cells allows ions
to flow, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.

Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or elf), determined by its ability to drive
electric current
from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net elf of the cell is the
difference between the elf ’s

of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta. [12] Therefore, if the electrodes have
elf ’s and ,

then the net elf is ; in other words, the net elf is the difference
between the reduction
potentials of the half-reactions.

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known

as the terminal

voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is
neither charging

nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the elf of the cell.
Because of internal

resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude

than the open-
circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-
circuit voltage. An

ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant

terminal voltage of
until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored
a charge of one

coulomb then on complete discharge it would perform 1.5 joule of work. In actual cells,
the internal

resistance increases under discharge, and the open circuit voltage also decreases
under discharge. If

the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically
are a curve ; the
shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.

23

As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy
release of the

chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells
have different

chemistries but approximately the same elf of 1.5 volts ; likewise NiCad and NiMH cells
have
different chemistries, but approximately the same elf of 1.2 volts. On the other hand
the high
electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium
cells elf ’s of 3
volts or more.

This entire power requirement means that we need a robust, portable and an efficient
source of

power. There are a couple of factors one has to look out while choosing the type of
12v battery.

Because a twelve-volt battery can be of many types, sizes, form factors, and materials.
12 volts is

just the rating of the battery and it does not specify something physical. Batteries
are also available in

other voltage ratings such as 24, 9 and 5 volts. Its rather a quantity. There are many
types of batteries
depending upon the construction.

12-VOLT LEAD ACID BATTERIES :

One of the most common type of 12V battery is the 12v lead acid battery. It is a dc
battery with lead

terminals and an acid, usually hydrochloric acid is used as an electrolyte in lead

acid battery. It is the

battery of choice for cars, trucks, tanks, uninterrupted power supplies and other
vehicles. 12V lead

acid battery is used in cars as there is no risk of handling in cars. 12volt lead acid
battery is also used

in battery banks and backup systems at power sensitive systems, such as telecom
switches, like any
other 12v dc battery because it ’s a source of dc 12volt power.

Lead acid 12V battery is rarely used in home appliances and uses. For example,
computer UPS'

rarely use lead acid battery as it is not very easy to handle and can cause potential
hazards, such as a

fire etc. Home users generally prefer a solid state battery such as the one used in
dry cells over 12v

lead acid batteries or rechargeable battery which provides 12volt power. Those are
found in torch
lights, calculators, watches, clocks and toys.
12V BATTERY CONSTRUCTION :
In a 12-volt lead acid battery, usually hydrochloric acid is used as an

electrolyte in lead acid

battery. The casing is usually made up of plastic, rubber or any other hard material
in order to avoid

the acid housed inside. Inside, it is made of up man small cells. Metals are used for
cathodes and

anodes (negative and positive terminals respectively for the 12Volt Battery.12 volt
lead acid battery

is the 12 volt dc battery for cars, trucks, tanks, uninterrupted power supplies and
other vehicles. This
type of battery is also used in battery banks and backup systems at power sensitive
systems, such as
telecom switches.

24
It is 12v dc battery but is not a portable 12v battery or 12v rechargeable battery and
12v battery pack

due to its size and handling issues. For example, computer UPS' rarely use lead acid
battery as it is
not very easy to handle and can cause potential hazards, such as a fire etc.

Lead acid batteries used in the RV and Marine Industries usually consist of two
6-volt

batteries in series, or a single 12-volt battery. These batteries are constructed of

several single cells

connected in series each cell produces approximately 2.1 volts. A six-volt battery has
three single

cells, which when fully charged produce an output voltage of 6.3 volts. A twelve-volt
battery has six

single cells in series producing a fully charged output voltage of 12.6 volts.

A battery cell consists of two lead plates a positive plate covered with a paste of

lead dioxide and a

negative made of sponge lead, with an insulating material (separator) in between. The
plates are

enclosed in a plastic battery case and then submersed in an electrolyte consisting of

water and
sulfuric acid (see figure # 1). Each cell is capable of storing 2.1 volts.

In order for lead acid cell to produce a voltage, it must first receive a
(forming) charge

voltage of at least 2. 1-volts/cell from a charger. Lead acid batteries do not generate
voltage on their

own ; they only store a charge from another source. This is the reason lead acid
batteries are called
storage batteries, because they only store a charge. The size of the battery plates
and amount of

electrolyte determines the amount of charge lead acid batteries can store. The size of
this storage

capacity is described as the amp hour (AH) rating of a battery. A typical 12-volt
battery used in a RV

or marine craft has a rating 125 AH, which means it can supply 10 amps of current for
12.5 hours or

20-amps of current for a period of 6.25 hours. Lead acid batteries can be connected in
parallel to
increase the total AH capacity.

In figure # 2 below, six single 2. 1-volt cells have been connected in series to make
the typical 12-volt
battery, which when fully charged will produce a total voltage of 12.6-volts.

25
LEAD ACID BATTER DISCHARGE CYCLE

In figure # 3, above a fully charged battery is connected to a load (light bulb) and
the chemical

reaction between sulfuric acid and the lead plates produces the electricity to light
the bulb. This

chemical reaction also begins to coat both positive and negative plates with a
substance called lead

sulfate also known as salvation (shown as a yellow build-up on plates). This build-up
of lead sulfate

is normal during a discharge cycle. As the battery continues to discharge, lead

sulfate coats more and

more of the plates and battery voltage begins to decrease from fully charged state of
12.6-volts
(figure # 4).
26
In figure # 5 the battery is now fully discharged, the plates are almost completely
covered with lead

sulfate (salvation) and voltage has dropped to 10.5-volts.

NOTE : Discharging a lead acid battery below 10.5 volts will severely damage it!

Lead sulfate (salvation) now coats most of the battery plates. Lead sulfate is a soft

material, which

can be reconverted back into lead and sulfuric acid, provided the discharged battery
is immediately

connected to a battery charger. If a lead acid battery is not immediately recharged,

the lead sulfate
will begin to form hard crystals, which cannot be reconverted by a standard fixed
voltage (13.6 volts)
battery converter/charger.

NOTE : Always recharge your RV or Marine battery as soon as possible to prevent loss of
battery
capacity due to the build-up of hard lead sulfate crystals!

LEAD ACID BATTERY RECHARGE CYCLE :

The most important thing to understand about recharging lead acid batteries is that a
converter/charger with a single fixed output voltage will not properly recharge or
maintain your

battery. Proper recharging and maintenance requires an intelligent charging system

that can vary the

charging voltage based on the state of charge and use of your RV or Marine battery.
Progressive
Dynamics has developed intelligent charging systems that solve battery problems and
reduce battery
maintenance.

The discharged battery shown in figure # 6 on the next page is connected to a

converter/charger with

its output voltage set at 13.6-volts. In order to recharge a 12-volt lead acid battery
with a fully
charged terminal voltage of 12.6-volts, the charger voltage must be set at a higher
voltage.

During the recharging process as electricity flows through the water portion of the
electrolyte and

water, (H2O) is converted into its original elements, hydrogen and oxygen. These
gasses are very

flammable and the reason your RV or Marine batteries must be vented outside. Gassing
causes water

loss and therefore lead acid batteries need to have water added periodically. Sealed
lead acid

batteries contain most of these gasses allowing them to recombine into the electrolyte.
If the battery

is overcharged pressure from these gasses will cause relief caps to open and vent,
resulting in some

water loss. Most sealed batteries have extra electrolyte added during the
manufacturing process to
compensate for some water loss.

The battery shown in figure # 7 above has been fully recharged using a fixed charging
voltage of
13.6-volts. Notice that some lead sulfate (salvation) still remains on the plates.
This build-up will

continue after each recharging cycle and gradually the battery will begin to loose
capacity to store a

full charge and eventually must be replaced. Lead sulfate build up is reduced if
battery is given an

Equalizing Charge once every 10 discharge cycles or at least once a month. An

Equalizing Charge

increases charging voltage to 14.4 volts or higher for a short period. This higher
voltage causes
gassing that equalizes (re-mixes) the electrolyte solution.

Since most RV and Marine craft owners seldom remember to perform this function,
Progressive

Dynamics has developed the microprocessor controlled Charge Wizard. The Charge Wizard
will

automatically provide an Equalizing Charge every 21 hours for a period of 15 minutes,

when the

battery is fully charged and not in use. Our 2000 Series of Marine Battery Chargers
have the Charge
Wizard feature built-in.

One disadvantage of recharging a lead acid battery at a fixed voltage of 13.6-volts is

the recharge

time is very long. A typical 125-AH RV or Marine battery will take approximately 80
hours to
recharge at 13.6 volts. Increasing the charge voltage to 14.4-volts will reduce
battery recharge time

for a 125-AH battery to 3-4 hours. Once a battery reaches 90% of full charge, the
voltage must be
28
reduced from 14.4-volts to 13.6-volts to reduce gassing and water loss. The optional
Charge Wizard

automatically senses when a battery has a very low state of charge and automatically
selects its

BOOST MODE of operation. BOOST MODE increases the voltage of a PD9100 Series

converter/charger to 14.4 volts. When the battery reaches the 90% charge level, the
Charge Wizard

automatically reduces the charge voltage down to 13.6 volts to complete the charge.
Again, this is a
standard feature on our Marine Chargers.

Another disadvantage of recharging a lead acid battery at a fixed voltage of 13.6-

volts is that once it
is fully charged, 13.6 volts will cause considerable gassing and water loss. To
prevent this from

occurring the charging voltage must be reduced to 13.2-volts. The Charge Wizard will
automatically

select its STORAGE MODE of operation (13.2-volts) once the battery reaches full charge
and

remains unused for a period of 30 hours. This feature is standard on all of

Progressive Dynamics
Marine Battery Chargers.

At a charging voltage of 13.2 volts, the converter/charger will maintain a full charge,
reduce gassing

and water loss. However, this lower voltage does not provide enough gassing to prevent
a battery

condition called Battery Stratification. Battery Stratification is caused by the fact

that the electrolyte

in the battery is a mixture of water and acid and, like all mixtures, one component,
the acid, is
heavier than water. Therefore, acid will begin to settle and concentrate at the bottom
of the battery
(see figure #8).

Most converter/chargers on the market are set at approximately 13.6-volts. During the
battery
recharge cycle lead sulfate (salvation) begins to reconvert to lead and sulfuric acid.

This higher concentration of acid at the bottom of the battery causes additional
build-up of lead

sulfate (salvation), which reduces battery storage capacity and battery life. In order
to prevent
Battery Stratification, an Equalization Charge (increasing charging voltage to 14.4-
volts) must be

29
applied periodically. The Charge Wizard automatically selects its EQUALIZATION MODE
(14.4

volts) every 21 hours for a period of 15 minutes. This Equalizing Charge feature is
standard on our
Marine chargers.

As you have learned, in order to properly charge and maintain a lead acid battery you
must use an

intelligent charging system. Progressive Dynamics, Intel-Power 9100 Series RV

converters with a

Charge Wizard installed, or one of our Intel-Power Marine Battery Chargers will
provide the
intelligent charging system your battery needs for a long life, with low maintenance.

CATEGORIES AND TYPES OF BATTERIES :

List of battery types :

From top to bottom: a large 4.5-volt (3R12) battery, a D Cell, a C cell, an AA cell,
an AAA cell, an
AAAA cell, an A23 battery, a 9-volt PP3 battery, and a pair of button cells (CR2032
and LR44).

Batteries are classified into two broad categories, each type with advantages and
disadvantages.

• Primary batteries irreversibly (within limits of practicality) transform

chemical energy to

electrical energy. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted, energy

cannot be readily

restored to the battery by electrical means.

• Secondary batteries can be recharged ; that is, they can have their chemical
reactions reversed

by supplying electrical energy to the cell, restoring their original

composition.

Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were
restored to operation

by replacing the components of the battery consumed by the chemical reaction.

Secondary batteries

are not indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active materials, loss of
electrolyte and

internal corrosion.

PRIMARY BATTERIES :

Primary cell
Primary batteries can produce current immediately on assembly. Disposable batteries
are intended to

be used once and discarded. These are most commonly used in portable devices that have
low

current drain, are used only intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative
power source,

such as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only
intermittently

available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical
reactions are not

easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original forms. Battery
manufacturers
recommend against attempting to recharge primary cells
30
Common types of disposable batteries include zinc–carbon batteries and alkaline
batteries. In

general, these have higher energy densities than rechargeable batteries, but
disposable batteries do

not fare well under high-drain applications with loads under 75 ohms (75 Ω).

SECONDARY BATTERIES :

Rechargeable battery

Secondary batteries must be charged before use ; they are usually assembled with active
materials in

the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries or secondary cells can be recharged by

applying electric

current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during its use. Devices to
supply the
appropriate current are called chargers or rechargers.

The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery. This battery is
notable in that it

contains a liquid in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright
and the area be

well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas produced by these
batteries during

overcharging. The lead–acid battery is also very heavy for the amount of electrical
energy it can

supply. Despite this, its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels
make its use

common where a large capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is required or where the
weight and ease
of handling are not concerns.

A common form of the lead–acid battery is the modern car battery, which can, in
general, deliver a

peak current of 450 amperes. An improved type of liquid electrolyte battery is the
sealed valve

regulated lead–acid battery (VRLA battery), popular in the automotive industry as a

replacement for

the lead–acid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte,
reducing the
chance of leakage and extending shelf life. VRLA batteries have the electrolyte
immobilized, usually
by one of two means :
 • Gel batteries (or "gel cell") contain a semi-solid electrolyte to prevent
spillage.
• Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special
fiberglass matting.

Other portable rechargeable batteries include several "dry cell" types, which are
sealed units and are,

therefore, useful in appliances such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of
this type (in

order of increasing power density and cost) include nickel-cadmium (NiCd), nickel-
zinc (NiZn),

nickel metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells By far, Li-ion has the
highest share of

the dry cell rechargeable market. Meanwhile, NiMH has replaced NiCd in most
applications due to

its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way radios, and
medical equipment.
NiZn is a new technology that is not yet well established commercially.
31
Recent developments include batteries with embedded electronics such as USBCELL, which

charging an AA cell through a USB connector, and smart battery packs with state-of-
charge monitors

and battery protection circuits to prevent damage on over-discharge. low self-

discharge (LSD) allows

secondary cells to be precharged prior to shipping.

Battery cell types :

There are many general types of electrochemical cells, according to chemical processes
applied and
design chosen. The variation includes galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells,
flow cells and
voltaic piles.

Wet cell :

A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell, since the
liquid covers all

internal parts, or vented cell, since gases produced during operation can escape to
the air. Wet cells

were a precursor to dry cells and are commonly used as a learning tool for
electrochemistry. It is
often built with common laboratory supplies, such as beakers, for demonstrations of
electrochemical cells work. A particular type of wet cell known as a concentration
cell is important

in understanding corrosion. Wet cells may be primary cells (non-rechargeable) or

secondary cells

(rechargeable). Originally, all practical primary batteries such as the Daniell cell
were built as open-

topped glass jar wet cells. Other primary wet cells are the Leclanche cell, Grove cell,
Bunsen cell,

Chromic acid cell, Clark cell, and Weston cell. The Leclanche cell chemistry was
adapted to the first

dry cells. Wet cells are still used in automobile batteries and in industry for
standby power for

switchgear, telecommunication or large uninterruptible power supplies, but in many

places batteries

with gel cells have been used instead. These applications commonly use lead-acid or
nickel-

cadmium cells.

Dry cell :

"Dry cell" redirects here. For the heavy metal band, see Dry Cell (band).
Line art drawing of a dry cell :

1. brass cap,
2. plastic seal,

3. expansion space,
4. porous cardboard,
5. zinc can,
6. carbon rod,
7. chemical mixture.

32
A dry cell has the electrolyte immobilized as a paste, with only enough moisture in it
to allow current

to flow. Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation without spilling
as it contains no

free liquid, making it suitable for portable equipment. By comparison, the first wet
cells were

typically fragile glass containers with lead rods hanging from the open top, and
needed careful

handling to avoid spillage. Lead-acid batteries did not achieve the safety and
portability of the dry
cell until the development of the gel battery.
A common dry cell battery is the zinc-carbon battery, using a cell sometimes called
the dry

Leclanché cell, with a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as the alkaline battery
(since both use
the same zinc-manganese dioxide combination).

A standard dry cell comprises a zinc anode (negative pole), usually in the form of a
cylindrical pot,

with a carbon cathode (positive pole) in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte is
ammonium

chloride in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining space between
the electrolyte

and carbon cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium chloride and
manganese

dioxide, the latter acting as a depolariser. In some more modern types of so-called
'high-power'

batteries (with much lower capacity than standard alkaline batteries), the ammonium
chloride is
replaced by zinc chloride.

Molten salt :

Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as
electrolyte. Their

energy density and power density give them potential for use in electric vehicles, but
they operate at
high temperatures and must be well insulated to retain heat.

Reserve :

A reserve battery is stored in unassembled form and is activated, ready-charged, when

its internal

parts are assembled, e.g. by adding electrolyte ; it can be stored inactivated for a
long period of time.
For example, a battery for an electronic fuse might be activated by the impact of
firing a gun,

breaking a capsule of electrolyte to activate the battery and power the fuse ’s
circuits. Reserve

batteries are usually designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after
long storage (years).

A water-activated battery for oceanographic instruments or military applications

becomes activated
on immersion in water.

Battery cell performance :

A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over
lifetime due to
many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and temperature.

33

Capacity and discharging

A device to check battery voltage

A battery's capacity is the amount of electric charge it can store. The more
electrolyte and electrode

material there is in the cell the greater the capacity of the cell. A small cell has
less capacity than a

larger cell with the same chemistry, and they develop the same open-circuit voltage.

Because of the chemical reactions within the cells, the capacity of a battery depends

on the discharge

conditions such as the magnitude of the current (which may vary with time), the
allowable terminal

voltage of the battery, temperature, and other factors. The available capacity of a
battery depends
upon the rate at which it is discharged. If a battery is discharged at a relatively

available capacity will be lower than expected.

The capacity printed on a battery is usually the product of 20 hours multiplied by the
constant current

that a new battery can supply for 20 hours at 68 F ° (20 C °), down to a specified
terminal voltage per
cell. A battery rated at 100 A ·h will deliver 5 A over a 20-hour period at room

However, if discharged at 50 A, it will have a lower capacity.

The relationship between current, discharge time, and capacity for a lead acid battery

approximated (over a certain range of current values) by Peukert's law :

Where

is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp.

is the current drawn from battery (A).
34

is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain.

is a constant around 1.3.

For low values of I internal self-discharge must be included. Internal energy losses
and limited rate

of diffusion of ions through the electrolyte cause the efficiency of a real battery to
vary at different
discharge rates. When discharging at low rate, the battery's energy is delivered more
efficiently than

at higher discharge rates, but if the rate is very low, it will partly self-discharge
during the long time
of operation, again lowering its efficiency.

Installing batteries with different A ·h ratings will not affect the operation of a
device (except for the

time it will work for) rated for a specific voltage unless the load limits of the
battery are exceeded.

High-drain loads such as digital cameras can result in delivery of less total energy,
as happens with

alkaline batteries. For example, a battery rated at 2000 mAh for a 10- or 20-hour
discharge would not
sustain a current of 1 A for a full two hours as its stated capacity implies.

Crates :

The C-rate signifies a discharge rate relative to the capacity of a battery in one
hour. A rate of 1C

would mean an entire 1.6Ah battery would be discharged in 1 hour at a discharge

current of 1.6A. A
2C rate would mean a discharge current of 3.2A

Fastest charging, largest, and lightest batteries :

As of 2012 Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries were the fastest-charging and
discharging

batteries (super capacitors, in some ways comparable to batteries, charge faster). The
world's largest

battery, composed of Ni–Cd cells, was in Fairbanks, Alaska. Sodium–sulfur batteries

were being

used to store wind power, Lithium–sulfur batteries have been used on the longest and
highest solar-
powered flight. The speed of recharging of lithium-ion batteries can be increased by
manufacturing
changes.

BATTERY LIFETIME :
Primary batteries

Disposable (or "primary") batteries typically lose 8 to 20 percent of their original

charge every year

at room temperature (20。–30。C This is known as the "self discharge" rate, and is due
to non-current-

producing "side" chemical reactions which occur within the cell even if no load is
applied. The rate
of the side reactions is reduced if the batteries are stored at lower temperature,
although some
batteries can be damaged by freezing. High or low working temperatures may reduce
battery

35
performance. This will affect the initial voltage of the battery. For an AA alkaline
battery, this initial

voltage is approximately normally distributed around 1.6 volts. Discharging

performance of all

batteries drops at low temperature.

Secondary batteries

Storage life of secondary batteries is limited by chemical reactions that occur

between the battery

parts and the electrolyte ; these are called "side reactions". Internal parts may
corrode and fail, or the

active materials may be slowly converted to inactive forms. Since the active material
on the battery

plates changes chemical composition on each charge and discharge cycle, active
material may be lost
due to physical changes of volume ; this may limit the cycle life of the battery.
RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES :

Old chemistry rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable

alkaline batteries,

especially nickel-based batteries ; a freshly charged nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery

loses 10% of its

charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a month.
However,

newer low self-discharge nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries and modern lithium
designs have

reduced the self-discharge rate to a relatively low level (but still poorer than for
primary batteries).

Most nickel-based batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must be
charged before
first use Newer NiMH batteries are ready to be used when purchased, and have only 15%
discharge
in a year.

Although rechargeable batteries have their energy content restored by charging, some
deterioration

occurs on each charge–discharge cycle. Low-capacity NiMH batteries (1700–2000 mA ·h)

can be
charged for about 1000 cycles, whereas high-capacity NiMH batteries (above 2500 mA ·h)
can be

charged for about 500 cycles NiCd batteries tend to be rated for 1000 cycles before
their internal

resistance permanently increases beyond usable values. Under normal circumstances, a

fast charge,
rather than a slow overnight charge, will shorten battery lifespan. Also, if the
overnight charger is not

"smart" and cannot detect when the battery is fully charged, then overcharging is
likely, which also

damages the battery. Degradation usually occurs because electrolyte migrates away from
the

36
electrodes or because active material falls off the electrodes. NiCd batteries suffer

they should be fully discharged before recharge. Without full discharge, crystals may

electrodes, thus decreasing the active surface area and increasing internal resistance.

battery capacity and causes the "memory effect". These electrode crystals can also

electrolyte separator, thereby causing shorts. NiMH, although similar in chemistry,

from memory effect to quite this extent. A battery does not suddenly stop working ; its

gradually decreases over its lifetime, until it can no longer hold sufficient charge.

An analog camcorder battery [lithium ion].

Automotive lead-acid rechargeable batteries have a much harder life. Because of

heat, cold, and sulfation of their lead plates, few automotive batteries last beyond

use. Automotive starting (SLI : Starting, Lighting, Ignition) batteries have many thin

as much current as possible in a reasonably small package. In general, the thicker the

longer the life of the battery. They are typically drained only a small amount before

should be taken to avoid deep discharging a starting battery, since each charge and

causes active material to be shed from the plates.

"Deep-cycle" lead-acid batteries such as those used in electric golf carts have much

aid their longevity. The main benefit of the lead-acid battery is its low cost ; the

its large size and weight for a given capacity and voltage. Lead-acid batteries should

discharged to below 20% of their full capacity, because internal resistance will cause
37
damage when they are recharged. Deep-cycle lead–acid systems often use a low-charge
warning

light or a low-charge power cut-off switch to prevent the type of damage that will
shorten the
battery's life.
EXTENDING BATTERY LIFE :

Battery life can be extended by storing the batteries at a low temperature, as in a

refrigerator or

freezer, which slows the chemical reactions in the battery. Such storage can extend
the life of

alkaline batteries by about 5% ; rechargeable batteries can hold their charge much
longer, depending

upon type. To reach their maximum voltage, batteries must be returned to room
temperature ;

discharging an alkaline battery at 250 mA at 0。C is only half as efficient as it is at

20。C Alkaline

battery manufacturers such as Duracell do not recommend refrigerating batteries.

Imagine a world where everything that used electricity had to be plugged in.

Flashlights, hearing

aids, cell phones and other portable devices would be tethered to electrical outlets,
rendering them

awkward and cumbersome. Cars couldn't be started with the simple turn of a key ; a
strenuous

cranking would be required to get the pistons moving. Wires would be strung everywhere,
creating a

safety hazard and an unsightly mess. Thankfully, batteries provide us with a mobile
source of power
that makes many modern conveniences possible.

While there are many different types of batteries, the basic concept by which they
function remains

the same. When a device is connected to a battery, a reaction occurs that produces
electrical energy.

This is known as an electrochemical reaction. Italian physicist Count Alessandro Volta

first

discovered this process in 1799 when he created a simple battery from metal plates and
brine-soaked

cardboard or paper. Since then, scientists have greatly improved upon Volta's original
design to
create batteries made from a variety of materials that come in a multitude of sizes.

Today, batteries are all around us. They power our wristwatches for months at a time.

They keep our

alarm clocks and telephones working, even if the electricity goes out. They run our
smoke detectors,
electric razors, power drills, mp3 players, thermostats -- and the list goes on. If
you're reading this

article on your laptop or smartphone, you may even be using batteries right now!
However, because

these portable power packs are so prevalent, it's very easy to take them for granted.
This article will

give you a greater appreciation for batteries by exploring their history, as well as
the basic parts,

reactions and processes that make them work. So cut that cord and click through our
informative
guide to charge up your knowledge of batteries.
38
DISADVANTAGES OF 12 VOLT BATTERY :

The main disadvantage 12volt lead acid is that it has one of the lowest energy to
weight ratio. This

means that this type of 12v battery also has a low energy to volume ratio, which in
turn means that

the size of the battery has to be big in order to provide significant amount of power.
Secondly its not

portable. Another major concern about lead acid 12v battery, which is a 12volt power
source, is that

about environment. Almost all the batteries used in vehicles are lead acid and this
means that the

disposal of these batteries can beome a big hurdle. Since there are alot of cars, this
mean alot of old

batteries need to be dumped somewhere and improper disposal means damaged environment.
The

automotive industry is now looking for alternatives to replace lead acid battery in
automotive

applications towards a environmentally safe option

Note : Please do note that the current rating is VERY important. DONOT plug in a
battery which has

higher amperage than your modem or router can handle. Most modems and routers are
usually rated
at around 1 ampere. So a 12V Battery of that rating should be used.

4.3.4 BRAKES :

A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. The rest of this article is
dedicated to various

types of vehicular brakes.Most commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy
into heat,

though other methods of energy conversion may be employed. For example regenerative
braking

converts much of the energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for later use.
Other methods

convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized air
or pressurized oil.

Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic energy into electric
current in the brake

disc, fin, or rail, which is converted into heat. Still other braking methods even
transform kinetic
energy into different forms, for example by transferring the energy to a rotating
flywheel.

Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other
forms such as the

surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air). Some vehicles use a
combination of
braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute,
or airplanes

with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing.

Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity ( ), an

object moving at

10 m/s has 100 times as much energy as one of the same mass moving at 1 m/s, and
consequently the

theoretical braking distance, when braking at the traction limit, is 100 times as long.
In practice, fast
vehicles usually have significant air drag, and energy lost to air drag rises quickly
with speed.

Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and shopping
carts may
have them for use on a moving ramp. Most fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel
brakes on the

39
undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in
flight. Notable
examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter
aircraft and

many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a safe speed in a
steep descent.
The Saab B 17 dive bomber used the deployed undercarriage as an air brake.

Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake
while braking then
conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their
engines to brake.

When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed, ultimately a
piston

pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake
drum it is
similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also slows the
wheel down.

Types :

Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetics. One

brake may
use several principles : for example, a pump may pass fluid through an orifice to
create friction :

• Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoe" or
"pad" brakes,

using an explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such as parachutes,

which use
friction in a working fluid and do not explicitly wear. Typically the term
"friction brake" is

used to mean pad/shoe brakes and excludes hydrodynamic brakes, even though
hydrodynamic brakes use friction. Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often

rotating devices with

a stationary pad and a rotating wear surface. Common configurations include
shoes that
contract to rub on the outside of a rotating drum, such as a band brake ; a
rotating drum with
shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum, commonly called a "drum brake",
although
other drum configurations are possible ; and pads that pinch a rotating disc,
commonly called
a "disc brake". Other brake configurations are used, but less often. For
example, PCC trolley
brakes include a flat shoe which is clamped to the rail with an electromagnet ;
the Murphy
 brake pinches a rotating drum, and the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a hollow

disc (two
parallel discs with a structural bridge) with shoes that sit between the disc
surfaces and
expand laterally.

• Pumping brakes are often used where a pump is already part of the machinery.
For example,

an internal-combustion piston motor can have the fuel supply stopped, and
then internal
pumping losses of the engine create some braking. Some engines use a valve
override called
a Jake brake to greatly increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes can dump
energy as heat, or
can be regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir called a
hydraulic accumulator.
40
• Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is
already part of

the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use the
electric motor as

a generator to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake. Some

diesel/electric

railroad locomotives use the electric motors to generate electricity which is

then sent to a

resistor bank and dumped as heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit buses, do
not already

have an electric motor but use a secondary "retarder" brake that is effectively
a generator with

an internal short-circuit. Related types of such a brake are eddy current

brakes, and electro-

mechanical brakes (which actually are magnetically driven friction brakes, but
nowadays are
often just called “electromagnetic brakes ” as well).

Characteristics :
Brakes are often described according to several characteristics including :

• Peak force – The peak force is the maximum decelerating effect that can be
obtained. The

peak force is often greater than the traction limit of the tires, in which case
the brake can

cause a wheel skid.

 • Continuous power dissipation – Brakes typically get hot in use, and fail when
the

temperature gets too high. The greatest amount of power (energy per unit time)
that can be

dissipated through the brake without failure is the continuous power

dissipation. Continuous

power dissipation often depends on e.g., the temperature and speed of ambient
cooling air.

• Fade – As a brake heats, it may become less effective, called brake fade. Some
designs are

inherently prone to fade, while other designs are relatively immune. Further,
use

considerations, such as cooling, often have a big effect on fade.

• Smoothness – A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter, or otherwise exerts

varying brake

force may lead to skids. For example, railroad wheels have little traction, and
friction brakes

without an anti-skid mechanism often lead to skids, which increases maintenance

costs and
leads to a "thump thump" feeling for riders inside.
• Power – Brakes are often described as "powerful" when a small human
application force

leads to a braking force that is higher than typical for other brakes in the
same class. This

notion of "powerful" does not relate to continuous power dissipation, and may
be confusing

in that a brake may be "powerful" and brake strongly with a gentle brake
application, yet

have lower (worse) peak force than a less "powerful" brake.

• Pedal feel – Brake pedal feel encompasses subjective perception of brake power
output as a

function of pedal travel. Pedal travel is influenced by the fluid displacement

of the brake and
other factors.
41
• Drag – Brakes have varied amount of drag in the off-brake condition depending
on design of

the system to accommodate total system compliance and deformation that exists
under

braking with ability to retract friction material from the rubbing surface in
the off-brake
 condition.

• Durability – Friction brakes have wear surfaces that must be renewed

periodically. Wear

surfaces include the brake shoes or pads, and also the brake disc or drum.
There may be

tradeoffs, for example a wear surface that generates high peak force may also
wear quickly.

• Weight – Brakes are often "added weight" in that they serve no other function.
Further,

brakes are often mounted on wheels, and unsprung weight can significantly hurt
traction in

some circumstances. "Weight" may mean the brake itself, or may include
additional support
structure.

• Noise – Brakes usually create some minor noise when applied, but often create
squeal or
grinding noises that are quite loud.

Brake boost :

Most modern vehicles use a vacuum assisted brake system that greatly increases the
force applied to

the vehicle's brakes by its operator. [1] This additional force is supplied by the
manifold vacuum

generated by air flow being obstructed by the throttle on a running engine. This force
is greatly

reduced when the engine is running at fully open throttle, as the difference between
ambient air

pressure and manifold (absolute) air pressure is reduced, and therefore available
vacuum is

diminished. However, brakes are rarely applied at full throttle ; the driver takes the
right foot off the

gas pedal and moves it to the brake pedal - unless left-foot braking is used.

Because of low vacuum at high RPM, reports of unintended acceleration are often

accompanied by

complaints of failed or weakened brakes, as the high-revving engine, having an open

throttle, is

unable to provide enough vacuum to power the brake booster. This problem is
exacerbated in
vehicles equipped with automatic transmissions as the vehicle will automatically
downshift upon
application of the brakes, thereby increasing the torque delivered to the driven-
wheels in contact with
the road surface.

Although ideally a brake would convert all the kinetic energy into heat, in practice a
significant

amount may be converted into acoustic energy instead, contributing to noise pollution.

For road vehicles, the noise produced varies significantly with tire construction,

road surface, and the

magnitude of the deceleration. [2] Noise can be caused by different things. These are
signs that there
may be issues with brakes wearing out over time.
42
Inefficiency :

A significant amount of energy is always lost while braking, even with regenerative
braking which is

not perfectly efficient. Therefore a good metric of efficient energy use while driving
is to note how

much one is braking. If the majority of deceleration is from unavoidable friction

instead of braking,

one is squeezing out most of the service from the vehicle. Minimizing brake use is one
of the fuel
economy-maximizing behaviors.

While energy is always lost during a brake event, a secondary factor that influences
efficiency is

"off-brake drag", or drag that occurs when the brake is not intentionally actuated.
After a braking

event, hydraulic pressure drops in the system, allowing the brake caliper pistons to
retract. However,

this retraction must accommodate all compliance in the system (under pressure) as well
as thermal

distortion of components like the brake disc or the brake system will drag until the
contact with the

disc, for example, knocks the pads and pistons back from the rubbing surface. During
this time, there

can be significant brake drag. This brake drag can lead to significant parasitic power
loss, thus
impact fuel economy and vehicle performance.

We all know that pushing down on the brake pedal slows a car to a stop. But how does
this happen?
How does your car transmit the force from your leg to its wheels? How does it multiply
the force so
that it is enough to stop something as big as a car?

When you depress your brake pedal, your car transmits the force from your foot to its
brakes through

a fluid. Since the actual brakes require a much greater force than you could apply
with your leg, your
car must also multiply the force of your foot. It does this in two ways :

• Mechanical advantage (leverage)

• Hydraulic force multiplication

The brakes transmit the force to the tires using friction, and the tires transmit that
force to the road

using friction also. Before we begin our discussion on the components of the brake
system, we'll
cover these three principles :

• Leverage
• Hydraulics
• Friction

43
4.3.5 CHAIN :

Chain is a series of connected links which are typically made of metal. A

chain may consist
of two or more links.

Chains are usually made in one of two styles, according to their intended use :

• Those designed for lifting, such as when used with a hoist ; for pulling ; or
for securing, such

as with a bicycle lock, have links that are torus shaped, which make the chain
flexible in two

dimensions (The fixed third dimension being a chain's length.)

• Those designed for transferring power in machines have links designed to mesh
with the teeth

of the sprockets of the machine, and are flexible in only one dimension. They
are known as

roller chains, though there are also non-roller chains such as block chain.

Two distinct chains can be connected using a quick link which resembles a carabiner

with a screw

close rather than a latch.

Uses for chain :

Uses for chain include :

 • Bicycle chain, transfers power from the pedals to the drive-wheel of a bicycle
thus propelling

it
• Chain drive, the main feature that differentiated the safety bicycle

• Chain gun, type of machine gun that is driven by an external power source,
sometimes

connected by a chain, to actuate the mechanism rather than using recoil

• Chain pumps, type of water pump where an endless chain has positioned on it
circular discs

• Chain-linked Lewis, lifting device made from two curved steel legs

• Chainsaw, portable mechanical, motorized saw using a cutting chain to saw wood.
• Chain steam shipping

• Curb chain, used on curb bits when riding a horse

• Door chain, a type of security chain on a door that makes it possible to open
a door from the

inside while still making it difficult for someone outside to force their way
inside

• Keychain, a small chain that connects a small item to a keyring

• Lead shank (or "Stud chain"), used on horses that are misbehaving

• Lavatory chain, the chain attached to the cistern of an old-fashioned W.C. in

which the
flushing power is obtained by a gravity feed from above-head height. Although
cisterns no

longer work like that, the phrase "pull the chain" is still encountered to

mean "flush the

toilet".
44
• O-ring chain, a specialized type of roller chain

• Roller chain, the type of chain most commonly used for transmission of
mechanical power on

bicycles, motorcycles, and in industrial and agricultural machinery

• Snow chains, used to improve traction in snow

• Timing chain, used to transfer rotational position from the crankshaft to the
valve and

ignition system on an internal combustion engine, typically with a 2 : 1 speed

reduction.

• Ball and chain, phrase that can refer to either the actual restraint device
that was used to slow

down prisoners, or a derogatory description of a person's significant other

• Bicycle lock (or "Bicycle Chain"), lockable chain
 • Security chain, chain with square edges to prevent cutting with bolt-cutters.
• High-tensile chain (or "Transport chain"), chain with a high tensile strength
used for towing

or securing loads.
• Leg iron chains (Fetters), an alternative to handcuffs

• Chain link fencing, fencing that utilizes vertical wires that are bent in a zig
zag fashion and

linked to each other

• Chain of office, collar or heavy gold chain worn as insignia of office or a

mark of fealty in

medieval Europe and the United Kingdom

• Chain weapon, a medieval weapon made of one or more weights attached to a

handle with a

chain

• Omega chain, a pseudo-chain where the ' links' are mounted on a backing rather
than being

interlinked
• Pull switch, an electrical switch operated by a chain
• Flat chain, form of chain used chiefly in agricultural machinery.
Chain Construction :

Chains have a surprising number of parts. The roller turns freely on the bushing,
which is attached

on each end to the inner plate. A pin passes through the bushing, and is attached at
each end to the

outer plate. Bicycle chains omit the bushing, instead using the circular ridge formed
around the pin
hole of the inner plate.
Chain Dimensions :

Chain types are identified by number ; ie. a number 40 chain. The rightmost digit is 0
for chain of the

standard dimensions ; 1 for lightweight chain ; and 5 for rollerless bushing chain. The
digits to the left

indicate the pitch of the chain in eighths of an inch. For example, a number 40 chain
would have a
pitch of four-eighths of an inch, or 1/2", and would be of the standard dimensions in
width, roller
diameter, etc.

The roller diameter is "nearest binary fraction" (32nd of an inch) to 5/8ths of the
pitch ; pin diameter

is half of roller diameter. The width of the chain, for "standard" (0 series) chain,
is the nearest binary
fraction to 5/8ths of the pitch ; for narrow chains (1 series) width is 41% of the
pitch. Sprocket
thickness is approximately 85-90% of the roller width.

Plate thickness is 1/8th of the pitch, except "extra-heavy" chain, which is designated
by the suffix H,
and is 1/32" thicker.
ANSI Standard Chain Dimensions

Chain No. Pitch Roller Diameter Roller Width Sprocket thickness Working Load
25 1/4" 0.130" 1/8" 0.110"
lbs

3/8" 0.200" 3/16"

35 0.168"
lbs

1/2" 5/16" 5/16"

40 0.284"
lbs

1/2" 0.306" 1/4"

41 0.227"
lbs

5/8" 0.400" 3/8"

50 0.343"
lbs

3/4" 15/32" 1/2"

60 0.459"
lbs
80 1" 5/8" 5/8" 0.575" 3300

Bicycle and Motorcycle Chain Dimensions

Chain No. Pitch Roller Diameter Roller Width Sprocket
thickness

Bicycle, with Derailleur 1/2" 5/16" 1/8" 0.110"

Bicycle, without Derailleur 1/2" 5/16" 3/32" 0.084"

420 1/2" 5/16" 1/4" 0.227"

425 1/2" 5/16" 5/16" 0.284"

46
 428 1/2" 0.335" 5/16" 0.284"

520 5/8" 0.400" 1/4" 0.227"

525 5/8" 0.400" 5/16" 0.284"

530 5/8" 0.400" 3/8" 0.343"

630 3/4" 15/32" 3/8" 0.343"

Selecting a Chain

Two factors determine the selection of a chain ; the working load and the rpm of the
smaller sprocket.
The working load sets a lower limit on pitch, and the speed sets an upper limit.

Maximum Pitch = (900 ÷ rpm ) 2/3

The smaller the pitch, the less noise, wears, and mechanical losses will be

4.3.6 SPROCKET :

A sprocket or sprocket-wheel is a profiled wheel with teeth, cogs, or even

sprockets[ that mesh with

a chain, track or other perforated or indented material. The name 'sprocket' applies
generally to any

wheel upon which are radial projections that engage a chain passing over it. It is
distinguished from a

gear in that sprockets are never meshed together directly, and differs from a pulley
in that sprockets
have teeth and pulleys are smooth.

Sprockets are used in bicycles, motorcycles, cars, tracked vehicles, and other
machinery either to

transmit rotary motion between two shafts where gears are unsuitable or to impart
linear motion to a

track, tape etc. Perhaps the commonest form of sprocket is found in the bicycle, in
which the pedal

shaft carries a large sprocket-wheel which drives a chain which in turn drives a small
sprocket on the

axle of the rear wheel. Early automobiles were also largely driven by sprocket and
chain mechanism,
a practice largely copied from bicycles.
Sprockets are of various designs, a maximum of efficiency being claimed for each by
its originator.

Sprockets typically do not have a flange. Some sprockets used with timing belts have
flanges to keep
the timing belt centered. Sprockets and chains are also used for power transmission
from one shaft to

another where slippage is not admissible, sprocket chains being used instead of belts
or ropes and

sprocket-wheels instead of pulleys. They can be run at high speed and some forms of
chain are so
constructed as to be noiseless even at high speed.
47
Transportation

In the case of bicycle chains, it is possible to modify the overall gear ratio of the
chain drive by

varying the diameter (and therefore, the tooth count) of the sprockets on each side of
the chain. This

is the basis of derailleur gears. A 10-speed bicycle, by providing two different-sized

driving

sprockets and five different-sized driven sprockets, allows up to ten different gear
ratios. The

resulting lower gear ratios make the bike easier to pedal up hills while the higher
gear ratios make

the bike faster to pedal on flat roads. In a similar way, manually changing the
sprockets on a
motorcycle can change the characteristics of acceleration and top speed by modifying
the final drive
gear ratio.

In the case of vehicles with caterpillar tracks the engine-driven toothed-wheel

transmitting motion to

the tracks is known as the drive sprocket and may be positioned at the front or back
of the vehicle, or
in some cases, both. There may also be a third sprocket, elevated, driving the track.
48
CHAPTER-5
WORKING PRINCIPLE
5.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE

Regenerative braking and regenerative brakes are elements that can be found in
completely electric

and gas-electric half and half vehicles. Autos like the half and half Toyota Prius,
Ford Fusion Hybrid
and Honda Insight, and the completely electric Tesla Roadster include regenerative

mechanisms. Regenerative slowing mechanisms benefit from the likenesses in development

electric engines and electric power generators. An electric engine's inside is
comprised of copper

windings. It utilizes an electromagnetic vitality field to deliver torque through its

fundamental shaft
when power is connected to it. A generator or dynamo is likewise involved copper

makes utilization of an electromagnetic field ; applying a constrain to turn its rotor

deliver electric power. Regenerative braking depends on the guideline of material

expresses that vitality can't be crushed ; it must be changed starting with one shape
then onto the next.

In a regenerative stopping mechanism, the goal is to recover the vitality side effect

when the brakes are connected. In electric or half and half cars, the electric engine
that drives the
auto's wheels has a noteworthy influence amid braking. At the point when the brake

squeezed, the regenerative braking circuit switches the engine so that it now works

counter the bearing of the wheels. This inversion really makes it perform like a power

dynamo that produces electrical vitality. The power created is directed towards the
auto's stockpiling
batteries to revive them. The effectiveness of regenerative stopping mechanisms being

has enhanced essentially. Some current frameworks can catch and store as much as 70
percent of the
vitality that would some way or another have been lost. At higher paces, regenerative

require the help of conventional stopping mechanisms to be connected as a

reinforcement. This
recovering and putting away of electrical vitality might be compared to "stream"
charging of the

batteries. This is on account of more often than not, the electric engine keeps
running in torque

delivering mode to drive the vehicle. The prescribed battery charging strategy still
must be performed
to charge the batteries completely, albeit regenerative braking translates to an
expansion in vehicle

run.
5.2 REGENERATIVE BRAKING EFFICIENCY

The energy efficiency of a conventional car is only about 20 percent, with the
remaining 80 percent
of its energy being converted to heat through friction. The miraculous thing about
regenerative

49
braking is that it may be able to capture as much as half of that wasted energy and
put it back to

work. This could reduce fuel consumption by 10 to 25 percent Hydraulic regenerative

braking

systems could provide even more impressive gains, potentially reducing fuel use by 25
to 45 percent.

In a century that may see the end of the vast fossil fuel reserves that have provided
us with energy for

automotive and other technologies for many years, and in which fears about carbon
emissions are
coming to a peak, this added efficiency is becoming increasingly important.

5.3 ADVANTAGES OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING

1. Improved Fuel Economy.

2. Reduction in Brake and Engine Wear- Reducing cost of replacement of brake

linings, cost

of labor to install them, and vehicle down time.

3. Emissions reduction- engine emissions reduced by engine decoupling, reducing

total

engine revolutions and total time of engine operation.

4. Operating range is comparable with conventional vehicles- a problem not yet

overcome by
electric vehicles.
5.4 DISADVANTAGES OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING

1. The main limitation of regenerative brakes when compared with dynamic brakes
is the

need to closely match the electricity generated with the supply. With DC
supplies this

requires the voltage to be closely controlled and it is only with the

development of power

electronics that it has been possible with AC supplies where the supply
frequency must also

be matched (this mainly applies to locomotives where an AC supply is rectified

for DC

motors).

2. Regenerative braking is necessarily limited when the batteries are fully

charged. Because

the additional charge from regenerative braking would cause the voltage of a
full battery to
rise above a safe level, our motor controller will limit regenerative braking
torque in this

case.
3. Increases the total weight of vehicle by around 25-30 Kilograms.

50

CHAPTER-6
RESULT
51
7. SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE
Regenerative braking systems require further research to develop a better system that

energy and stops faster. As the time passes, designers and engineers will perfect

systems, so these systems will become more and more common. All vehicles in motion can

from these systems by recapturing energy that would have been lost during braking

thereby reducing fuel consumption and increased efficiency. Future technologies in

brakes will include new types of motors which will be more efficient as generators,

battery which can bear more frequent charging and discharging, new drive train designs

be built with regenerative braking in mind, and electric systems which will be less

Of course, problems are expected as any new technology is perfected, but few future

have more potential for improving vehicle efficiency than does regenerative braking.
52
8. CONCLUSION

The regenerative braking system used in the vehicles satisfies the purpose of saving a
part of the

energy lost during braking. The regenerative braking system is designed to partially
recover the

battery charge wasted in braking of the vehicle. The energy is converted into heat by
friction brakes
which is dissipated to the environment.

This Energy is utilized to rotate the rotor of generator converting mechanical energy
of wheels into

useful charge of battery. The regenerative braking system cannot be used as main
braking system of

vehicle as it cannot bring the vehicle to rest. Experimentation shows that minimum 11%
battery

energy can be recovered using the

regenerative braking system which would otherwise be wasted to heat in friction brakes.
Hence the

distance travelled between two successive charging requirements can be increase to 10

to 15 % using
this regenerative braking, when installed in actual vehicle.
53
9. REFERENCES

[1] “Regenerative braking for fuel cell hybrid system with additional generator,”
international

journal of hydrogen energy 38 (2013) 8415-8421

[2] “Regenerative Braking for Electric Vehicle based on Fuzzy Logic Control Strategy,”

International Conference on Mechanical and Electronics Engineering (ICMEE 2010)

[3] “Regenerative Braking for an Electric Vehicle Using Ultracapacitors and a

Converter, ” researchgate.net publication 228707058.

[4] “Cutting vehicle emissions with regenerative braking, ” Transportation Research

(2010) 160–167

[5] “Development of a regenerative braking control strategy for hybridized solar

vehicle,” IFAC

paper online 49-11 (2016) 497–504

[6] “Research on Electric Vehicle Regenerative Braking System and Energy Recovery”,
International Journal of Hybrid Information Technology Vol.9, No.1 (2016)

[7] “On the potential of regenerative braking of electric buses as a function of their
itinerary,”

Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 54 (2012) 1156 – 1167

[8] Michael Panagiotidis, George Delagrammatikas and Dennis Assanis, “Development and

Regenerative Braking Model for a Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle, ” SAE 2000-01-0995
[9] Chengqun Qiu, Guolin Wanga, “New evaluation methodology of regenerative braking
contribution to energy efficiency improvement of electric vehicles, ” Energy [10]
“Study on

simulation traction load with regenerative braking, ” Energy Procedia 14 (2012) 1299 –

[11] “Studies of Regenerative Braking in Electric Vehicle, ” 978-1-4244-7503-2110,

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