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700555 - The Pallet Book_int.indd 1 8/10/17 5:57 PM
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 © 2017 Quarto Publishing Group USA Inc.

First published in 2017 by Voyageur Press, an imprint of The Quarto Group, 401 Second Avenue North, Suite 310,
Minneapolis, MN 55401 USA. T (612) 344-8100 F (612) 344-8692 www.QuartoKnows.com

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the copyright
owners. All images in this book have been reproduced with the knowledge and prior consent of the artists concerned,
and no responsibility is accepted by producer, publisher, or printer for any infringement of copyright or otherwise,
arising from the contents of this publication. Every effort has been made to ensure that credits accurately comply with
information supplied. We apologize for any inaccuracies that may have occurred and will resolve inaccurate or missing
information in a subsequent reprinting of the book.

Voyageur Press titles are also available at discount for retail, wholesale, promotional, and bulk purchase. For details,
contact the Special Sales Manager by email at [email protected] or by mail at The Quarto Group, Attn: Special
Sales Manager, 401 Second Avenue North, Suite 310, Minneapolis, MN 55401 USA.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN: 978-0-7603-5274-8
Digital edition: 978-0-76036-228-0
Softcover edition: 978-0-76035-274-8

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Peterson, Chris, 1961- author.

Title: The pallet book : DIY projects for the home, garden, and homestead /
by Chris Peterson.
Description: Minneapolis, Minnesota : Voyageur Press, 2018. | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017017746 | ISBN 9780760352748 (pb)
Subjects: LCSH: Woodwork--Patterns. | Pallets (Shipping, storage, etc.) |
Wood waste--Recycling.
Classification: LCC TT180 .P464 2018 | DDC 684/.08--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017017746

Acquiring Editor: Thom O’Hearn

Project Manager: Jordan Wiklund
Art Director: James Kegley
Cover Designer and layout: Simon Larkin
Project design: Chris Peterson
Builder/photographer: Chris Marshall

On the front cover: Pallets can be used to create attractive and useful projects around the home, including Adirondack
chairs (top left), bookshelves and storage (top right), side tables (bottom right), and even provide opportunities for
decoration such as wall clocks (bottom left) and more.
On the back cover: Pallet garden bench and planter.

Printed in China

FSC logo from printer

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 The
Pallet Book
DIY Projects for the Home,
Garden, and Homestead

CHRIS PETERSON

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 CONTENTS
Introduction .................................. 6

1 2
WORKING WITH YARD & GARDEN
PALLETS PROJECTS
The Anatomy of the Pallet ............11 Small-Bird Birdhouse ...................26
The Hunt for Pallets ...................... 14 Small Planter ................................ 29

Common Pallet Markings ............ 15 Raised Bed .....................................33

Deconstructing Pallets ................. 16 Patio Loveseat ...............................37

How to Deconstruct a Pallet: Porch Swing ................................. 40

Four Options .................................. 18 Chaise Lounge ............................. 44
Finishing Touches ......................... 20 Quick 3 ...........................................47
Fine Finishes ................................... 22 Pallet Plant Markers
Outdoor Lighting Fixtures
Garden Trellis
Planter Bench ............................... 49
Adirondack Chair ..........................52
Cold Frame ................................... 58
Doghouse ..................................... 62
Workbench ................................... 65
Sandbox .........................................67
Quick 3 ...........................................70
Handy Vertical Planter
Pallet Fencing
Compost Bin
Hammock Chair ............................72

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 3 4
STORAGE FURNISHINGS & DÉCÓR
Coat Rack and Shelf .....................76 Platform Bed ...............................102
Wine and Liquor Bottle Rack ......79 Kitchen Island............................. 106
Small Wall-Mounted Shelf .......... 82 Bar Stool ...................................... 111
Hanging Pot Rack ........................ 86 Quick 3 ......................................... 115
Child’s Safety Gate
Large Bookshelf ........................... 90
Pallet Staircase
Quick 3 .......................................... 94 Pallet Room Divider Screen
Shoe Rack Dog Bed ....................................... 116
Utensil Holder
Mirror Frame with Shelf ............. 118
Drink Coasters
Desk .............................................. 121
Spice Rack .................................... 96
Hanging Picture Frame ..............124
Rolling Toy Bin ............................. 98
Quick 3 .........................................126
Coffee Table
Pallet Chandelier
Headboard
Side Table.....................................128
Quick 3 ........................................ 130
Tea Light Candleholders
Cutting Board
Serving Tray
Doormat or Bathmat ..................132
Clock ........................................... 134
Floating Shelf ..............................136
Pet Bowl Holder ..........................139

Resources ...................................142

About the Author .......................142

Index ............................................ 143

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 INTRODUCTION
The book you have in your hands (or the
e-reader you’re reading it on) has spent part of
its life on a pallet. So have the vast majority of
small items in your home, from food to furniture
to the various parts of your house itself. Pallets
are the stage on which the great drama of
commerce plays out. Okay, maybe that’s a bit
much. But they are the standardized platforms
that make it easy to ship stuff.
And what a platform. Pallets are ingenious in their simplicity.
They’re sized so that professionals—from warehouse planners to
shipping companies—can play what amounts to sophisticated games
of Tetris to get the most out of a truck, railcar, shipping container, or
any warehouse. Pallets are lightweight, but can support incredibly
heavy loads. A pallet is so economical as to be disposable, but so
durable that a single pallet can survive thousands of miles and ton
upon ton of accumulated weight.
That usefulness is why pallets are everywhere. According to the
US Forest Service, there are two billion pallets in use in the United
States alone. The vast majority of those are wood (there are metal,
plastic, composite, and recycled-material pallets as well). More than
four hundred million new pallets will be produced in any given year
to replace those that are damaged or destroyed—including the more
than one hundred million that will simply be thrown out.
Those waste pallets are upcyclers’ gold.
You may not think of yourself as an upcycler, but if you ever
take the opportunity to reclaim a pallet and repurpose all or part of
it into something new, that’s just what you are. And why wouldn’t
you embrace that label? With all the discarded pallets lying around
coast to coast, you’d almost be crazy not to turn them into
something useful and interesting. Worried that your DIY skills aren’t
up to the task? Don’t be. Working with pallets is amazingly simple

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 and requires only basic crafting abilities. If you can put together an The easiest way to upcycle pallets is to
sand them down, paint them, and
IKEA bookshelf, you can turn a pallet into something useful and
stack them like the sofa in this living
delightful. You also won’t need a boatload of tools. Most of what room. The projects in this book,
can be done with a pallet requires about five basic tools that you however, go a bit further than that,
probably already own. using pallets to create structurally
sound furnishings, storage, and more.
Getting started is as easy as turning the page to Chapter 1:
Working with Pallets. That riveting read will quickly teach you how to
modify, remodel, or deconstruct a pallet with a minimum of fuss. This
basic grounding in the anatomy of a pallet will set you up to tackle the
projects in the chapters that follow. You’ll find a whole range—from
the incredibly easy and small (lovely tea light candleholders anyone?)

Introduction 7

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 This rough-and-tumble compost bin to complex but still doable large projects that will provide low-cost,
and access ramp makes good use of
handsome options for home furnishings (how about a pallet platform
the rugged nature of most pallets.
bed that you can construct in about half a Saturday?). The common
denominator? Ease. These projects are easy to understand, with
simple-to-follow steps that make the constructions a breeze to finish.
Oh yeah, they’re all stylish and fun too.
More than anything else, though, all these projects are reward-
ing. Whether you’re building a Wine and Liquor Bottle Rack (page
79) or whipping up some Pallet Plant Markers (page 47), the cost will
be close to zero. You’ll have the satisfaction of making something
that you would otherwise have had to buy, and even more satisfac-
tion knowing that you probably saved the wood from going right
into an already crowded landfill.
So if you know it’s easy, environmentally beneficial, fun, produc-
tive, and rewarding to your soul and your pocketbook, there’s really
only one question left: What are you waiting for?

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 Introduction 9

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 WORKING
1 WITH PALLETS
One of the most amazing things about pallets is
that for something that is so useful and
adaptable, a pallet is actually an incredibly
simple construction. That makes it easy to take
apart or modify. However, even though they are
all constructed in a similar fashion, there are
many different kinds of pallets with many
variables in how they’re made. That variety
reflects how different pallets are meant to be
used with a forklift.

All pallets are designed to be picked up

and moved by a forklift, the most
efficient method for loading,
unloading, and moving shipped goods.

10

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 THE ANATOMY OF THE PALLET
The basic difference among pallets is the way in which forklift blades
slide under the pallet. A pallet can be designed as “two-way,”
accessible from only two opposite sides, or “four-way,” accessible
from any direction. Obviously, this affects how the pallet can be
used. To complicate matters, there are partial four-way pallets with
cutouts in the side stringers (the sturdier boards that support the
deck boards and run perpendicular to them). These pallets are meant
to be lifted or skidded from the front or back, or lifted from the sides.
Pallets are also designated either “stringer” or “block,” depending
on how they are constructed. Stringer pallets use two-by-fours or
two-by-sixes on edge, as the three main supports for the top and
bottom deck boards. Block pallets use corner four-by-four blocks,
connected by stringer boards on top that serve as nailers for the top
deck boards, and bottom boards running both ways.

Stringer Pallet Block Pallet

Different manufacturers use different widths and thicknesses of

deck boards. The most common are one-by-fours, or an actual size
of three-quarters inch by three and a half inches. End or “lead” deck
boards are often wider, such as one-by-sixes (actual size of
three-quarters inch by five and a half inches). In reality, pallet
construction is not overly precise. Manufacturers can use unsightly
wood that wouldn’t be marketable as boards. There is also a lot of
variance in the different pieces. Although stringers are usually
standard sizes, depending on where you find the pallet and who
manufactured it, deck boards can range in thickness from
three-eighths inch to three-quarters inch. That means that you may
have to adapt the projects in this book to the thickness of deck
board on the pallets you salvage.

11

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 COMMON US OTHER PALLET T YPES
PALLET SIZES The pallet formats shown here are the most common. However,
SIZE USE there are other formats. Most any wood pallet can be adapted
48 × 40 General, grocery store for use in the projects in this book.
42 × 42 Paint, wire spools
48 × 48 Metal drums
48 × 42 Chemicals, beverage
industry
40 × 40 Dairy products
48 × 20 General retail
36 × 36 Beverage
48 × 45 Automotive parts
Two way Two way, wing
COMMON
INTERNATIONAL
PALLET SIZES
SIZE CONTINENT
39.37 × 47.24 Europe, Asia
44.88 × 44.88 Australia
43.30 × 43.30 Asia
31.50 × 47.24 Europe
Four way Two way, reversible

Pallets are also available in a range of overall dimensions. The most

common in the United States is forty-eight inches by forty inches, but
different industries use different size pallets to ship material and
equipment specific to a given industry. There are also smaller units
meant to ship smaller loads or to be used in smaller delivery trucks
or vehicles.
International pallets add even more sizes into the mix, not only
because they’re using metric measurements, but because European
trucks and shipping containers are often sized to much different
dimensions than American vehicles.
All these variables mean that you need to keep an open mind when
reclaiming pallets. The units you find for reuse may well be far from
“standard,” but that doesn’t make them less usable. The pallets specified
in all the projects in this book are standard stringer pallets with nominal
two-by-four stringers, and nominal one-by-four decking; we assume an
overall width of forty-eight inches by forty inches. We have used

12

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 “notched” stringer pallets (partial four-way) for many of these,
because they are some of the most commonly available types of
pallets. The notch can make for an interesting appearance, depend-
er,
ing on where it falls in the span of the cut piece. However, the
notches can also present design and structural challenges, depend-
ing on what you’re building. Where there might be structural
concerns—such as a weight-bearing leg—we’ve turned to
“unnotched” two-way stringers.
That said, all these projects have been developed for maximum A standard “partial four-way” stringer
pallet. Note the notches in the side
adaptability, to allow you to customize the plans to whatever pallets stringer that allow for forklift blades
you may have reclaimed. but still provide a surface for a limited
number of bottom deck boards.

Pallets of all kinds can be used to make

furnishings and accents that are limited
only by imagination. Here, block pallets
have been chopped up and reassembled
to make a chunky, rustic living room
sofa and coffee table. It may not be the
height of luxury, but they are durable,
usable, and basically free!

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 Uniformly colored pallets like these
THE HUNT FOR PALLETS
should be avoided. The color is usually
a sign that the pallet was used to ship a It’s not hard to find pallets for reclamation because they’re used to
particular material, often chemicals or
ship so many materials and products. The trick is to locate pallets
other potentially toxic substances.
that are in fairly decent shape and that aren’t spoken for. Although
the easiest places to find a wealth of pallets are behind big-box
stores and large retailers where they may be stacked haphazardly,
many of these companies have agreements with recyclers to bulk
collect used pallets. (Remember, pallets in good shape can be
reused again and again.)
Unless the pallets have obviously been discarded as trash—on
the curb during large trash pickup day or in a local dump—you’ll
need to ask permission to take them. That said, many companies are
more than willing to have you cart them off. That includes construc-
tion companies on large construction sites, where they often don’t
have anywhere to store pallets to keep them out of the path of
workers and vehicles, and they may not have arranged to have the
pallets removed. You may also get lucky and find whole dumpsters
full of unbroken or slightly damaged pallets.
Regardless of where you find them, you’ll want to make absolutely
sure that the pallets you reclaim are safe for reuse. This involves
determining if they have been used to transport any toxic or danger-
ous materials and avoiding those that have. Fortunately, most pallets
are marked on the top, bottom, or sides, and the markings often tell
the story of where the pallet came from and what it carried.

14

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 COMMON PALLET MARKINGS
IPPC [a]: This is the mark of the International Plant Protection
Convention and certifies that the wood used in the pallet does not
contain invasive plant or insect species. IPPC pallets must be treated
to kill any organisms remaining the wood—either through debarking
or heat treatment.
DB [b]: The pallet has been debarked, but is otherwise untreated.
Generally safe for projects.
HT [b]: Heat treating pallets kills organisms that might have survived
milling, rendering the pallet safe for use—especially in projects.
KD [b]: This means the wood was kiln dried. For the purposes of an
upcycling project, it’s the same as heat-treating. Kiln drying also ensures
that the wood will be less likely to warp or deform when you reuse it.
MB [b]: The pallet has been treated with methyl bromide and should
be avoided for upcycling.
EPAL: This is the European Pallet Association logo; it certifies that
the pallet has been debarked and heat treated, and verifies that the
wood is safe to use in projects.
EUR: This predates the current European Pallet Association designa-
tion and you cannot reliably be sure of which chemicals may have
been used on the pallet. Many upcyclers avoid pallets with this mark.
PRL: This stamp proves verification by the Packaging Research
Laboratory, indicating that the pallet has been treated with
high-temperature heat treatment and does not contain toxic chemicals.
This is a good sign for anyone looking to upcycle the pallet.
Colored pallets: Pallets that are uniformly colored all over with red,
blue, or brown are used by specific industries such as pool and spa
manufacturers. These have likely been exposed to toxic chemicals
and are subsequently not used for upcycling.

Manufacturer’s
Registration
[a] IPPC logo Country Code Number

I
P US–FC1234
P
C
DB-HT

Forestry Commission

[b] Treatment Forestry

Code Commission Logo

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 DECONSTRUCTING PALLETS
Once you’ve laid your hands on some safe and structurally sound
pallets, you’ll probably need to modify them for whatever purpose
you have in mind. Although several of the projects in this book make
use of whole pallets, you’ll often need to deconstruct a pallet to one
degree or another for upcycling.
When it comes to taking pallets apart, the right tools will save
you time, money, and effort, and can even prevent injury. The job is
not necessarily as easy as it might appear, because pallet manufac-
turers use very stubborn fasteners, such as shank nails, and trying to
separate the pieces can lead to the destruction of much usable
wood. Often, the best way to remove deck boards from stringers or
blocks is to actually cut the nails. Occasionally you’ll be faced with
sacrificing a section of wood that simply can’t be separated from
another section. In any case, here’s a list of basic deconstruction
tools that are also used to craft many of the projects in the book.

Hammer. A basic claw hammer is the crudest and least effective

method to separate pallet boards. Even using a wedge to help pry a
board up, the hammer will often destroy the end of a board rather
than budge the fasteners.

Pry bar. A good pry bar can give you just the right amount of leverage
exactly where you need it to loosen stubborn boards, but using a pry
bar to take apart a pallet requires patience and a great deal of effort. It
can also lead to breakage and, specifically, end splitting.

Pallet buster. Pallet busters are specially constructed to exert

maximum force on the fasteners without cracking boards. The long
handle and shaped tines use physics to require a minimum of effort
for a maximum of force. The downside is that these tools tend to be
pricey. Consequently, it only makes sense to purchase one if you
plan on breaking down quite a few pallets.

16

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 Reciprocating saw. Known commonly by the brand name Sawzall,
this hardworking saw can tear through stringers, blocks, and boards
alike, as if they were butter. Equipped with a metal-cutting blade, the
saw can cut between boards and stringers, severing stubborn fasten-
ers. When the board can’t be removed, or a thick stringer needs to be
cut to size, a reciprocating saw is sometimes the best option.

Circular saw. If you simply can’t loosen the fasteners or get at them
with a reciprocating saw—or if the board is already damaged—a
circular saw will be your best friend. This tool can be indispensible in
quickly and accurately cutting deck boards free of overly nailed ends.
Adding a fine-tooth finish blade will ensure you make the clean cuts
necessary for some of the more delicate and exacting projects in
this book.

Nippers. This handy tool is essentially a specialized pair of pliers,

effective at pulling nails or, in the case of pallets, nail fragments or
cut ends out of wood meant for upcycling projects.

Mini hacksaw. If you’re not comfortable with investing in or using a

reciprocating saw, this handy little tool can be a great alternative. It’s
basically a handle that holds a metal-cutting hacksaw, with the blade
projecting out beyond on the handle. It’s well suited to slipping
under a deck board to cut a fastener. It will take more time and
elbow grease than a reciprocating saw would, but costs far less and
is safer to use.

When deconstructing pallets, it’s often wisest to start with the

simplest solution and work up from there. If the pallet is not
constructed with special nails, a hammer may do the trick. But most
pallets are going to require a more substantial solution.

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 HOW TO DECONSTRUCT A PALLET: FOUR OPTIONS

Where the board ends are already

loose or standard nails have been used,
a claw hammer can work to separate a
deck board. Use another hammer or
mallet to secure the claw end under
the end of the board as close to the
nails as possible, and then carefully
lever the board up.

Pry bars have an advantage over claw

hammers in their shape. The wide face
and gentle curve of the handle combine
to spread stress over a wider area,
which means less board breakage.
Tap the tongue of the bar under one
side of the board near the nails and
slowly lever the board up a tiny bit.
Then work on the other side of the
board. Repeat until the board end
breaks loose.

To use a pallet buster, simply wedge

the tines under the board and lever up
even firmly attached boards with ease
and a minimum of breakage. However,
these justify their cost only when
you’re deconstructing several pallets.

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 When other options aren’t going to do
the trick, slide the moving metal-cutting
blade of a reciprocating saw between a
board and the stringer or block, quickly
severing any fasteners.

SAFET Y FIRST
When working with wood taken from a
pallet, be careful that there are no hidden
fasteners that might cause damage to a
saw or injury to the user. Staples, portions
of a nail, or other errant pieces of metal
can be a danger when working with
reclaimed wood. Ensure that the wood
you use is free of these by using a lumber
metal detector. These handy devices are
simple wands that work much like a stud
finder; just wave them over the wood and
they alert you to any metal—even hidden
small pieces of nails.

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 FINISHING TOUCHES
Although several of the projects shown in this book can be left
rough, many will need to be prepped for finishing or final use.
Depending on the pallets you’re upcycling, the wood may be
distressed, presenting splinters and an unpleasant surface to the
touch. Some are so rough that you may have to simply accept a
more rustic appearance or the fact that you can’t smooth them
down enough to take a gloss layer of paint. Remember, design
flexibility is key when upcycling pallet wood.
A jointer is an effective way to square up pallet boards, giving
them clean, sharp edges and flat faces that mate perfectly in projects
like the ones in this book. However, a jointer is a fairly expensive
piece of woodworking machinery and not every shop has one. In
addition, a jointer only works on fairly thick pieces. If you have
deconstructed deck boards thinner than three-quarters of an inch,
jointing them may not be an option.

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 Even if you don’t have access to a jointer, you can square off the A palm sander is an ideal way to
smooth pallet wood—it’s much quicker
faces of pallet boards with defects using a table saw; it will just take
than a sanding block and gives you
more careful handling. In either case, you’ll need to adjust measure- much more control than a belt or
ments, because in removing wood to square up members, you’ll be orbital sander.
altering the actual dimensions of the pieces.
A simple sanding can clean up less serious defects, except
where the wood face is so substandard as to be unworkable. In any
case, if you’re painting or otherwise finishing the final creation, you’ll
want to sand to prep the surface for the finish.
You can use an old-fashioned sanding block and sheets of
sandpaper, but the more efficient solution is a palm sander. These
can smooth pallet-wood surfaces quickly and give you far more
control than belt or orbital sanders.
Regardless of how you choose to finish your project, first it
needs to get built. And that’s what the rest of this book is all about.

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 FINE FINISHES

Prepping and finishing pallet wood can be your Soap and water may do the trick for
way of giving any pallet-wood project a polished superficial dirt and even mild grease marks.
look. It’s also your chance to ensure an upscale More stubborn stains and grease can be
project gives no clues to its original identity. Just removed with trisodium phosphate (TSP),
know that some wood you salvage from pallets following the manufacturer’s instructions on
may not take a finish because of an overly rough the box. No matter how you clean the wood,
or degraded surface. make sure it’s absolutely dry before you
The challenge is that there isn’t just one continue prepping it.
type of pallet wood. Different manufacturers Most finishes require a sanded surface with
use different woods. In fact, the same just enough tooth to allow the finish to absorb
manufacturer may use different woods at into the surface. For pallet wood, that generally
different times, depending on availability. means working down from 80-grit to 110- or
Different woods take paint or stains differently 120-grit sandpaper. Depending on the size of
(which is why it’s always good to do a practice the project, sand by hand or use a palm sander.
run on a scrap piece of the wood you intend Think twice before turning to a belt or orbital
to finish). sander. Given the mottled shades of some
Adding to the jumble, different pallets will pallet wood, it’s easy with these more powerful
be rougher or smoother, depending on how tools to spend too long on one spot and sand a
and where they were manufactured. They will slope or depression into the surface. This can
also be less or more dirty, depending on how be a critical error on thinner deck boards,
old the pallet is and what it was used to carry. where it can weaken the board beyond use.
That’s why preparation is key, no matter what If you’re planning on using a high-gloss
final look you’re after. product to finish your project, follow up any
sanding with a wipe-down using a slightly
PREPPING PALLE T WOOD damp, lint-free cloth or tack cloth. Even
Prepping the wood you’ve reclaimed from a minute particles of dust can ruin a smooth,
pallet starts with cleaning. If, in the fabrication glossy surface.
process, you already smoothed the edges and
faces of the boards, chances are that they
A FL AWLESS FINISH
won’t need to be cleaned. However, if the Painting a pallet-wood project isn’t much differ-
wood came from a well-traveled pallet that ent than painting any other type of wood. Use a
you simply disassembled (or used mostly quality primer to lay down a good bed for the
whole), it may need to be cleaned prior to topcoat. The best brush to use to paint most of
sanding and prepping. the projects in this book is a two-inch chip

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 brush. For flawless gloss surfaces, sand lightly wood was meant for exposure to abuse and the
between coats (you can add up to four coats). elements, so even unfinished, the wood will
If you’re staining a project, consider using a usually hold up for a long time.
stain-and-sealant product to cut down on the
work you’ll need to do. These formulations offer SPECIAL EFFEC TS
great coverage and an all-in-one solution. If you’re after a weathered, aged look with a
However, whether you’re staining or finishing with painted project, skip the primer and let the paint
a combination product, it’s wise to test the soak into the wood unevenly. You can also
product on the underside of a board or other lightly sand areas of the wood to erode portions
inconspicuous area. For the same reason, it’s of the paint. As an alternative, use multiple paint
always good to start with a light coat, because it’s colors, sanding away the topcoat to reveal
much easier to darken a stain than it is to lighten it. patches of the color underneath.
For the outdoor projects in this book, a To distress a surface you’ll be staining, beat it
sealant topcoat, such as polyurethane or spar lightly with a chain or other implement to create
varnish, is a good idea to ensure the longevity of the appearance of timeworn damage. Then stain
what you build. However, keep in mind that pallet as you would otherwise.

Sanding is the solution for any project where you want smoother edges on your pallet.

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 YARD & GARDEN
2 PROJECTS
Given its natural weathered appearance and
innate durability, pallet wood is ideal for outdoor
structures. Not only does the look fit right in
with plants, shrubs, and natural surfaces like
stone patios (not to mention wood decks!),
pallet wood is incredibly tough.
Let the rain, snow, sleet, and hail do their worst. Your pallet planter
or birdhouse will be just fine after the storm passes. That’s not to
say that you have to leave pallet-wood outdoor structures in their
natural state—unfinished. Any of these projects certainly look great
that way, but you can also stain them, or even paint them, to suit
your own outdoor living spaces, landscaping, and personal tastes.
The key is to choose those projects that will have the biggest
impact and make the most sense given your house and your yard.
A Porch Swing (page 40) is a lovely, evocative visual, but not if
you don’t have a sturdy porch roof (or thick, seventy-year-old tree
branch) from which to hang it. If your backyard space is all patio
and pavers, a Patio Loveseat (page 37) might be the wiser choice.
Whatever your requirements and landscaping style, you’re sure to
find a project here that adds immeasurably to your outdoor fun.

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 Small-Bird Birdhouse ...................26 Planter Bench ............................... 49

Small Planter ................................ 29 Adirondack Chair ..........................52

Raised Bed .....................................33 Cold Frame ................................... 58

Patio Loveseat ...............................37 Doghouse ..................................... 62

Porch Swing ................................. 40 Workbench ................................... 65

Chaise Lounge ............................. 44 Sandbox .........................................67

Quick 3 ...........................................47 Quick 3 ...........................................70

Pallet Plant Markers Handy Vertical Planter

Outdoor Lighting Fixtures Pallet Fencing
Garden Trellis Compost Bin

Hammock Chair ............................72

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 SMALL-BIRD BIRDHOUSE
Unless you have musician neighbors, the prettiest sound you’ll hear
in your backyard is the call of songbirds. Of course, that means you
have to invite them into the yard in the first place, and there’s no
better invitation than a short-term rental your feathered friends can
call their own.
The challenge is that small songbirds will only stay in a residence
where they feel safe. If the entry hole and space inside are too large,
the songbirds will quickly be evicted by larger, more aggressive birds.
And, unfortunately, crows and blue jays aren’t known for the pretty
sounds they make. That’s why this house is sized just right for birds
such as starlings or sparrows. Pair the house with a squirrel-proof bird
feeder and you may even get songbirds to overwinter in the residence.
The design is fairly plain, but you can spruce it up with paint or
decorations to match the look of your yard or garden. Birds won’t be
put off by unusual color schemes. Just make sure to hang the
birdhouse where predators such as cats can’t get to it, or the birds
will head to more welcoming pastures. In any case, plan on
disassembling the birdhouse after a few seasons to clean it out and
keep your bird visitors safe from parasites and diseases.
The construction itself is basic and translates to a super-easy
woodworking project. Even if your skill level is firmly in the “beginner”
camp, you’ll find this birdhouse doable. Just keep in mind that a small
project such as this is not forgiving of errors; be precise and careful
with your measurements and you’ll wind up with a yard accent that
does justice to the birds and the landscaping in equal measure.

Time: 20 minutes | Difficulty: Easy

WHAT YOU’LL NEED

TOOL S: 2 1/2” paintbrush (optional) Wood putty

Circular saw Paint (optional)

Speed square MATERIAL S: Eye screws

Measuring tape 1 pallet Small-gauge chain or

paracord
Hole saw with 1 1/4” bit 100-grit sandpaper
Bar clamps Wood glue
Power drill and bits Finish nails

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 HOW YOU MAKE IT
1. Use the circular saw to cut 1 x 6” end deck
boards into two sidewalls 81/2” long; a floor
4” long; and front and back walls 11” long.
Use a speed square to mark two 45° cuts in
one end of each wall to create a peak. Cut
the roof pieces 10” long, and rip one down
to 43/4” wide.
2. Use a 11/4” hole saw to drill the entry hole in
the front wall, 8” up from the bottom and
centered side to side. 2
3. Sand the pieces with 100-grit sandpaper.
Make sure the entry hole is smooth.
4. Clamp the floor of the birdhouse to a
worktable and align a sidewall in position
along one long edge, with the edges flush.
Drill pilot holes through the base. Coat the
edge of the floor with wood glue and nail
the wall to the floor with finish nails. Repeat
with the opposite wall.
5. Attach the front and back walls in the same
way, edge-gluing the surfaces to one
another and drilling pilot holes for the finish
5
nails along the edges.
6. Clamp the shorter roof surface to the workta-
ble and align the longer one along the edge.
Drill pilot holes, coat the mating edges with
wood glue, and nail the roof together.
7. Set the roof in place on the birdhouse body,
centered front to back. Drill pilot holes
every 2” along the front and back edges.
Coat the mating edges with glue and nail
the roof to the walls.
8. Putty over nail heads, sand, and paint as
desired. Screw in two eye screws opposite
each other on either side of the roof. Hang
7
the birdhouse from a tree limb with
small-gauge chain or paracord.

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Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
carelessly without speaking to the horse, seeing that he stands over,
or otherwise responds to his call, is himself to blame if he gets
kicked. The attendant who does things to a dangerous or
questionable horse for mere bravado cannot blame the owner if he
gets himself injured. If a person teases a horse so as to tempt him to
retaliate, not only is he responsible for his own consequent injuries,
but largely also for the habits of the horse and for such injuries as
others may subsequently sustain from him.
A dog or a bull shown in a public place, and which breaks loose
and injures spectators or others, manifestly renders his master
responsible for all such damage.
Treatment of aggressive vice. In mild dispositions in which the
vice is roused by temporary suffering, it may often be cured by
removal of the cause of such suffering. Indeed, without the healing of
sores under the collar or saddle the vice cannot be arrested.
Considerate and gentle treatment, too, will go far to restore
confidence and to gradually do away with the aggressive disposition.
In wicked stallions castration will usually restore to a good
measure of docility. The exceptional cases appear to be those that are
hereditarily and constitutionally vicious, or in which the habit has
been thoroughly developed and firmly fixed by long practice.
Mares, too, which become vicious and dangerous at each
recurrence of œstrum, can usually be completely cured by the
removal of the ovaries especially if this is done early in the disease.
The inveterate cases may usually be subdued and rendered
controllable for a time by one of the methods of subjugation
employed by the professional tamers, but unless they are thereafter
kept in good hands they are liable to relapse into the old habit.
Among the more effective methods are the Rarey mode of throwing
which may be repeated again and again until the animal is
thoroughly impressed with a sense of the domination of man and the
futility of resistance; the resort of tying the head and tail closely
together and letting the animal weary and daze himself by turning in
a circle, first to the one side and then to the other; the application of
the Comanche bridle made of a small rope, one loop of which is
passed through the mouth and back of the ears and drawn tightly,
then another loop is made to encircle the lower jaw, and the chin is
drawn in against the trachea by passing the free end of the rope
round the upper part of the neck and again through the loop
encircling the lower jaw and drawing it tight; or a similar small rope
is passed a number of times through the mouth and back of the ears
and drawn tightly so as to compress the medulla and stupify the
animal. This is supposed to be rendered more effective by passing
one turn each between the upper lip and gums and between the
lower lip and the gums.
 CATALEPSY.

Definition. Tetanic and paralytic forms. Balance of flexors and extensors

Cataleptoid. No constant lesion. Hysterical. Hypnotic. Subjects: horse, ox, wolf,
cat, chicken, Guineapig, snake, frog, crayfish. Causes: strong mental impression,
indigestion, etc., in susceptible system. Lesion: inconstant, muscular degeneration,
etc. Symptoms: wax-like retention of position given, voluntary movement in
abeyance, mental functions impaired, secretions altered. Duration and frequency
variable. Treatment: shock; cold; ammonia, pepper, snuff, electricity, amyle nitrite,
nitro-glycerine, apomorphine, bromides, purgatives, bitters, iron, zinc, silver, open
air exercise.

Definition. This is a functional nervous disorder, characterized by

paroxysms of impaired or perverted consciousness, diminished
sensibility, and above all a condition of muscular rigidity, by means
of which the whole body, or it may be but one or more limbs retain
any position in which they may be placed.
Laycock describes two forms in man—the catochus or tetanic form,
and the paralytic form. Mills would restrict the name catalepsy to
cases in which the muscular tone is such that the affected part may
be bent or moulded like wax or a leaden pipe, and will not vary from
this when left alone. Other forms in which this waxen flexibility
(flexibilitas cerea) is absent or imperfect he would designate as
cataleptoid.
The disease is not associated with any constant cerebral lesion,
though it may supervene in the course of other nervous disorders,
and therefore may own an exciting cause in existing lesions of the
brain. The immediate cause must however be held to be functional,
and this is in keeping with its most common form in man
(hysterical), and with the hypnotic form which is observed both in
man and animals. This latter may be looked on as a form of induced
or hypnotic sleep, in which the retention of the position given to a
limb or part is the most prominent symptom. In all cases there is an
impaired condition of the sensory functions of the cerebral
convolutions, and an insusceptibility of the motor centres to the
control of the will, or the reflex stimulus.
Hering has recorded the disease in the horse, Landel in the ox, and
Leisering in the prairie wolf. The hypnotic form has been shown in
cats, chickens, and Guinea pigs. The serpent charming of the Indian
dervishes and similar effects on frogs and crayfish have been
attributed to hypnotic catalepsy.
Causes. Strong mental emotions and diseases which profoundly
affect the nervous system have been adduced as causes (fear,
excitement, chills). Indigestible food has even been charged with
causing it. There is undoubtedly, to begin with, a specially
susceptible nervous system, and hence it is liable to prove hereditary,
and in man to appear as a form of hysteria, or to alternate in the
same family with epilepsy, chorea, alcoholism, opium addiction and
other neurosis.
Hypnotism as a cause is claimed by various writers. Azam says that
in the fairs in the South of France, jugglers hypnotize cocks by
placing the bill on a board, on which they trace a black line passing
between the two feet of the bird. Cadeac adds that Father Kircher, in
the 17th century, employed a similar method to put fowls to sleep.
Alix put cats to sleep by securing them firmly, and then looking
steadily into their eyes. The condition attained varies according to
the degree of the sleep, the will being dominated first, and later,
consciousness of external objects is lost. Hypnotism, however,
appears to be difficult and uncertain in the lower animals, in keeping
with the limited development of intelligence and will, as compared
with the human being. Cadeac states that the very old and the very
young are completely refractory to hypnotizing influences.
Lesions. No constant pathological changes are found, though
different nervous lesions may serve to rouse the disease in a
predisposed subject. Fröhner found in the affected muscles granular
swelling, fatty degeneration, hæmorrhages, and waxy (amyloid)
degeneration of the cardiac muscles, corresponding to what has been
found in tetanus; also hæmorrhages on the stomach and intestines.
Symptoms. The leading objective symptom is the tonic condition
of the muscles by which a perfect balance is established and
maintained between the flexors and extensors so that the affected
part maintains the same position which it had when the attack
began, or any other position which may be given to it during the
progress of the paroxysm. The position is only changed when the
muscles involved have become completely exhausted. During the
attack the affected muscles are swollen and firm, so that their outline
may often be traced through the skin, later as the attack subsides
they become soft and flaccid. Voluntary movement of the affected
muscles is impossible until after the paroxysm. The attack usually
comes on suddenly and in this respect resembles epilepsy; at other
times there are premonitory symptoms of nervous anxiety,
excitement or irritability. There is usually considerable impairment
of consciousness, intelligence, common sensation, and even of the
special senses. In a cataleptic dog Fröhner noted mental and motor
troubles, considerable anæsthesia, and loss of sight, smell, and
hearing. The eyes are fixed, the pupils either contracted or dilated,
and the urine passed may be albuminous or even icteric.
Course, Duration. Like other functional nervous disorders this is
extremely uncertain in its progress. There may be but one attack or a
succession; they may last from a few minutes, to 7 days (Fröhner), or
even several weeks (Hertwig); they may end in recovery or less
frequently they may prove fatal usually by inanition.
Treatment. During a seizure a sudden shock will sometimes cut
short the attack, douching with cold water, an inhalation of
ammonia, of capsicum or of snuff, or the application of electricity in
an interrupted current through the spine and affected muscles. Ether
anæsthesia will not always relax (Sinkler). Inhalation of a few drops
of nitrite of amyle has proved effective in man, as has also the
injection subcutem of three drops of a 1 per cent solution of nitro-
glycerine, apomorphine hypodermically is usually effective (Sinkler).
Bromide of potassium has also been advised, and in case of coldness
of the surface, a warm bath.
When there is overloaded stomach and gastric indigestion an
emetic is indicated, and in constipation a purgative (for speedy
action chloride of barium or physostigma subcutem).
In the intervals between attacks tonics and general hygiene should
be invoked to build up the weakened nervous system. Quinine, and
salts of iron, zinc or silver with a nourishing diet and out door
exercise are especially indicated.
INSOLATION. HEAT EXHAUSTION. SUNSTROKE.
THERMIC FEVER.

Definition: two forms. Heat exhaustion. Causes: prolonged heat, and

moisture, overexertion. Impaired vaso-motor centre. Failing heart. Carbon dioxide
poisoning. Symptoms: weak, fluttering pulse, perspiration, muscles flaccid,
prostration, no hyperthermia. Treatment: stimulant, digitalis, digitalin, subcutem,
nitro-glycerine, warm baths. Thermic fever. Hyperthermia excessive. Causes:
insolation, prolonged heat and impure air, furnace heat, moist and dry heat,
electric tension, overwork, muscular exhaustion, coagulation of myosin, constant
heat on one part (head), excess of carbon dioxide, stiffening of bodies when killed
in hot weather, debility, weakness, fatigue, chest constriction, tight girths or
collars, short bearing reins, plethora, obesity, open cars and yards, fever, privation
of water, heavy fleece. Lesions: right heart and systemic veins full, blood black fluid
or diffluent, left ventricle empty, congested meninges, effusions in or on brain, or
hæmorrhages. Symptoms: horse: dull, stupid, stubs toes, sways quarters, droops
head, hangs on bit, props on feet, breathes rapidly, pants, stertor, dilated nostrils,
gasping, fixed eyes, dilated pupils, tumultuous heartbeats, gorged veins, epistaxis,
perspiration, convulsions: ox: parallel symptoms: sheep: open mouth, stertor,
fixed eyes, pupils dilated, panting, swaying, fall, convulsions: dog: dull, prostrate,
pants, congested veins and mucosæ, weakness, spasms, syncope, speedy rigor
mortis. Overheating. Diagnosis: early excessive hyperthermia, venous congestion,
shallow panting breathing, violent heart action, loss of sensory and motor
functions, convulsions. Prevention: avoid violent, prolonged heat, and exertion,
especially in case of fat animals or those new to hot climate, keep emunctories
acting, shade head, water on head and to drink, protect fat cattle, shear sheep,
water. Treatment: shade and laxatives; if severe, cold water from hose, ice bags to
poll, rub legs, acetanilid subcutem, stimulant enemata, later mineral tonics, iron or
zinc.

Definition. A morbid condition produced by the exposure to

extreme heat, and marked by profound disorder of the vaso-motor
and heat centres.
 The single term of sun-stroke or heat-stroke has been replaced by
two,—heat exhaustion and sun-stroke, indicating two distinct
conditions, brought about by exposure to heat and manifested by
different states of the body and distinctive symptoms.
 Heat Exhaustion.
This appears as an exaggerated form of the general sense of
relaxation, weakness and languor which follows on prolonged violent
exertion in a hot atmosphere. There is more or less impairment of
the vaso-motor nerve centre in the medulla, relaxation of the
capillary system, and flagging of the heart’s action, which loses its
customary stimulus, by reason of the defective supply of blood
returned by the veins. This may become so extreme that the patient
dies by syncope. In other cases the paresis is mainly shown in the
vaso-motor system, and its centres in the medulla, the blood is
delayed in the distended capillaries and veins, it becomes
overcharged with carbon dioxide, the heart’s action is accelerated
and feeble, the pulse rapid, weak and fluttering, perspiration breaks
out on the skin, and the temperature is normal or subnormal. The
muscular weakness, the flaccid condition of the facial muscles, and
general depression suggest a state of collapse. This condition is not
necessarily due to exposure to the intensity of the sun’s rays, but may
come on in animals subjected for a length of time to artificial heat,
and especially if the air is impure, and if the subject has to undergo
severe physical exertion.
Treatment. In slight cases of this kind a stimulant is usually
desirable and ammonium carbonate in bolus or solution will usually
serve a good purpose. In its absence alcohol or spirits of nitrous
ether may be given. Digitalis is of great value in sustaining the
flagging action of the heart and has the advantage that as digitalin it
can be given hypodermically when it is impossible to give ammonia,
alcohol or ether by the mouth. For the same reason nitro-glycerine
may be resorted to, or even atropia as a vaso-motor stimulant. Active
friction of the body and limbs will aid circulation and indirectly
stimulate the heart, and in case of subnormal temperature it may be
supplemented by a warm bath in the smaller animals, kept up until
the normal temperature in the rectum has been restored.
 Thermic Fever. Sun-stroke.
This is readily distinguished from heat exhaustion by the
predominance of the hyperthermia. While in heat exhaustion the
temperature is usually subnormal, in sun-stroke it is excessive,
(108°–113° F.).
Causes. The immediate cause of sun-stroke is exposure to undue
heat, but this need not be the heat of the sun’s rays direct. A large
proportion of cases in the human subject are attacked during the
night, and again at sea where an attack in a passenger is practically
unknown, it is terribly common among stokers working in a close
atmosphere of 100° to 150° F.
The attendant conditions have much influence in determining an
attack, thus it is generally held that heat with excess of moisture is
the most injurious, yet in Cincinnati, statistics showed a greater
number of cases in man when the air was dry. The suppression of
perspiration and the arrest of cooling by evaporation in the latter
case would tend to a rapid increase of the body temperature, and the
condition would be aggravated by the electric tension usually present
with the dry air. With the hot, moist air perspiration might continue,
but evaporation would be hindered, and there would be arrest of the
cooling process and an extreme relaxation of the system.
Again, if is usually found that seizures take place during or after
hard muscular exertion in a hot period, and much importance is
attached to the attendant exhaustion, the excess of muscular waste,
and the alteration of the myosin, which latter coagulates at a lower
temperature in the overworked animal. But on the other hand,
experiment shows that the animal confined to absolute inactivity in
the hot sunshine or in a high temperature (at 90°), dies in a few
hours, whereas another animal left at liberty in the same
temperature does not suffer materially. The explanation appears to
be that the dog, kept absolutely still, has the continuous action of the
heat on the same parts and on the same blood, for the capillaries
dilate, and the blood is delayed, overheated, and surcharged with
carbon dioxide, and the result is either syncope from heart failure, or
asphyxia from excessive carbonization of the blood. Back of these
and concurring with them is the paralysis of the vaso-motor and heat
generating nerve centres, from the high temperature or the condition
of the blood.
The excessive carbonization of the blood deserves another word.
The prolonged contact of the blood and air in the lungs is essential to
the free interchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Vierordt showed
that with sixty respirations per minute the expired air became
charged with but 2.4 per cent. of this gas, whereas with fourteen
respirations it contained 4.34 per cent. Therefore, with violent
muscular work (which charges the blood with carbon dioxide) and
rapid breathing (which fails to secure its elimination), the overdriven
animal soon perishes from asphyxia. Under a high temperature of
the external air, this condition is aggravated since the rarefied air
contains just so much the less oxygen, the absorption of which is the
measure of the exhalation of carbon dioxide.
Dr. H. C. Wood, who has experimented largely on the subject in
animals, finds the cause of heart failure in the coagulation of the
myosin, which takes place under ordinary circumstances at 115° F.,
but at a much lower temperature when a muscle has been in great
activity immediately before death. As the temperature of thermic
fever frequently reaches 113°, or even higher, he easily accounts for
the sudden syncope occurring during active work in a high
temperature. As an example of such sudden rigor, he adduces the
sudden stiffening of the bodies of some soldiers killed in battle
during hot weather.
Wood further shows that all the symptoms of thermic fever can be
produced in the rabbit by concentrating the temperature on its head,
which seems to imply a direct action on the brain and in particular
on the heat producing and vaso-motor centres. This becomes the
more reasonable that the temperature attained does not impair the
vitality of the blood but, leaves the leucocytes possessed of their
amœboid motion. He found, moreover, that if the heat were
withdrawn before it has produced permanent injury to the nervous
system, blood or other tissues, the convulsions and unconsciousness
are immediately relieved and the animal recovers.
Other conditions may be adduced as predisposing or concurrent
causes of thermic fever. Whatever impairs the animal vigor has this
effect. Fatigue, as already noticed, is a potent factor, in man a
drinking habit; in all animals a long persistence of the heat during
the night as well as the day; impure air in badly ventilated buildings;
and mechanical restriction on the freedom of breathing. In military
barracks with the daily temperature at 118° F. and the night
temperature 105, the mortality became extreme, and in close city car
stables the proportion of sun-strokes is enhanced. In all such cases,
the air becomes necessarily more and more impure continually. The
atmosphere has the same heat as the animal body, so that no upward
current from the latter can be established, to create a diffusion. The
carbon dioxide and other emanations from the lungs, the exhalations
from the skin, dung and urine, accumulate in the air immediately
surrounding the animal and respiration becomes increasingly
imperfect and difficult. This condition is further aggravated by the
accumulation of the animal heat in the body. The blood circulating in
the skin can no longer be cooled, to return with refrigerating effect
on the interior of the body, the cooling that would come from the
evaporation of sweat is obviated by the suppression of that secretion,
as well as by the saturation of the zone of air immediately
surrounding the body, and thus the tendency is to a steady increase
of the body temperature until the limit of viability has been passed.
The mechanical restriction of respiration should not be
overlooked. In European soldiers landed in India and marched in the
tight woolen clothing and close stocks a high mortality has been
induced and in horses with tight girths or collars and short bearing
reins, and oxen working in collars a similar result is observed. Any
condition of fever is a potent predisposing factor.
Horses or cattle that are put to violent or continued exertion when
too fat or out of condition are especially subject to sun-stroke. Fat
cattle driven to market under a hot sun, or shipped by rail, crowded
in a car and delayed on a siding under a hot sun, with no circulation
of air, often have insolation in its most violent form. The same may
be seen in the hot stockyard, with a still atmosphere and the fat
animals subjected to the full blaze of a July sun. The chafed feet
caused by travel, and the muscular weariness caused by standing in
the moving car are material additions to the danger.
Similarly horses suffer on the race track when subjected to
protracted and severe work in hot weather, or again dragging loads
in a heated street under a vertical sun, or on a side hill with the sun’s
rays striking perpendicularly to its surface.
A change in latitude has a decided effect, the Northern horse
suffering much more frequently than the one which is native to the
Southern States and which has inherited the habit of heat endurance.
Finally faults in feeding and above all watering are appreciable
factors. The privation of water in particular is to be dreaded. Tracy in
his experience with American soldiers in Arizona, found that the
command could usually be guarded against sun-stroke when a
supply of water was kept on hand. It should be used guardedly, but
nothing would act better in obviating an attack. On the other hand,
when the canteens were empty, under the hot sun the seizures
increased disastrously.
Sheep are especially liable to suffer from heat by reason of their
dense fleece, which hinders the evaporation of perspiration, and the
cooling effect of air on the skin. When the temperature rises,
respiration is accelerated and panting, the lungs seeking to
supplement the work of the skin. When traveling in a heavy fleece, or
in the hot sunshine in July or August sun-stroke is not uncommon
among them.
Lesions. Among the lesions may be named, vacuity of the left
ventricle and fullness of the right ventricle and veins with fluid blood
or a diffluent clot; congestion of the pia or dura mater, effusion into
the ventricles, hæmorrhages into the subserous tissues, and
degeneration of the muscles.
Symptoms. Horse. When premonitory symptoms are observed
the animal fails to respond to whip or voice, lessens his pace, stubs
with his fore feet and sways with the hind, depresses his head and
hangs heavily on the bit.
Too often these are omitted or overlooked, and the horse suddenly
stops, props himself on his four limbs, drops and extends the head,
breathes with great rapidity, panting and even stertor, dilates the
nostrils widely, retracts the angle of the mouth and even gapes, has
the eyes fixed, the pupils dilated and the beats of the heart
tumultuous. The superficial veins are distended, the visible mucosæ
congested with dark blood, and blood may escape from the nose.
Perspiration usually sets in.
 The animal may fall and die in a few minutes in convulsions, or, if
stopped sufficiently early and suitably treated, he may in a measure
recover in 15 to 20 minutes.
Symptoms. Ox. The premonitory symptoms are like those in the
horse: dullness, rapid, panting breathing, the mouth is opened and
the pendent tongue is covered with frothy saliva, a frothy mucus
escapes from the nose, the eyes are congested and fixed, the pupils
dilated, the nostrils and flanks work laboriously, the heart palpitates,
the animal sways or staggers and falls. Death follows in convulsions,
or it may be delayed, the animal struggling ineffectually to rise, or
having periods of comparative quiet. The rectal temperature is very
high, 107° to 114° F. If able to stand, there is usually blindness and
heedlessness of surrounding objects.
Symptoms. Sheep. The open mouth, protruding tongue, frothy
saliva, reddened fixed eyes, rapid breathing, beating flanks, stertor,
and unsteady gait are characteristic when taken along with the
manifest causes. Swaying movements followed by a sudden fall and
death in convulsions form the usual termination of the disease.
Symptoms. Dog. These have been mainly produced
experimentally and consisted in hyperthermia, dullness, prostration,
accelerated breathing and heart action, congested veins, and
mucosæ, muscular weakness, convulsions, and syncope or asphyxia.
After death the muscles became speedily rigid, and the blood
accummulated in the venous system, was fluid or only loosely
coagulated. In these animals, if the experiment were stopped in time
the animal could be restored to health.
Slighter cases may occur in the different animals, more
particularly from overdriving in hot weather, and in such cases the
overheated animal recovers, but there is liable to remain a special
sensitiveness to excessive heat and a tendency to be dull, sluggish
and short winded, to hang the head in hot weather, and to seek
shelter from the direct rays of the sun.
Diagnosis is largely based on the suddenness of the attack, on the
occurrence of high temperature before the seizure, not after as it is
liable to be, if at all, in apoplexy, on the dark congestion of the
mucosæ, and of the venous system, on the rapidity and shallowness
of the respirations, on the tumultuous action of the heart, and on the
general loss of sensory and especially of motor function, in
circumstances calculated to induce sun-stroke. Localized paralysis or
spasm would suggest the formation of a cerebral effusion or clot.
Prevention. This will depend on the class of animal and its
conditions of life and work. In horses care should be taken to
regulate the work by the heat of the season and condition of the
animal. When the temperature ranges from 80° to 100° F. the work
should be lessened and every attention should be given to maintain
the healthy functions (bowels, kidneys, skin) in good working
condition. If the horse is young, fat, or out of condition from idleness
or accumulation of fat he must have the greater consideration. So it
is with a horse recently come from a colder latitude, and with a heavy
draught horse that may be called on to do rapid work. Some
protection is secured by wearing a sunshade or a wet sponge over the
poll, and much may be expected from an occasional rest in the shade,
a swallow of cool water and sponging of the head.
Very heavy fat cattle should not be driven far nor shipped on the
hottest days, and the packed car should not be left in the full
sunshine in a still atmosphere. Yards with sheds under which they
can retreat must be secured if possible.
The heavily fleeced sheep must have equal care and the pastures
for fat sheep and cattle should have available shade in form of trees,
walls or sheds. Access to water is an important condition.
Treatment. In slight cases (overheated) a few days of rest, under
an awning rather than in a close stable, with a restricted and laxative
diet.
In severe thermic fever the first consideration is to lower
temperature. If available turn a hose on the head, neck and entire
body for five or ten minutes, or until the rectal temperature
approaches the normal. In the absence of such a water supply, dash
cold water from a well on the body but especially the head and neck,
and if available tie a bag of ice around the poll. Active friction to the
legs and body is often of great advantage. A large dose of antipyrin or
acetanilid may be given hypodermically. On the other hand
stimulants, and especially carbonate of ammonia, or sweet spirits of
nitre may be given as an enema. This may be repeated in an hour in
case the pulse fails to acquire force and tone.
 Should the temperature rise again later it may often be kept in
check by cold sponging and scraping followed by rubbing till dry.
In case of continued elevation of temperature, with heat of the
head, and perversion of sensory or motor functions, meningitis may
be suspected and appropriate treatment adopted.
For the prostration and weakness that is liable to follow thermic
fever, mineral tonics such as the salts of iron or zinc may be resorted
to.
 EPILEPSY. FALLING SICKNESS.

Definition. Frequency. Susceptibility: dogs, pigs, cattle, horses, parrots,

sparrows. Divisions: slight and severe: Jacksonian (partial): symptomatic;
idiopathic. Lesions: inconstant: of brain, cranium, cerebral circulation, myelon,
poisons in blood, dentition, cortical and ganglionic lesions, cerebral asymmetry,
stenosis of vertebral canal. Medullar asymmetry, traumas of cranium, anæmia,
bleeding, carotid ligation, spinal reflexes, irritation of skin, creatinin, cinchonoidin,
lead, ergot, nitro-pentan, nitro-benzol, ptomaines, toxins, parasites, nerve lesions,
local hyperæsthesia (withers of horse, recurrent ophthalmia), indigestion,
constipation, sciatic neuritis. Causes: nervous predisposition, heredity (man, cat,
dog, ox), sexual excitement, fear, sudden strong visual impression, uric acid in
blood, meat diet. Symptoms: horse, sudden seizure, bracing feet and limbs,
swaying, fall, convulsive rigidity, jaws working or clenched, eyes rolling, salivation,
stertor, dyspnœa, sensation absent. Duration. Symptoms of localized epilepsy.
Cattle, bellow, stertor, rolling eyes, jerking, rigidity, fall. Sheep. Swine
premonitory malaise, jerking, champing jaws, fall, trembling, rigidity, involuntary
discharges. Dog trembles, cries, falls, rigidity, clonic contractions, stertor,
sequelæ. Diagnosis: sudden attack, unconsciousness, spasms, quick recovery, no
spasms in syncope, vertigo has no spasms, thrombosis has symptoms developed by
exercise. Jurisprudence: animal returnable after twenty-eight days (Wurtenberg,
etc.,) thirty days (France). Treatment: of susceptible brain, and peripheral irritant.
Correct all irritation or disease, or expel parasites. Nerve sedations: bromides,
opium, valerian, belladonna, hyoscine, duboisine. Tonics: zinc, arsenic, silver,
baths, electricity. Borax. Vegetable diet. Castration. Avoidance of excitement.
Surgical operations. Trephining. Excision of cortex. Outdoor life. During a fit:
amyle nitrite, chloroform, ether, chloral, warm bath, cold or warmth to head, quiet
secluded place.

Epilepsy is the name given to a class of cases characterized by a

sudden and transient loss of consciousness with a convulsive seizure,
partial or general. It appears to be due to a sudden explosive
discharge of convulsive nervous energy, which may be generated by a
great number of causes of morbid irritation—pathological, traumatic,
or toxic. As a rule the epileptic seizure is but the symptomatic
expression of a complex derangement which may be extremely
varied as to its nature and origin.
Frequency in different animals. The affection is far less frequent
in the domestic animals than in man, doubtless because of the
absence of the special susceptibility which attends on the more
highly specialized brain, the disturbing conditions of civilization, and
the attendant vices.
Among domestic animals, dogs are the most frequent victims in
keeping with their relatively large cerebral development, their
emotional and impressionable nature and the unnatural and
artificial conditions in which as house pets they are often kept. Their
animal food and the consequent uric acid diathesis is a probable
cause, as it is in man. In ten years of the dog clinic at Alfort they
made an average of 3 per cent. of all cases. Next to the dog the pig
kept in confinement is the most frequent victim, while cattle and
horses come last. At the Alfort clinic epileptic horses were not more
than 1 per 1000 patients. It is not at all infrequent in birds, especially
canaries and parrots. Reynal has seen it in sparrows.
Divisions. The disease has long been divided into petit mal and
grand mal (haut mal). The petit mal (slight attack) is usually a
transient seizure affecting a group of muscles only and associated
with only a momentary or very transient loss of consciousness. The
loss of consciousness is uncertain as to many cases. Under partial
epilepsies must be included the hemi-epilepsy, or Jacksonian
epilepsy, which is confined to one side of the body.
The grand mal (severe attack) is one in which the loss of
consciousness is complete, and the convulsions are general in the
muscles of animal life.
Another division is into symptomatic and idiopathic cases, and
if this distinction could always be made it would be of immense value
in the matters of prognosis and treatment as the removal of the
morbid state of which epilepsy is the symptom will usually restore
the patient to health. Thus the removal of worms from the
alimentary canal, of indigestible matters from the stomach, of a
depressed bone or tumor from the surface of the brain may in
different cases be the essential condition of a successful treatment.
 Morbid Anatomy and Pathology. The literature of epilepsy is very
rich and extensive and yet no constant lesions of the nervous system
can be fixed on as the local cause of the disease. A review of the
whole literature leads rather to the conclusion that irritations coming
from lesions of the most varied kind, acting on a specially susceptible
brain will rouse the cerebral centres to an epileptic explosion. Thus
epilepsy has been found to be associated with lesions of the following
kinds:
1st. Brain lesions of almost every kind, including malformations.
2nd. Lesions of the walls of the cranium.
3d. Disorders of the cerebral circulation.
4th. Lesions of the spinal cord.
5th. Morbid states of the circulating blood (excess of urea, uric
acid, creatinin, lead poisoning).
6th. Reflected irritation, as from dentition, worms, sexual
excesses, injuries to certain nerves, notably the sciatic, or to
particular parts of the skin.
1st. Brain lesions. Those which affect the medulla and the
cortical convolutions around the fissure of Rolando would be
expected to be implicated because these centres preside over the
principal motor actions of the body and limbs. Yet though these parts
are found to be affected with various morbid lesions in a certain
number of cases of epilepsy, such lesions are exceptional, rather than
the rule. In 20 cases of epilepsy in man, 15 showed no lesion
whatever of the brain. Blocq and Marinesco, pupils of Charcot,
recently made a critical examination of the medulla and Rolandic
cortex in nine cases that died during the fit. All showed granular
bodies (degenerated myelin or blood pigment) in the perivascular
sheaths but they found these in disseminated sclerosis and even in
healthy brains as well. The neuroglia cells of the first cortical layer
contained black granules. Otherwise four cases had no change, while
five showed sclerosis of the cortex. The medulla was sound in all
cases excepting one which showed punctiform hæmorrhages. Visible
lesions may be present in other parts of the brain; Wenzel long ago
claimed constant lesion of the pituitary body. Beside the cerebral
cortex, lesions have been found in the bulb, the hypoglossal nucleus,
the olivary body, the hippocampi, the thalamus, the corpus striatum,
the quadrigemini, the cerebellum, etc. Hughlings-Jackson who made
an extended investigation of the subject concludes that any part of
the gray matter of the encephalon may become over-excitable and
give rise to a convulsive attack. Not only may the lesion be in any
part of the brain, but it may be of any kind: meningitis, cerebritis,
softening, tubercle, tumor, hydatid, embolism, or dropsy. Marie Bra
found an extreme asymmetry of the cerebral lobes in epileptics.
Kussmaul and others found stenosis of the vertebral canal and
asymmetry of the two lateral halves of the medulla.
2nd. Cranial lesions. These consist largely in blows or falls upon
the head, with osteitis, periostitis, fractures with depressions, fibrous
neoplasia implicating or not the meninges and pressing on the brain,
hæmorrhages from minute arteries, etc. The diagnosis of such
lesions will often open a way to a successful treatment. Baker found
most of the severe cases from head injuries.
3d. Disorders of the cerebral circulation. Burrows,
Kussmaul and Turner showed that in animals, loss of consciousness
and epileptiform convulsions followed on cerebral anæmia caused by
profuse bleeding or by compression of the carotids. The same has
been observed in surgical cases after ligation of one common carotid.
Hermann caused convulsions in a rabbit by ligating both anterior
and posterior venæ cavæ.
4th. Lesions of the Spinal Cord. Brown-Sequard determined
epileptiform convulsions by transverse section of one-half of the
spinal cord, or of its superior, lateral or inferior columns. The later
development of the doctrine of interrupted spinal inhibition,
suggests that, many of the seizures in question are but exaggerated
spinal reflexes, which are no longer restrained by cerebral inhibition.
That all are not of this spurious kind may be fairly inferred from his
further demonstration that bruising of the great sciatic in animals
tended to produce epilepsy. In such cases., the irritation of certain
areas by pinching the skin, served to produce a seizure. Not only so,
but the animals in which such artificial epilepsy had been induced
tended to transmit the infirmity to their progeny. The prevailing view
of epilepsy however, would consider such lesions as sources of
peripheral irritation by which the brain is affected sympathetically,
while the real explosion is the result of the sudden discharge of the
pent up excitement caused in the encephalic centres by the irritation
at such distant points.
5th. Morbid States of the Circulating Blood. Certain poisons,
when brought in contact with encephalic nerve centres produce
epileptic seizures. Gallerani and Lussana applied creatinin directly to
the cerebral cortex and quickly induced epileptiform convulsions and
choreiform movements. Injected subcutaneously it failed to produce
the same effect. Cinchonoidin acted on the basal ganglia of the brain
producing convulsions but no choreiform movement. Poisoning with
lead, ergot, nitro-pentan, nitro-benzol and a number of other poisons
brings about intermittent convulsive seizures. The same may be
inferred of ptomaines and toxins, in the convulsions that appear in
the advanced stages of infectious diseases (canine distemper, hog
cholera, etc.).
6th. Reflex Irritation. Perhaps no peripheral irritation more
frequently causes epilepsy, than parasites. In young dogs worms in
the intestines (tænia cœnurus, tænia tenuicollis, tænia serrata, tænia
echinococcus, and ascarides) have been especially incriminated. Also
linguatula tænioides in the nasal sinuses. In young pigs the
echinorrhynchus gigas, ascarides and trichocephalus. In horses
ascarides have been principally blamed.
Wounds implicating nerves, and tumors pressing on nerves, have
served as sources of nervous excitement which accumulates in the
cerebral ganglia and bursts forth as an epileptic explosion. Bourgelat
mentions the case of a horse which fell in a fit the moment he was
touched on his tender withers, also a case in which a seizure
coincided with an attack of recurrent ophthalmia. Gerlach saw a
horse which had an epileptic fit the instant he was touched on his
sensitive withers. In kittens and puppies the irritation attendant on
dentition is a common cause of attacks. In nervous dogs and pigs
indigestion or constipation may serve as the occasion of an
explosion. In the experimental cases of Brown-Sequard, not only did
the injury to the sciatic nerve develop in the brain a latent tendency
to epilepsy, but the subsequent pinching of the skin in certain areas
(epileptigenous zones) promptly brought about a seizure.
Causes. Most of the causes of epilepsy have been given above
under the head of pathology and morbid anatomy. The nervous
predisposition may, like any other peculiarity or function, become
hereditary. In the human race nothing is more certain than the
tendency to some form of nervous disorder (insanity, dementia,
alcoholism, morphinism, epilepsy, chorea, etc.) in a special family
line. Reynal records the case of an epileptic cat (belonging to an
employe of the Alfort veterinary school) the progeny of which for
three generations, became affected with epilepsy and mostly died
before they were a year old. Also four epileptic dogs (3 males and 1
female) which produced a number of epileptic puppies. LaNotte
records the cases of two bulls affected with epilepsy, in the progeny
of which numerous cases of epilepsy appeared; the cows being
attacked after the first calving, and the oxen soon after they were first
put to work. Breeding stallions are particularly liable to attacks, the
high feeding, lack of muscular work in the open air, and above all the
oft repeated nervous excitement attendant on copulation being
directly exciting causes. The heredity of the artificial epilepsy
induced by Brown-Sequard in Guinea pigs, serves to strengthen the
doctrine of heredity in ordinary forms.
Among emotional causes fear easily heads the list. Bernard states
that a horse became epileptic in connection with the terror caused by
the giving way of a wooden bridge over which he was passing.
Bourgelat and Reynal adduce instances, in cavalry horses when first
put under fire. Reynal records the case of another which had his first
attack when facing a moving locomotive, and which never again
could see an engine in motion without suffering another attack. La
Notte mentions the case of a horse attacked when frightened by a sky
rocket; Romer, the case of a horse scared by the sudden display of a
white sheet in front of him, and Friedberger and Fröhner relate cases
of attacks caused by intense rays of light, as in racing toward the
declining sun, or the dazzling reflection from the surface of water.
Liedesdorf saw it in a dog scared by a locomotive.
A strong impression like that caused by transition from bright light
into darkness, by seeing shadows of trees crossing the road, or
violent suffering caused by severe forms of constraint have been
named as causes.
Speaking in “Brain,” of epilepsy in man, Alexander Haig attributes
the fits to the fluctuations of uric acid in the blood. Headache
(migraine) he finds to be very closely allied to epilepsy and
convulsions and to be a result in a susceptible system of a liberal
flesh diet. By a vegetable and fruit diet he reduces the ingestion and
formation of uric acid, so that the largest quantity which a patient is
likely to get into his blood, shall never or only very rarely, affect the
blood pressure and increase the intracranial circulation to a
dangerous extent. In predisposed subjects, all flesh food, soup, and
meat extracts must be avoided, while even tea, coffee, cocoa and
other vegetable articles containing xanthin compounds are to be
regarded as producing uric acid, and to be denied, or employed only
as the merest flavoring.
This position is greatly strengthened by the fact that epilepsy is so
much more frequent in the carnivora (dog, cat, bird) than in the
herbivora. It also suggests very strongly a light vegetable diet for
both prophylactic and curative purposes in our domestic animals. In
the same line the frequent and liberal drinking of warm water, the
use of diuretics and the flushing of the large intestine are indicated.
For other causes see under pathology.
Symptoms in the Horse. It has been claimed that premonitory
symptoms, such as dullness, lack of energy and quick, nervous or
startled movements herald an attack, but in animals as in man, the
disease usually attacks suddenly without any antecedent indication.
If at work the horse stops suddenly, or if in the stable he ceases
eating, seems frightened, stands for an instant immovable, braces his
feet, sways, trembles, and falls heavily to the ground. Or he may
remain for an instant supported on his rigid limbs, the jaws moving
or firmly closed, the eyes rolling, and the facial muscles drawn or
twitching. When down there are convulsive movements of the limbs,
so that the animal may kick out violently, and tense contractions or
twitchings may occur in the muscles of the croup, chest and
abdomen. There is usually an increase of the salivary secretion with
frothy accumulation about the angles of the mouth. The respiration
is stertorous, dyspnœic, and interrupted, the nostrils widely dilated,
the nasal mucosa of a dark brownish red, and the superficial veins
distended. The pulse is weak, slow, irregular, intermittent and
sometimes imperceptible. Sensation seems to be in abeyance. No
attention is paid to loud sounds, nor to pinching, pricking, or even
cauterizing the skin. Perspirations may break out on the flank or over
the whole surface of the body.
 The duration of the attack may be from one to four minutes, or
exceptionally ten or fifteen, after which the muscles relax, the
twitching ceases, the horse raises his head, extends his fore limbs
and finally rises.
After rising some are dull and stupid for an hour or so, and may
continue to perspire, some move the limbs, jaws or head
automatically, turn in a circle, or seek seclusion and darkness, while
some take at once to eating and seem as if nothing had happened.
In partial or localized epilepsy the spasms are confined to a
limited group of muscles like those of the jaws, neck, or fore limbs.
These may alternately contract and relax, or they may remain rigid
for a minute or less, the mouth being held open or firmly closed with
grinding of the teeth, the eyes rolled backward and upward, or
affected with strabismus, the face drawn and distorted, the head
turned to one side or downward, or the limbs fixed and immovable.
At the conclusion of an attack it is not uncommon to see a
discharge of urine or fæces, or in stallions, of semen.
The horse often contracts a fear of the place where the attack
occurred, and this contributes, with the re-appearance of the former
object of dread (car, locomotive, rifles, cannon, etc.) to precipitate a
new attack if he is compelled to go to such a place.
Symptoms in Cattle. In cattle the animal is attacked without
premonition, bellows, breathes hard and with effort, has dilatation of
the nostrils, and squinting or rolling upward and backward of the
eyes and falls to the ground rigid and trembling. There may be
violent succussions of the limbs, head or neck, movements of the
jaws, grinding of the teeth, and the appearance of frothy saliva and
elements of food about the lips. The beats of the heart are violent, the
pulse slow and small, and sometimes intermittent. Involuntary
micturition, defecation, or discharge of semen may occur. In slight
cases one or more of these symptoms may be absent, and the victim
may not even fall to the ground but support himself against a wall or
other object.
The duration of the attack may be from one to five minutes, rarely
more, and there is often a slow and progressive subsidence of the
spasms. When recovered the animal may get up and go to eating or
rumination as in health.
 Symptoms in Sheep. In sheep the attack is sudden. The animal
ceases eating or stops in its walking, and after turning or other
involuntary movement falls to the ground, head extended, mouth
open, eyes rolling or squinting, and with rigidity or twitching of the
muscles of the neck or limbs. There is the same loss of sensation,
frothing from the mouth, and grinding of the teeth as in the larger
animals. The attack may last 40 to 50 seconds.
Symptoms in Swine. In pigs a state of discomfort and restlessness
often marks the approach of an attack, referable probably to the
digestive disturbance or to parasites which furnish the occasion of
the disease. Uneasy, wandering movements, jerkings of head or
limbs, rolling of the eyes, and champing of the jaws may first appear.
Then the animal falls, extending its limbs and head, with open
mouth, retracted lips, and a free flow of saliva. Trembling and jerking
of the head, neck and limbs, hurried, short, difficult breathing, and
complete loss of sensation may be noted. Discharges of urine, semen,
and prostatic fluid are not uncommon. The attack usually lasts 2 or 3
minutes, and exceptionally 10 to 15. In the shorter seizures, frequent
repetition is not uncommon, Delafond having observed 5 or 6 attacks
in the course of an hour.
Symptoms in Dogs. The attack is sudden and unheralded by
prodromata. The animal stops, trembles, cries plaintively and falls;
he may manage to rise or to do so in part but instantly falls anew.
The limbs stiffen, tremble or twitch, the head is extended or flexed,
or jerked, violently striking the ground, the mouth open, with
abundant saliva, or firmly closed though the tongue may be between
the teeth. The trunk may be firm and rigid or alternately twisted in
one direction or the other. The eyes roll or squint, and the breathing
is stertorous and difficult. Insensibility is complete. Toward the end
of the attack there may be a discharge of urine, fæces or semen, the
stools often containing worms. The body is often wet with
perspiration during or after an attack.
The attack usually lasts for two or three minutes, then the
convulsions gradually lessen in intensity and finally cease, the dog
raises his head, opens his eyes, and gazes inquiringly around. Then
he gets on his feet shakes himself and may at once resume his
customary habits. In other cases the restoration is less sudden. The
dog remains for 30 to 60 minutes dull and stupid, or seems to have
little power of control over its muscles and staggers as if intoxicated,
or as if the muscles were benumbed. It may drop on its knees and
then fall with the head on the ground and repeat this several times.
In other cases the dog wanders around, or trots off and may snap at
any one interfering with him, so that the case is often mistaken for
one of rabies. Finally the animal may remain prostrate and fall into a
deep sleep marked by stertorous breathing.
Diagnosis. The diagnosis of epilepsy is usually easy. The
suddenness of the attack, the loss of consciousness, the muscular
spasms, the complete temporary recovery and the tendency to recur,
form a toute ensemble, which is pathognomonic. The danger of
confounding this with other nervous disorders is on the whole
greatest in the slight cases in which the symptoms are less typical.
From Syncope it is easily distinguished by the spasms which are
not present in syncope.
From eclampsia it is not so easy to diagnose, but the line between
eclampsia and epilepsy has not been accurately drawn, and some
have even shown a disposition to drop eclampsia from medical
nomenclature. Eclampsia may be defined as general convulsions
dependent on some eccentric irritation, and which do not recur after
such irritation has been removed. This would remove from the
category of epileptic attacks the cases of convulsions in which the
attacks were due to intestinal or nasal parasites, dentition irritation,
tumors pressing on nerves, canine distemper and other infectious
diseases. So far the distinction might be made by the diagnosis of the
particular disease on which the convulsions depend. There remains
however a class of cases in which the centric nervous disorder on
which the epileptic seizure depends is present, and also the
peripheral source of irritation (worms, etc.). In such a case the
presence of the worms or other eccentric source of irritation, even if
added to the fact that this was the immediate exciting cause of the
epileptic explosion, could not do away with the fact that the essential
conditions of epilepsy are permanently present in the nervous
centres. The difficulty therefore of making an accurate differential
diagnosis, resides largely in the impossibility of drawing a definite
line of pathological separation between eclampsia and epilepsy.
From Vertigo epilepsy is distinguished by the absence in the
former of marked spasmodic contractions. It is only in the milder
forms of epilepsy those in which the spasmodic action is so slight as
to be overlooked, that this disease can be confounded with vertigo.
From Thrombosis or embolism of the iliac or femoral arteries
epilepsy is easily distinguished by the absence of exercise as the
essential cause in the development of the latter. In thrombosis on the
other hand, the loss of control over the hind limbs is developed at
will by active motion (walking, trotting). In thrombosis too the
absence of pulsation at the fetlocks or at any point below the seat of
obstruction is conclusive.
Question of Soundness and Jurisprudence. Manifestly a
horse or bull subject to attacks of epilepsy is not sound. It is
moreover a disease, the symptoms of which are only shown for a very
short period at one time, after a long interval of apparently perfect
health. It is, therefore, a disease against which a purchaser cannot be
expected to protect himself and he should have the right to annul the
sale and return the animal in case the infirmity should appear within
a reasonable period after purchase. This is provided for in the laws of
different countries of Europe, thus in Wurtenberg, Baden and Hesse,
a purchased animal may be returned within 28 days; in France
within 30 days, and in Bavaria within 40 days. The greatest difficulty
arises from the frequent impossibility of obtaining expert testimony
on a seizure which is likely to occur at any moment, without
premonition, and in which the testimony of a non-expert may easily
be misleading. It seems as if complaint having been made within the
specified legal time, an extension of guarantee should be given by the
court, the animal to be meanwhile kept under the supervision of a
veterinarian.
Another question has arisen as to the position of an animal
suffering from reflex epilepsy. If the attacks are caused by intestinal
worms or nasal acarina which are easily removed, it is quite evident
that this cannot be considered as a permanent unsoundness, and one
for which a contract of sale can be justly annulled. But on the other
hand, while the eccentric source of irritation which is easily curable
may have been the active agent in developing the seizures, it may be
none the less true that the central infirmity which determines the
abnormal susceptibility, to excessive generation and epileptic
explosion of nervous force, may also be present and the animal
cannot be considered as sound until a sufficient length of time has
elapsed after the removal of the peripheral irritation and no new
seizure has taken place.
Treatment of Symptomatic Epilepsy. In cases due to an eccentric
irritant the first step must be the removal of such irritant. In case of
intestinal worms the various vermicides and tæniacides must be
resorted to. (See Intestinal Parasites). For the linguatula tænioides
the injection of benzine or tobacco water into the nose, or into the
sinuses, with or without trephining may be resorted to. In diseased
teeth extraction or filling may be demanded. In dentition irritation,
lancing of the gums. In all other cases in which a peripheral nervous
irritation can be traced every available means should be taken to
remove it.
Treatment of Central Epilepsy. Bearing in mind that peripheral
irritation is a frequent exciting cause of a seizure, too much care
cannot be given to the conservation of the general health and
especially to make the diet wholesome in quantity, quality and time
of feeding and watering, and to guard against constipation and
indigestion. In dogs a too stimulating meat diet is to be avoided.
The medicinal agents employed have been mainly such as are
sedative, or tonic to the nervous system. Valerian was long extolled
as a valuable remedy (Gohier, Delafond, Delwart), and this has been
improved upon more lately by substituting valerianate of zinc.
Belladonna and its alkaloid atropia have been strongly advocated
(Tisserant, Bernard, Williams, Friedberger) and it has the
recommendation that it causes vaso-motor contraction and tends to
lessen cerebral congestion. Hyoscine or duboisine may be used as a
substitute. Cyanide of iron has been lauded by Jourdier and
Tabourin, as far superior to valerian. Of late years the nerve tonics,
zinc compounds (oxide, sulphate, chloride) and silver salts (nitrate)
and arsenic have been used, often with excellent results. Borax
strongly recommended for man (1 to 1¾ drachm daily) by Pastena is
worthy of a trial for dogs. It is given largely diluted in syrup to avoid
gastric irritation.
Of all agents employed up to the present the bromides still claim a
foremost place. They should be given in a large dose, on an empty
stomach and at such a time as to occupy the system at the hour when
the seizure is expected to recur. Thus for morning attacks the dose
may be given at night, while for night attacks it may be given in the
afternoon. Müller uses sodium bromide in the dog as least liable to
disturb the stomach, while Peterson, for man, advises the potassium
salt for the same reason. For man, McLane Hamilton advocates a
combination of the sodium and ammonium salts, Eulenberg adds the
potassium compound, while Berkley uses strontium bromide, and
Bourneville camphor monobromide.
Given at night in full dose (30 grs. for dog) the bromides tend to
secure a quiet sleep, with brain rest and recuperation. If beneficial
they should be repeated daily until a cure or other sign of bromism
appears. This may be somewhat checked by arsenic or chloral
hydrate.
Wesley Mills finds potassium iodide useful in some dogs when
bromides fail. Bromohydrate is advocated by Müller. Flechsig and
others have had excellent results in man from the opium bromide
treatment. Full doses of opium are given three times a day for six
weeks, when they are replaced by full doses of bromides four times a
day.
Improvement should be shown in the shortening of the
convulsions and the lengthening of the intervals between them.
Should the bromides fail in this, resort may be had to other
treatment.
Toulouse, Clark and others find that privation of salt, in man,
allows the bromine salt to replace the chlorine one in the tissues, and
the hydrobromic acid the hydrochloric in the gastric juice, and in this
way the bromine can be introduced safely in larger amount into the
tissues and is longer retained, though given in half the doses.
A most important element in the treatment is a vegetable diet with
or without milk, to obviate excessive production of uric acid.
Anything which will disagree and produce gastric or intestinal
fermentations with toxins must be carefully guarded against and
these will differ in different individuals.
Stallions and other excitable males, and females may often be
cured by castration. Patients should be very carefully guarded
against all sources of excitement, reports of guns, sight of
locomotives or automobiles, waving flags, instrumental music,
sudden exposure to sunshine or other bright light, reflection from
water, snow, or ice, the contrast of dark shadows, as of trees,
alternating with bright light, etc. Dogs, becoming excited at a show,
may have a convulsion if not removed, and much more so in
presence of another dog in a fit.
A surgical operation often places the disease in abeyance for many
months, but, unless in the case of the removal of a diseased organ
which has acted as a factor, this is not permanent. Hence in man
transient benefit has been secured from operations on the eyes, the
brain, the testicles, the ovaries, etc. In local (Jacksonian) epilepsy,
which can be traced to a definite cortical area in the brain, the
trephining of the skull and the excision of the cortex at that point,
has given temporary relief, with a local palsy, but too often the
irritation from the resulting cicatrix has in time aroused the disorder
anew. Even independently of the removal of the cortex, the
trephining has been successfully resorted to, by savage as well as
civilized peoples, securing a temporary relief. Though not in practice
in veterinary medicine it seems as if this were even more applicable
than in man. It would be fully justified if it preserved for a year or
more an animal in usefulness which must otherwise be destroyed,
even if the disease should return at the end of this time.
Plunge or douche baths (60° to 70° F.) and rubbing dry will often
tone up the nervous system, and a course of bitters, or iron, or both,
may prove valuable. An outdoor life and moderate muscular exercise
are important.
During a convulsion the animal should be freed from all
harness, halters, girths, etc., that would impair respiration, the jaws
may be kept apart with a cloth to prevent biting the tongue, and the
animal held with head and neck in natural position. To arrest the
spasms the best agent is amyle nitrite inhaled from a handkerchief. It
may be replaced by a mixture in equal parts of chloroform and ether.
Or rectal injections may be given of chloral. Nitro-glycerine will
sometimes cut short an attack or prevent it. Small animals may have
the body immersed in a warm bath, and cold applied to the head.
Congested buccal and conjunctival mucosæ would indicate cold to
the head, while pallor would suggest warm fomentations.
When the fit is over the animal should be kept in a quiet, dark
place until the excitement or stupor has completely passed.
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