Units, Measurements and Dimension

Introduction

Measurements form the basis of all experimental and scientific work. To measure any physical quantity, we
need a well-defined standard. The process of comparing a physical quantity with a known standard (called a
unit) is known as measurement.

Physical Quantities

A physical quantity is a characteristic or property of an object or phenomenon that can be measured.

Examples include length, mass, time, velocity, force, energy, etc.

Physical quantities are broadly classified into two types:

1. Fundamental (Base) Quantities: These are quantities that are independent and cannot be derived
from any other quantity. For example: length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic
temperature, amount of substance, and luminous intensity.
2. Derived Quantities: These are obtained from the combination of fundamental quantities. For
example: velocity (length/time), force (mass × acceleration), area (length²), volume (length³), and so
on.

Units

A unit is a standard of measurement for a physical quantity. Choosing a standard unit ensures that
measurements are consistent and comparable.

Characteristics of a Good Unit:

• It should be well-defined, stable, and reproducible.

• It should be of a convenient size for practical use.
• It should be universally accepted.

Systems of Units

Historically, different systems of units have been in use:

1. CGS System: Centimetre (cm) for length, Gram (g) for mass, and Second (s) for time.
2. FPS System (British System): Foot (ft) for length, Pound (lb) for mass, and Second (s) for time.
3. MKS System: Metre (m) for length, Kilogram (kg) for mass, and Second (s) for time.

International System of Units (SI):

The SI system is the modern, universally accepted system of units. It is based on seven base units:
 Base Quantity SI Unit Symbol

Length metre m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Electric Current ampere A

Thermodynamic Temperature kelvin K

Amount of Substance mole mol

Luminous Intensity candela cd

Supplementary Units (Now Incorporated into SI):

• Radian (rad) for plane angle.

• Steradian (sr) for solid angle.

Derived Units in SI

Derived units are formed by combining the base units. Some important derived units:

Physical Quantity SI Derived Unit Symbol

Velocity metre per second m/s

Acceleration metre per second squared m/s²

Force newton (N) = kg·m/s² N

Pressure pascal (Pa) = N/m² Pa

Energy/Work/Heat joule (J) = N·m J

Power watt (W) = J/s W

Electric Charge coulomb (C) = A·s C

Electric Potential volt (V) = W/A V

Resistance ohm (Ω) = V/A Ω

Prefixes Used in SI

To deal with very large or very small quantities, standard prefixes are used:
Prefix Symbol Multiplying Factor

giga G 10⁹

mega M 10⁶

kilo k 10³

deci d 10⁻¹

centi c 10⁻²

milli m 10⁻³

micro μ 10⁻⁶

nano n 10⁻⁹

pico p 10⁻¹²

Dimensions and Dimensional Formula

Dimensions represent the nature of a physical quantity in terms of the powers to which the base quantities
are raised.

Dimensional Symbol Representation:

• Length (L)
• Mass (M)
• Time (T)
• Electric Current (I)
• Temperature (θ or K)
• Amount of Substance (N)
• Luminous Intensity (J)

Dimensional Formula is an expression that shows the dependence of a physical quantity on the
fundamental quantities. For example (details )

Kinematics and Mechanics

1. Displacement/Distance (x, s, etc.): [L]

2. Velocity (v): [L T⁻¹]
3. Acceleration (a): [L T⁻²]
4. Angular Displacement (θ): Dimensionless (radians are dimensionless)
5. Angular Velocity (ω): [T⁻¹]
6. Angular Acceleration (α): [T⁻²]
7. Momentum (p = m v): [M L T⁻¹]
8. Force (F = m a): [M L T⁻²]
9. Impulse (J = F Δt): [M L T⁻¹]
10. Pressure (P = Force/Area): [M L⁻¹ T⁻²]
11. Work (W = F × displacement): [M L² T⁻²]
12. Energy (E) (Kinetic, Potential, etc.): [M L² T⁻²]
13. Power (P = Work/Time): [M L² T⁻³]
14. Torque (τ = Force × perpendicular arm): [M L² T⁻²]
 15. Moment of Inertia (I = Σ m r²): [M L²]
16. Angular Momentum (L = I ω or m v r): [M L² T⁻¹]

Gravitation

1. Gravitational Constant (G): [M⁻¹ L³ T⁻²]

2. Gravitational Field Strength (g): [L T⁻²]
3. Gravitational Potential (V): [L² T⁻²]

Properties of Matter (Solids and Fluids)

1. Density (ρ = mass/volume): [M L⁻³]

2. Strain (Longitudinal, Volume, Shear): Dimensionless
3. Stress (Force/Area): [M L⁻¹ T⁻²] (same as pressure)
4. Modulus of Elasticity (Y, K, η): [M L⁻¹ T⁻²]
5. Surface Tension (T): [M T⁻²]
6. Viscosity (Dynamic, η): [M L⁻¹ T⁻¹]

Oscillations and Waves

1. Frequency (f): [T⁻¹]

2. Angular Frequency (ω = 2πf): [T⁻¹]
3. Wave Number (k = 2π/λ): [L⁻¹]
4. Wave Velocity (v): [L T⁻¹]
5. Amplitude (A): [L]
6. Spring Constant (k): [M T⁻²]

Thermodynamics and Thermal Physics

1. Temperature (T): [K] (treated as a base dimension or dimensionless in some contexts)

2. Heat (Q): [M L² T⁻²] (same as energy)
3. Specific Heat Capacity (c = Q/(mΔT)): [L² T⁻² K⁻¹]
4. Thermal Conductivity (k_th): [M L T⁻³ K⁻¹]
5. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (α): [K⁻¹]
6. Gas Constant (R): [M L² T⁻² K⁻¹]
7. Boltzmann Constant (k_B): [M L² T⁻² K⁻¹]
8. Entropy (S): [M L² T⁻² K⁻¹]

Electrostatics and Current Electricity

1. Electric Charge (Q): [I T] (since Q = current × time)

2. Electric Current (I): [I]
3. Electric Potential (V) or Voltage: [M L² T⁻³ I⁻¹]
4. Electric Field (E): [M L T⁻³ I⁻¹]
5. Electric Potential Energy: [M L² T⁻²]
6. Capacitance (C): [M⁻¹ L⁻² T⁴ I²]
7. Resistance (R): [M L² T⁻³ I⁻²]
8. Resistivity (ρ_e): [M L³ T⁻³ I⁻²]
9. Conductivity (σ): [M⁻¹ L⁻³ T³ I²]
 10. Permittivity of Free Space (ε₀): [M⁻¹ L⁻³ T⁴ I²]

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

1. Magnetic Field (B): [M T⁻² I⁻¹] (Tesla)

2. Magnetic Flux (Φ): [M L² T⁻² I⁻¹] (Weber)
3. Inductance (L): [M L² T⁻² I⁻²]
4. Permeability of Free Space (μ₀): [M L T⁻² I⁻²]

Electromagnetic Induction and AC

1. Emf (ε): [M L² T⁻³ I⁻¹] (same as electric potential)

2. Self-Inductance and Mutual Inductance (L, M): [M L² T⁻² I⁻²]
3. Reactance (X): [M L² T⁻³ I⁻²]
4. Impedance (Z): [M L² T⁻³ I⁻²]

Electromagnetic Waves

• Speed of Light (c): [L T⁻¹]

• Refractive Index (n): Dimensionless
• Intensity of Wave (I = Power/Area): [M T⁻³]

Optics

1. Focal Length (f): [L]

2. Power of a Lens (P): [L⁻¹]
3. Magnification (m): Dimensionless

Modern Physics

1. Planck’s Constant (h): [M L² T⁻¹]

2. Photoelectric Work Function (Φ): [M L² T⁻²]
3. Electron Volt (eV): [M L² T⁻²] (unit of energy)
4. Mass-Energy Equivalence (E = mc²): Energy [M L² T⁻²]
5. De Broglie Wavelength (λ = h/p): Since λ is length [L] and p is [M L T⁻¹], h/p = ([M L² T⁻¹]/[M L T⁻¹]) = [L].
6. Rydberg Constant (R∞): [L⁻¹]
7. Nuclear Radius Constant (r₀): [L]

Miscellaneous

1. Coefficient of Viscosity (η): [M L⁻¹ T⁻¹]

2. Surface Energy (or Surface Tension × Area): [M L² T⁻²]

Uses of Dimensional Analysis:

1. To check the correctness of physical equations.

2. To convert units from one system to another.
3. To derive relationships between physical quantities (although it can’t give numerical constants).
Limitations of Dimensional Analysis:

• It cannot determine dimensionless constants or numerical factors.

• It cannot distinguish between different physical quantities having the same dimensional formula (for
example, torque and energy both have dimensions of [M¹ L² T⁻²]).

Measurement and Error Analysis

Accuracy and Precision:

• Accuracy: Closeness of a measured value to the true value.

• Precision: Closeness of repeated measurements to each other.

Errors in Measurement:

• Systematic Errors: Occur due to defective apparatus or wrong calibration. These are consistent and can be
corrected.
• Random Errors: Occur due to random, unpredictable fluctuations. Can be minimized by repeated
measurements and statistical methods.
• Least Count Error: The smallest division on the measuring scale leads to a limit in resolution. Instruments
should have a suitable least count to reduce this error.

Significant Figures:

• Number of digits in a measurement that are known reliably plus the first uncertain digit.
• Rules for counting significant figures:
1. All non-zero digits are significant.
2. Zeros between non-zero digits are significant.
3. Leading zeros are not significant.
4. Trailing zeros after a decimal point are significant.

Rounding Off Numbers:

• If the digit after the required significant figure is less than 5, leave it.
• If equal to or greater than 5, increase the digit in the required place by 1.

Common Unit Conversions

1. Length:
o 1 inch = 2.54 cm
o 1 foot = 0.3048 m
o 1 mile ≈ 1.609 km
2. Mass:
o 1 pound (lb) ≈ 0.4536 kg
o 1 metric ton = 1000 kg
3. Time:
o 1 minute = 60 seconds
o 1 hour = 3600 seconds
4. Volume:
o 1 litre (L) = 1000 mL = 1000 cm³
o 1 m³ = 1000 L
5. Energy:
o 1 calorie ≈ 4.186 J
 o 1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 3.6 × 10⁶ J

NUMERICALS :
1. Unit Conversion Problems

Q1: Convert 54 km/h into m/s.

Solution:
1 km = 1000 m and 1 hour = 3600 s.
Therefore, 1 km/h = (1000 m)/(3600 s) = 5/18 m/s.
So, 54 km/h = 54 × (5/18) m/s = (54 × 5)/18 m/s = (270/18) m/s = 15 m/s.

Answer: 15 m/s

Q2: A car travels 2400 m in 2 minutes. Find its speed in km/h.

Solution:
Distance = 2400 m, Time = 2 min.
First, convert distance to km and time to hours:

• 2400 m = 2.4 km (since 1 km = 1000 m)

• 2 min = 2/60 hours = 1/30 hours = 0.0333... hours (approx.)

Speed = Distance/Time = 2.4 km / (1/30 h) = 2.4 × 30 km/h = 72 km/h.

Answer: 72 km/h

Q3: Convert 1 litre (L) into cubic metres (m³).

(1 L = 1000 cm³ and 1 m = 100 cm)

Solution:
1 L = 1000 cm³.
1 m = 100 cm ⇒ 1 m³ = (100 cm)³ = 100³ cm³ = 1,000,000 cm³.
So, 1 cm³ = 1/1,000,000 m³.
Therefore, 1000 cm³ = 1000/1,000,000 m³ = 1/1000 m³ = 0.001 m³.

Answer: 1 L = 0.001 m³

2. Significant Figures

Q4: How many significant figures are there in the measurement 0.00340 kg?

Solution:

• Leading zeros are not significant.

• The digits '3', '4', and the trailing zero after '4' (because it comes after a decimal point and a nonzero digit)
are significant.
 Thus, the significant figures are: 3, 4, and 0 (the last one).
Total significant figures = 3.

Answer: 3 significant figures

Q5: Round off 125.678 to 4 significant figures.

Solution:
To 4 significant figures: 1, 2, 5, 6 are the first four significant digits. The next digit is '7', which is ≥5, so we
increase the last digit by 1.
125.678 → 125.7 (the '6' becomes '7' due to the next digit '7').

Answer: 125.7

3. Dimensional Analysis

Q6: Check the dimensional correctness of the formula for time period (T) of a simple pendulum:
𝐿
T=2π√𝑔
where L is length and g is acceleration due to gravity.

Solution:

• Dimension of L = [L].
• Dimension of g = acceleration = [L T⁻²].

Inside the square root, L/g = [L]/[L T⁻²] = [T²].

√(L/g) = [T].
Multiplying by constant 2π (dimensionless) doesn’t affect dimensions.
So the dimension of T is [T].
The formula is dimensionally correct.

Answer: The formula is dimensionally correct.

Q7: The gravitational force between two masses M₁ and M₂ separated by a distance r is:
F=G M₁ M₂/ r²
Given that F has dimensions [M L T⁻²], M has [M], and r has [L], find the dimensions of G.

Solution:
F = (G × M × M) / r²
[M L T⁻²] = G × [M × M] / [L²]
[M L T⁻²] = G × [M² / L²]

Rearranging for G:
G = [M L T⁻²] × [L² / M²] = [M⁻¹ L³ T⁻²].

Answer: Dimensions of G = [M⁻¹ L³ T⁻²]

4. Error Analysis

Q8: A physical quantity Q is given by:

Q= A²/B
If the percentage error in A is 3% and in B is 2%, what is the percentage error in Q?

Solution:
For a quantity Q = A²/B:
Percentage error in Q = 2 × (Error in A) + (Error in B) because Q ∝ A² and Q ∝ 1/B.

= 2 × 3% + 2% (with a negative sign for B, but when calculating percentage errors, we add magnitudes)
= 6% + 2%
= 8%

Answer: 8% error in Q

Q9: If the least count of a measuring scale is 0.1 cm, what is the absolute error in a measurement taken with
this scale?

Solution:
The maximum possible error in a direct measurement is at least the least count of the instrument.

Answer: 0.1 cm

5. Mixed Concept Problems

Q10: A quantity X is given by:

𝑃𝑉 2
X= 𝑅.𝑡
Given dimensions:

• Pressure (P) = [M L⁻¹ T⁻²]

• Velocity (V) = [L T⁻¹]
• Resistance (R) = [M L² T⁻³ I⁻²]
• Time (t) = [T]

Find the dimension of X.

Solution:
Substitute all dimensions into X:
X = [M L⁻¹ T⁻²] × ([L T⁻¹]²) / ([M L² T⁻³ I⁻²] × [T])

= [M L⁻¹ T⁻²] × [L² T⁻²] / [M L² T⁻³ I⁻² × T]

Combining numerator dimensions:

= [M (L⁻¹+²) (T⁻²+⁻²)] / [M L² T⁻³ I⁻² T]

= [M L¹ T⁻⁴] / [M L² T⁻² I⁻² T]

= [M L¹ T⁻⁴] / [M L² T⁻³ I⁻²]

Combine like terms by subtracting exponents:

 • For M: M/M = M⁰ = 1
• For L: L^(1-2) = L⁻¹
• For T: T^(⁻4 - (⁻3)) = T^(⁻4+3) = T⁻¹
• For I: I^(0 + 2) because dividing by I⁻² is same as multiplying by I² = I²

So dimension of X = [L⁻¹ T⁻¹ I²]

Answer: [L⁻¹ T⁻¹ I²]

Q11: Convert 1 kgf (kilogram-force) into Newtons if g = 9.8 m/s².

Solution:
1 kgf is the force exerted by gravity on 1 kg mass.
Force (F) = mass (m) × acceleration (g) = 1 kg × 9.8 m/s² = 9.8 N.

Answer: 1 kgf = 9.8 N

Q12: Convert a speed of 1 m/s into km/h.

Solution:
1 m/s = (1 m/s) × (3600 s/hour) × (1/1000 km/m)
= (3600/1000) km/h
= 3.6 km/h.

Answer: 3.6 km/h

PYQ :
Q1. Which one of the following sets does NOT contain a derived quantity?
(a) Speed, Density, Pressure
(b) Time, Mass, Length
(c) Acceleration, Force, Work
(d) Power, Energy, Velocity

Answer: (b) Time, Mass, Length

Explanation: Time, Mass, and Length are fundamental (base) quantities, not derived.

Q2. The dimensional formula of pressure is:

(a) [M L T⁻²]
(b) [M L⁻¹ T⁻²]
(c) [M L T⁻¹]
(d) [M L² T⁻³]

Answer: (b) [M L⁻¹ T⁻²]

Explanation: Pressure = Force/Area = (M L T⁻²)/L² = M L⁻¹ T⁻².
Q3. The unit of electrical resistance in SI system is:
(a) Volt
(b) Coulomb
(c) Ohm
(d) Ampere

Answer: (c) Ohm

Q4. The dimensional formula of universal gravitational constant (G) is:

(a) [M⁰ L³ T⁻²]
(b) [M⁻¹ L³ T⁻²]
(c) [M⁻¹ L³ T⁻¹]
(d) [M L³ T⁻²]

Answer: (b) [M⁻¹ L³ T⁻²]

Q5. Convert 72 km/h to m/s:

(a) 10 m/s
(b) 20 m/s
(c) 15 m/s
(d) 30 m/s

Answer: (c) 20 m/s

Explanation: 1 km/h = 5/18 m/s, so 72 km/h = 72 × 5/18 = (72/18) × 5 = 4 × 5 = 20 m/s.

Q6. One light year is a unit of:

(a) Time
(b) Distance
(c) Light Intensity
(d) Velocity

Answer: (b) Distance

Q7. Which one of the following is dimensionless?

(a) Strain
(b) Stress
(c) Force
(d) Pressure

Answer: (a) Strain

Explanation: Strain = change in length/original length, it’s a ratio (dimensionless).

Q8. If P = Power, R = Resistance, and I = Current, which of the following expressions is dimensionally
correct for Power in terms of Resistance and Current?
(a) P = R I
(b) P = R I²
(c) P = R² I
(d) P = R I⁻¹

Answer: (b) P = R I²
Explanation: Power (P) = I²R from the relation P = I²R. Dimensional check: Power = [M L² T⁻³], R = [M L²
T⁻³ I⁻²], I = [I]. Substituting in R I²: [M L² T⁻³ I⁻²][I²] = [M L² T⁻³], which matches the dimension of power.

Q9. Which of the following physical quantities has the same dimensions as that of energy?
(a) Impulse
(b) Torque
(c) Pressure
(d) Momentum

Answer: (b) Torque

Explanation: Torque = Force × distance = (M L T⁻²) × L = M L² T⁻², same as energy.

Q10. The least count of a common laboratory screw gauge is typically:

(a) 1 cm
(b) 0.1 cm
(c) 0.01 cm
(d) 0.001 cm

Answer: (c) 0.01 cm

Explanation: Commonly, screw gauges have a least count of 0.01 cm (or 0.001 m).

Q11. In an experiment, length is measured as 2.00 m with a least count of 0.01 m. What is the maximum
possible absolute error in the measurement?
(a) 0.001 m
(b) 0.01 m
(c) 0.1 m
(d) 0.5 m

Answer: (b) 0.01 m

Q12. The frequency of a wave is 50 Hz. Its time period is:

(a) 0.02 s
(b) 2 s
(c) 0.2 s
(d) 5 s

Answer: (a) 0.02 s

Explanation: Frequency (f) = 1/T. So T = 1/50 s = 0.02 s.
Q13. Which of the following correctly represents the unit of electric field intensity?
(a) N C⁻¹
(b) J C⁻¹
(c) V m⁻¹
(d) Both (a) and (c)

Answer: (d) Both (a) and (c)

Explanation: Electric field intensity units: N/C or V/m. N/C and V/m are equivalent units.

Q14. Which of the following is the correct dimensional formula for velocity?
(a) [M⁰ L T⁻²]
(b) [M L T⁻¹]
(c) [M⁰ L T⁻¹]
(d) [M L² T⁻²]

Answer: (c) [M⁰ L T⁻¹]

Explanation: Velocity = displacement/time = L/T.

Q15. If a physical quantity X is given by:

𝐴3
X= 𝐵2
and the percentage error in A is a% and in B is b%, then the percentage error in X is:
(a) 3a - 2b
(b) 3a + 2b
(c) (3a + 2b)/2
(d) (3a - 2b)/2

Answer: (b) 3a + 2b
Explanation: For X = A³ B⁻², % error in X = 3(a%) + 2(b%) since for powers, errors multiply by the power
and add, and B is in the denominator (but when adding absolute percentage errors, we consider magnitudes).

Q16. Which of the following quantities is dimensionless?

(a) Relative density
(b) Force constant (spring constant)
(c) Surface tension
(d) Coefficient of viscosity

Answer: (a) Relative density

Explanation: Relative density = (Density of substance) / (Density of water), which is a ratio of two same
dimensions, thus dimensionless.

Q17. If the dimensions of a physical quantity are given by M^a L^b T^c, then the quantity is:
(a) Fundamental if a, b, c are all zero
(b) Derived if any of a, b, c is non-zero
(c) Dimensionless if a = b = c = 0
(d) All the above statements are correct

Answer: (d) All the above statements are correct.

Q18. The density of water is 1000 kg/m³. Express this in g/cm³.
(a) 0.1 g/cm³
(b) 1 g/cm³
(c) 10 g/cm³
(d) 100 g/cm³

Answer: (b) 1 g/cm³

Explanation: 1 kg = 1000 g and 1 m³ = (100 cm)³ = 1,000,000 cm³.
1000 kg/m³ = (1000 × 1000 g)/1,000,000 cm³ = 1 g/cm³.

Q19. 1 Angstrom (Å) = ? meters

(a) 10⁻⁹ m
(b) 10⁻¹⁰ m
(c) 10⁻⁵ m
(d) 10⁻³ m

Answer: (b) 10⁻¹⁰ m

Q20. The dimensional formula of angular momentum (L) is the same as that of:
(a) Work
(b) Planck’s constant
(c) Pressure
(d) Power

Answer: (b) Planck’s constant

Explanation: Angular momentum = [M L² T⁻¹], which is the same as Planck’s constant.
Work = [M L² T⁻²], Pressure = [M L⁻¹ T⁻²], Power = [M L² T⁻³].

Q21. Which of the following correctly represents the dimensional formula of coefficient of viscosity (η)?
(a) [M L⁻¹ T⁻¹]
(b) [M L⁻¹ T⁻²]
(c) [M L T⁻²]
(d) [M⁰ L² T⁻¹]

Answer: (a) [M L⁻¹ T⁻¹]

Q22. Which of the following instruments is used to measure small thicknesses or diameters up to a high
degree of precision (like the diameter of a wire)?
(a) Vernier caliper
(b) Screw gauge (Micrometer)
(c) Meter scale
(d) Speedometer

Answer: (b) Screw gauge (Micrometer)

Q23. The dimensional formula for momentum (p) is:
(a) [M L T⁻²]
(b) [M L T⁻¹]
(c) [M L² T⁻²]
(d) [M L² T⁻³]

Answer: (b) [M L T⁻¹]

Q24. If length is measured in kilometer (km) and time in hour (h), then the unit of acceleration would be:
(a) km/h
(b) km/h²
(c) km·h
(d) km⁻¹ h⁻¹

Answer: (b) km/h²

Explanation: Acceleration = velocity/time. If velocity is in km/h, dividing by time (in hours) again gives
km/h².

Q25. Which of the following can be used to check the dimensional correctness of a physical equation but
cannot determine its numerical coefficients?
(a) Dimensional analysis
(b) Least count calculation
(c) Significant figures method
(d) Unit conversion

Answer: (a) Dimensional analysis

Q26. A force of 1 newton (N) can be expressed in fundamental SI units as:

(a) 1 kg·m/s²
(b) 1 kg·m²/s²
(c) 1 g·m/s
(d) 1 g·cm/s²

Answer: (a) 1 kg·m/s²

Q27. If a physical quantity Q is proportional to A² and inversely proportional to B, then the percentage error
in Q is:
Given percentage errors: A = x%, B = y%.
(a) 2x + y
(b) 2x - y
(c) 2x + 2y
(d) x + y

Answer: (a) 2x + y
Explanation: Q ∝ A²/B implies percentage error = 2x% + y%.

Q28. One foot is equal to:

(a) 30.48 cm
(b) 25 cm
(c) 10 cm
(d) 3.28 cm

Answer: (a) 30.48 cm

Q29. The SI unit of power is:

(a) Joule
(b) Watt
(c) Newton
(d) Pascal

Answer: (b) Watt

Explanation: Watt = Joule/second, SI unit of power.

Q30. “Poise” is a unit of:

(a) Pressure
(b) Viscosity
(c) Surface Tension
(d) Moment of Inertia

Answer: (b) Viscosity