RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

Dr. Prabhat Pandey
Dr. Meenu Mishra Pandey

© Bridge Center, 2015

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First published, 2015

ISBN 978-606-93502-7-0

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1
 Dr. Prabhat Pandey
Dr. Meenu Mishra Pandey

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: TOOLS

AND TECHNIQUES

Bridge Center
2015
2
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 – Research
Chapter 2 - Research Process
Chapter 3 - Research Design
Chapter 4 – APA Referencing Style
Chapter 5 - Research Problem
Chapter 6 - Variables and Their Types
Chapter 7 – Formulation of Hypothesis
Chapter 8 - Sampling
Chapter 9 - Tools of Data Collection
Chapter 10 - Data Analysis
Chapter 11 - Interpretation of Data
Chapter 11- Descriptive or Survey Method

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PREFACE

The authors felt during their several years of teaching experience that students fail to
understand the books written on Research Methodology because generally they are written
in technical language. Since this course is not taught before the Master’s degree, the
students are not familiar with its vocabulary, methodology and course contents.
The authors have made an attempt to write it in very non- technical language. It has
been attempted that students who try to understand the research methodology through
self-learning may also find it easy. The chapters are written with that approach. Even those
students who intend to attain high level of knowledge of the research methodology in social
sciences will find this book very helpful in understanding the basic concepts before they read
any book on research methodology.
This book is useful those students who offer the Research Methodology at Post
Graduation and M.Phil. Level. This book is also very useful for Ph.D. Course Work
examinations.

Dr. Prabhat Pandey Dr.

Meenu Mishra Pandey

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 1

Introduction:

Research is an essential and powerful tool in leading man towards progress. Without
systematic research there would have been very little progress.
John W. Best has rightly said, “The secret of our cultural development has
been research, pushing back the areas of ignorance by discovering new truths, which,
in turn, lead to better ways of doing things and better products.”
Scientific research leads to progress in some field of life. New products, new
facts, new concepts and new ways of doing things are being found due to ever-
increasing significant research in the physical, the biological, the social and the
psychological fields. Research today is no longer confined to the science laboratory.

Meaning of Research:
Word ‘Research’ comprises of two words = Re+Search. It means to search again. So
research means a systematic investigation or activity to gain new knowledge of the
already existing facts.
Research is an intellectual activity. It is responsible for bringing to light new
knowledge. It is also responsible for correcting the present mistakes, removing
existing misconceptions and adding new learning to the existing fund of knowledge.
Researches are considered as a combination of those activities which are removed
from day to day life and are pursued by those persons who are gifted in intellect and
sincere in pursuit of knowledge. But it is not correct to say that the research is
restricted to such type of persons, however, it is correct to say that major
contribution of research comes from highly gifted and committed workers. Thus the
research is not at all mysterious and is carried on by hundreds of thousands of
average individuals.
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 Research is also considered as the application of scientific method in solving
the problems. It is a systematic, formal and intensive process of carrying on the
scientific method of analysis. There are many ways of obtaining knowledge. They are
intuition, revelation, and authority, logical manipulation of basic assumptions,
informed guesses, observation, and reasoning by analogy. One of the branches of
research known as empirical research is highly goal-oriented technique.

Definitions of Research:
The following are the important definitions of research:
“Research is an endeavor / attempt to discover, develop and verify knowledge. It is an
intellectual process that has developed over hundreds of years ever changing in purpose and
form and always researching to truth.”
J. Francis Rummel

“Social research may be defined as a scientific undertaking which by means of logical

and systematized techniques aims to discover new facts or verify and test old facts ,
analyse their sequences , inter- relationships and casual explanation which were
derived within an appropriate theoretical frame of reference , develop new scientific
tools , concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human
behavior.”
P.V. Younge

Purpose of Research:
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application
of scientific procedure. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is
hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has
its own specific purpose, some general objectives of research below:

(i) To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. (Studies
with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formative research studies).
(ii) To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a

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 group. (Studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies).
(iii) To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else. (Studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies).
(iv) To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables. (Such studies are
known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

Characteristics of Research:
Following are the characteristics of research;
(i) Research is directed toward the solution of a problem.
(ii) Research requires expertise.
(iii) Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that
will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
(iv) Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidences.
(v) Research demands accurate observation and description.
(vi) Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using
existing data for a new purpose.
(vii) Research is characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous
analysis.
(viii) Research involves the quest for answers to un-solved problems.
(ix) Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate
the procedures employed the data collected and the conclusions reached.
(x) Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
(xi) Research is carefully recorded and collected.
(xii) Research sometimes requires courage.

Types of Research:
There are varieties of ways through which we may classify it into different
categories.
(A) On the basis of nature of information:
On the basis of nature of information, we can classify the research into two types;
(i) Qualitative Research: When information is in the form of qualitative data.

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(ii) Quantitative Research: When information is in the form of quantitative data.
(B) On the basis of utility of content or nature of subject matter of research:
On the basis of these criteria, we can categorize the research into two categories.
(i) Basic/ Fundamental /pure or Theoretical Research: Its utility is universal.
(ii) Experimental or Applied Research: Its utility is limited.
(C) On the basis of approach of research:
We may classify research into two different categories.
(i) Longitudinal Research: Examples of this category are historical, Case study and
Genetic research.
(ii) Cross-Sectional Research: Examples of this category are Experimental and Survey
Research.
(D) On the basis of method of research:
On the basis of research method, we may classify a research into five different
categories.
(i) Philosophical Research: It is purely qualitative in nature and we are focusing on the
vision of others on the content of research.

(ii) Historical Research: It is both qualitative as well as quantitative in nature and deals
with past events.
(iii) Survey Research: It deals with present events and is quantitative in nature. It may
further be sub-divided into; discretional, correlational and exploratory type of
research.
(iv) Experimental Research: This is purely quantitative in nature and deals with future
events.
(v) Case-Study Research: It deals with unusual events. It may be qualitative as well as
quantitative in nature depending upon the content.

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 2

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry

out research. These actions or steps are;
(i) Formulating the Research Problem
(ii) Extensive Literature Survey
(iii) Developing the Research Hypothesis
(iv) Preparing the Research Design
(v) Determining the Research Design
(vi) Collecting the Research Data
(vii) Execution of the Project
(viii) Analysis of Data
(ix) Hypothesis Testing
(x) Generalization and Interpretation
(xi) Preparing of the Report or Presentation of the Result

(i) Formulation of Research Problem:

At the very outset, the researcher must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a
subject matter that he would like to inquire into and then research problem should be
formulated.

(ii) Extensive Literature Survey:

Once the problem is formulated the researcher should undertake extensive literature
survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing
journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to academic
journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc. must be tapped
depending on the nature of the problem.
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(iii) Development of Working Hypothesis:
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to
draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. It’s very important or it provides
the focal point for research.

(iv) Preparing the Research Design:

After framing hypothesis we have to prepare a research design i.e. we have to state the
conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a
design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In
other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant
evidence with optimum effort, time and expenditure. But how all these can be achieved
depends mainly on the research purpose.

(v) Determining Sample Design:

A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data is actually collected for
obtaining a sample from a given population.in census inquiry we involve a great deal of
time, money and energy so it it not possible in practice under many circumstances. Sample
designs can be either probability or non-probability. With probability samples each element
has a known probability of being included in the sample but the non-probability samples
do not allow the researchers to determine this probability.

(vi) Collecting the Data:

There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in
context of cost, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary data
can be collected either through experiment or through survey. In case of survey, data can
be collected by any one or more of the following ways;
By observation,
• Through personal interview,
• Through telephonic interviews,

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 • By mailing of questionnaires or
• Through schedules.
(vii) Execution of the Project:
Execution of project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of the
project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and
dependable. A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the
survey realistic as much as possible.

(viii) Analysis of Data:

The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment
of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation
and then drawing statistical inference. Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on
the computation of various percentages; coefficients etc., by applying various well defined
statistical formulae. In the process of analysis, relationships of differences supporting or
conflicting with original or new hypothesis should be subjected to tests of significance to
determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions.

(ix) Hypothesis Testing:

After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis, if any, he had
formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypothesis or they happen to be contrary? This
is the usual question which is to be answered by applying various tests like ‘t’ test, ’F’ test
etc. F test have been developed by statisticians for the purpose
.Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the
researcher had no hypothesis to start with, generalizations established on the basis of data
may be stated.

(x) Generalizations and Interpretation:

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to
arrive at generalization i.e. to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research
lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to
start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as
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 interpretation.

(xi) Preparation of the Report or the Thesis:

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. The layout
of the report should be as follows; the preliminary pages, the main text and end matter.
The preliminary pages carry title, acknowledgements and forward and then index. The main
text of the report should have introduction, review of literature and methodology.

Criteria of Good Research:

One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
(a) The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
(b) The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the researcher for further advancement, keeping the continuity of
what has already been attained.
(c) The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are
as objective as possible.
(d) The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
(e) The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.
(f) Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
(g) Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

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 3

A research design is simply the framework or plan for a study that is used as a guide in
collecting and analyzing the data. It is a blueprint that is followed in completing a study.
Research design is the blue print for collection measurement and analysis of data. Actually
it is a map that is usually developed to guide the research.

Definitions:
“Research design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for
collection and analyzing the needed information.”
William Zikmund
“Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to
obtain answers to research questions and to control variance.”
Kerlinger
Thus we can say that a research design is the arrangement of condition for collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to generalize the findings of the sample on the
population.
Purpose of a Research Design:
Research designs are used for the following purposes;
(i) To minimize the expenditure:
Research design carries an important influence on the reliability of the results attained .It
therefore provides a solid base for the whole research. This makes the research as effective
as possible by providing maximum information with minimum spending of effort, money
and time by preparing the advance plan of all about the research.
(ii) To facilitate the smooth scaling:
Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth scaling of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information
with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
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(iii) To collect the relevant data and technique:
Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting
the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the
objective of the research and the availability of staff time and money. Poor preparation of
research design upset the entire project.

(iv) To provide blue print for plans:

Research design is needed due to the fact that it allows for the smooth working of many
research operations. It is like blue print which we need in advance to plan the methods to
be adopted for collecting the relevant data and techniques to be used in its analysis for
preparation of research project. Just as for better economical and attractive construction
of a house need a blue print and a map of that, similarly we needs a blue print or a design
for the smooth flow of operation of research.

(v) To provide an overview to other experts:

A research design provides an overview of all the research process and with the help of the
design we can take the help and views of experts of that field .The design helps the
investigator to organize his ideas , which helps to recognize and fix his faults.
(vi) To provide a direction:
A research design provides a proper or particular direction to the other executives and
others who are helping us into the process. The researcher studies available, literature and
learns about new (alternative approaches.
Characteristics of Good Research Design:
Generally a good research design minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
collected and analyzed. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is reported
to be the best design in scientific investigation. Similarly, a design which yields maximum
information and provides an opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem is
considered to be the most appropriate and efficient design. A good research design
possesses the following characteristics;

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 (i) Objectivity:
It refers to the findings related to the method of data collection and scoring of the
responses. The research design should permit the measuring instruments which are fairly
objective in which every observer or judge scoring the performance must precisely give the
same report. In other words, the objectivity of the procedure may be judged by the degree
of agreement between the final scores assigned to different individuals by more than one
independent observer. This ensures the objectivity of the collected data which shall be
capable of analysis and interpretation.
(ii) Reliability:
It refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements. For example, if a respondent
gives out a response to a particular item, he is expected to give the same response to that
item even if he is asked repeatedly. If he is changing his response to the same item, the
consistency will be lost. So the researcher should frame the items in a questionnaire in such
a way that it provides consistency or reliability.
(iii) Validity:
Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it measures what it is expected
to measure. For example, an intelligence test conducted for measuring the IQ should
measure only the intelligence and nothing else and the questionnaire shall be framed
accordingly.
(iv) Generalizability:
It means how best the data collected from the samples can be utilized for drawing certain
generalizations applicable to a large group from which sample is drawn. Thus a research
design helps an investigator to generalize his findings provided he has taken due care in
defining the population, selecting the sample, deriving appropriate statistical analysis etc.
while preparing the research design. Thus a good research design is one which is
methodologically prepared and should ensure that generalization is possible. For ensuring
the generalization we should confirm that our research problem has the following
characteristics;
a) The problem is clearly formulated.
b) The population is clearly defined. Most appropriate techniques of sample selection are used
to form an appropriate sample.
c) Appropriate statistical analysis has been carried out.
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d) The findings of the study are capable of generalizations.

(v) Adequate Information:

The most important requirement of good research design is that it should provide adequate
information so that the research problem can be analyzed on a wide perspective. An ideal
design should take into account important factors like;
(i) Identifying the exact research problem to be studied
(ii) The objective of the research
(iii) The process of obtaining information
(iv) The availability of adequate and skilled manpower.
(v) The availability of adequate financial resources for carrying research.

(vi) Other Features:

Some other important features of a good research design are flexibility, adaptability,
efficiency, being economic and so on. A good research design should minimize bias and
maximize reliability and generalization.

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 4 APA Referencing Style

THIS IS A QUICK GUIDE TO THE APA REFERENCING STYLE (6TH EDITION)

• The American Psychological Association reference style uses the Author-Date format.
• Refer to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.) for more
information. Check the Library Catalogue for call number and location(s).
• When quoting directly or indirectly from a source, the source must be acknowledged in the text by
author name and year of publication. If quoting directly, a location reference such as page number(s) or
paragraph number is also required.

IN-TEXT

Direct quotation – use quotation marks around the quote and include page numbers
Samovar and Porter (1997) point out that "language involves attaching meaning to symbols" (p.188).
Alternatively, “Language involves attaching meaning to symbols" (Samovar & Porter, 1997, p.188).

Indirect quotation/paraphrasing – no quotation marks

Attaching meaning to symbols is considered to be the origin of written language (Samovar & Porter,
1997).

N.B. Page numbers are optional when paraphrasing, although it is useful to include them (Publication
Manual, p. 171).

Citations from a secondary source

As Hall (1977) asserts, “culture also defines boundaries of different groups” (as cited in Samovar and
Porter, 1997, p. 14).

• At the end of your assignment, you are required to provide the full bibliographic information for
each source. References must be listed in alphabetical order by author.

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EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES BY TYPE

In a reference list In-text citation

1. Book with one author
King, M. (2000). Wrestling with the angel: A life of Janet Frame. Auckland, (King, 2000) or
New Zealand: Viking. King (2000) compares Frame ...
N.B. The first letter of the first word of the main title, subtitle and all proper
nouns have capital letters.

2. Book with two to five authors (see Library APA referencing webpage for six or more authors)
Krause, K.-L., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S. (2006). Educational psychology (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne,
for learning and teaching (2nd ed.). South Melbourne, Vic., Australia: 2006)
Thomson. then
N.B. Use & between authors’ names, except when paraphrasing in text. When (Krause et al., 2006)
a work has three, four or five authors, cite all authors the first time, and in
subsequent citations include only the first author followed by et al.
3. Book or report by a corporate author e.g. organisation, association, government department
University of Waikato. (1967). First hall of residence (Information series No. (University of Waikato, 1967)
3). Some group authors may be
Hamilton, New Zealand: Author. abbreviated in subsequent
citations if they are readily
N.B. When the author and the publisher are the same, use Author in the recognisable.
publisher field.
4. Book chapter in edited book
Helber, L. E. (1995). Redeveloping mature resorts for new markets. In M. (Helber, 1995) or
V. Conlin & T. Baum (Eds.), Island tourism: Management principles and
practice (pp. 105-113). Chichester, England: John Wiley. Helber (1995) compares luxury
N.B. Include the page numbers of the chapter after the book title. resorts ...
5. Conference paper online - (see Library APA referencing webpage for alternative formats)
Bochner, S. (1996, November). Mentoring in higher education: Issues to be (Bochner, 1996) or
addressed in developing a mentoring program. Paper presented at the According to Bochner (1996) ...
Australian Association for Research in Education Conference. Retrieved
from http://www.aare.edu.au/96pap/bochs96018.txt

18
6. Course handout/Lecture notes
Salter, G. (2007). Lecture 3: SPLS205-07A [PowerPoint slides]. Hamilton, (Salter, 2007)
New Zealand: University of Waikato.
N.B. Put format in square brackets - e.g. [PowerPoint slides] [Lecture notes]
7. Film – (see Library APA referencing webpage for music and other media)
Zhang, Y. (Producer/Director). (2000). Not one less [Motion picture]. China: (Zhang, 2000)
Columbia Pictures.
N.B. For films, DVDs or videorecordings use [Motion picture] in square brackets.
Give the country of origin and the name of the motion picture studio.
8. Journal article – academic/scholarly (electronic version) with DOI (see also Library APA referencing
webpage)
Hohepa, M., Schofield, G., & Kolt, G. S. (2006). Physical activity: What do (Hohepa, Schofield, & Kolt,
high school students think? Journal of Adolescent Health, 39(3), 328- 2006)
336. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.12.024 then subsequently, if 3-5 authors
N.B. A capital letter is used for key words in the journal title. The journal title and (Hohepa, et al., 2006)
volume number are italicised, followed by the issue number in brackets (not
italicised).
9. Journal article – academic/scholarly (electronic version) with no DOI
Harrison, B., & Papa, R. (2005). The development of an indigenous (Harrison & Papa, 2005) or
knowledge program in a New Zealand Maori-language immersion
school. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 36(1), 57-72. Retrieved Harrison and Papa (2005)
from ProQuest Education Journals database. recommend ...
N.B. Undergraduates: Give the name of the database. Researchers: Give the URL of
the journal homepage. e.g. Retrieved from
http://ucpressjournals.com/journal.asp?j=aeq

19
10. Journal article - academic/scholarly (print version)
Gibbs, M. (2005). The right to development and indigenous peoples: (Gibbs, 2005) or
Lessons from New Zealand. World Development, 33(8), 1365-1378. Gibbs (2005) contradicts ...
11. Journal article - academic/scholarly (Internet only – no print version)
Snell, D., & Hodgetts, D. (n.d.). The psychology of heavy metal (Snell & Hodgetts, n.d.)
communities and white supremacy. Te Kura Kete Aronui, 1. or
Retrieved from http://www.waikato.ac.nz/wfass/tkka Snell and Hodgetts (n.d.)
N.B. (n.d.) = no date. For html version only, cite the paragraph number in text suggest “...” (para. 3)
12. Magazine article – popular/trade/general interest
Goodwin, D. K. (2002, February 4). How I caused that story. Time, 159(5), (Goodwin, 2002) or
69. Goodwin (2002) defends ...
N.B. Full date is used for weekly magazines; month and year for monthly
magazines
13. Newspaper article – (Print version)
Hartevelt, J. (2007, December 20). Boy racers. The Press, p. 3. (Hartevelt, 2007)
N.B. Include p. or pp. before the page number – for newspapers only, not magazines
14. Newspaper article (Database like Newztext Plus) (also see Library referencing webpage for Internet
version)
Cumming, G. (2003, April 5). Cough that shook the world. The New Zealand (Cumming, 2003)
Herald. Retrieved from Newztext Plus database.
15. Newspaper article with no author
Report casts shadow on biofuel crops. (2007, October 16). Waikato Times, p. (“Report Casts Shadow,” 2007)
21.
N.B. Article title comes first. In the text, abbreviate title and use double quotation
marks.
20
16. Personal Communication (letters, telephone conversations, emails,
interviews) (H. Clarke, personal

N.B. No reference list entry as the information is not recoverable. communication, March 19,
2004)
17. Thesis – print version - outside the US (NEW)
Dewstow, R. A. (2006). Using the Internet to enhance teaching at the (Dewstow, 2006) or
University of Waikato (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of
Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand. Dewstow (2006) identified ...
18. Thesis – Institutional or personal webpage - outside the US (NEW)
Dewstow, R. A. (2006). Using the Internet to enhance teaching at the (Dewstow, 2006)
University of Waikato (Master’s thesis, University of Waikato,
Hamilton, New Zealand).
Retrieved from
http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/handle/10289/2241
19. Webpages (When multiple webpages are referenced, reference the
homepage) (Statistics New Zealand, 2007)
Statistics New Zealand. (2007). New Zealand in profile 2007. Retrieved
from http://www.stats.govt.nz
N.B. Author (could be organisation), date (either date of publication or latest
update), document title, date retrieved if contents are likely to change, URL

http://www.waikato.ac.nz/go/apa

July 2010

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 5

The problems lie everywhere around us. They even lie at our door step and in our
backyards. Human nature is so complicated, that a problem solved for one individual may
still exist for another individual, a problem solved for one class/ school/teacher/ situation/
system/time etc., still remains a problem for another class/ school/ teacher/
situation/system/time or a problem solved for the time being may reappear with a lapse of
time. We become habitual of living in the age of problems i.e. we are so much surrounded
by the problem that we suffers from,” problem blindness”. But in order to solve the
problem or making research we need to delimit the problem.
Selection of problem is not the first step in research but identification of the
problem is the first step in research. Selection of problem is governed by reflective thinking.
It is wrong to think that identification of a problem means to select a topic of a research or
statement of the problem.
A topic or statement of the problem and research problem are not the synonyms
but they are inclusive. The problem concerns with the functioning of the broader area of
field studied, whereas a topic or title or statement of the problem is the verbal statement
of the problem. The topic is the definition of the problem which delimits or pin points the
task of a researcher.
It is the usual practice of the researcher that they select the topic of the study from
different sources especially from research abstracts. They do not identify the problem, but
a problem is made on the basis of the topic. It results that they have no active involvement
in their research activities, whatever, they do, do mechanically.

Definitions of the Problem:

The obstacles which hinder our path are regarded as problem. Different definitions of the
problem are given below;
“Problem is the obstacle in the path of satisfying our needs.”
John Geoffery
22
 “Problem is a question which is to be solved.”
John. G. Tornsand
“To define a problem means to put a fence around it, to separate it by careful distinctions
from like questions found in related situations of need.”
Whitney

“To define a problem means to specify it in detail and with precision each question and
subordinate question to be answered is to be specified, the limits of the investigation must
be determined. Frequently, it is necessary to review previous studies in order to determine
just what is to be done. Sometimes it is necessary to formulate the point of view or
educational theory on which the investigation is to be based. If certain assumptions are
made, they must be explicitly noted.”
Monero and Engelhart

Identification of a Research Problem:

The following steps are to be followed in identifying a research problem;
Step I Determining the field of research in which a researcher is keen to do the research work.
Step II The researcher should develop the mastery on the area or it should be the field of his
specialization.
Step III He should review the research conducted in area to know the recent trend and studies are
being conducted in the area.
Step IV On the basis of review, he should consider the priority field of the study.
Step V He should draw an analogy and insight in identifying a problem or employ his personal
experience of the field in locating the problem. He may take help of supervisor or expert of
the field.
Step VI He should pin point specific aspect of the problem which is to be investigated.

The Sources of the Problem:

(i) The classroom, school, home, community and other agencies of education are obvious
sources.
23
(ii) Social developments and technological changes are constantly bringing forth new problems
and opportunities for research.
(iii) Record of previous research such specialized sources as the encyclopedias of educational,
research abstracts, research bulletins, research reports, journals of researches,
dissertations and many similar publications are rich sources of research problems.
(iv) Text book assignments, special assignments, reports and term papers will suggest
additional areas of needed research.

(v) Discussions-Classroom discussions, seminars and exchange of ideas with faculty members
and fellow scholars and students will suggest many stimulating problems to be
solved, close
professional relationships, academic discussions and constructive academic climate are
especially advantageous opportunities.
(vi) Questioning attitude: A questioning attitude towards prevailing practices and research
oriented academic experience will effectively promote problem awareness.
(vii) The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor, experts of the field and most
experienced persons of the field. They may suggest most significant problems of the area.
He can discuss certain issues of the area to emerge a problem.
Although research problems should not be assigned or they should not be proposed and
allotted by a guide but consultation with the more experienced faculty member or research
worker is a desirable practice.
One of the most important functions of the research guide is to help the student
clarify his thinking, achieve a sense of focus and develop a manageable problem from one
that may be vague and too complex.

Statement of Problem:
Kerlinger has identified following three criteria of good problem statements;
1. A problem should be concerned with relation between two or more variables.
2. It should be stated ‘clearly and unambiguously in question form’.
3. It should be amenable to empirical testing.

24
 Meeting these criteria in his problem statement will result, in a clear and concise idea of
what the researcher wants to do. This sets the state for further planning.

Objectives of Assumptions about the Problem:

1. To make the research work feasible.
2. To delimit the scope of the problem.
3. To establish the proper frame of reference.

Aspects of Delimiting a Problem:

1. Delimited to certain variables that should be mentioned clearly in the problem.
2. Delimited to the area or level as primary level, secondary level, college or university level.
3. Delimited to size of sample, considering the time, energy and money.
4. Delimited to the best method only.
5. Delimited to the best available tool for measuring the variable.
6. Delimited to the most appropriate techniques.
7. Other delimitations particular to a problem.
As the above delimitations help the researcher for conducting the study, the
findings of studies also confine to these delimitations.

Evaluation of the Problem:

When considering a problem a researcher is required to ask himself a series of questions
about it. These are helpful in the evaluation of the problem on the basis of personal
suitability of the researcher and social value of the problem.
Following questions must be answered affirmatively before the study is under
Taken:
1. Is the Problem Researchable?

2. Is the Problem New?

3. Is the Problem Significant?

25
4. Is the Problem Feasible for the Particular Researcher?

In order to be feasible, a problem should agree with the following:

a) Research competencies of the Researcher
b) Interest and enthusiasm of the Researcher
c) Financial consideration in the Project
d) Time requirement for the Project
e) Administrative considerations in the Project.

26
 6

Variable is a concept which can take on different quantitative values. For example;
height, weight, income, age etc. The main focus of the scientific study is to analyse the
functional relationship of the variables. A variable is a quantity which can vary from one
individual to another. The quantity which can vary from person to person.
“Variable is a property that taken on different value”,
Kerlinger
It is any feature or aspect of an event, function or process that, by its presence and nature,
affects some other event or process, which is being studied.
(i) Continuous Variable:
It is that which can assume any numerical value within a specific range.
(ii) Discrete Variable:
A variable for which the individual values fall on the scale only with distinct gaps is called a
discrete variable.
(iii) Dependent Variable or Criterion variable:
If one variable depends or is a consequence of other, it is termed as dependent variable.
Criterion variable is the basis on which the effectiveness of the experimental variable is
studied.
(iv) Independent Variable or Experimental Variable:
The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an independent
variable. The variable whose effect is going to be known is known as experimental variable.
(v) Controlled Variable:
The effectiveness of an experimental variable is examined by comparing with other
variable, known as controlled variable.
(vi) Confounding Variable:
Those aspects of study or sample, that might influence the dependent variable (outcome
27
 measures) ,and whose effect may be confused with the effects of the independent variable.
They are of two types; Intervening and extraneous variable.
(vii) Intervening Variable:
There are a number of abstract variables in educational/social experiments, which
intervene the effect of experimental or criterion variable. For controlling intervening
variable appropriate research design should be used. Intervening variables are hard if not
impossible, to observe because they usually have to do with an individual’s feelings like
boredom, stress, fatigue, excitement etc. Extraneous variable on the other hand, are more
readily observed or measured and thus are more easily controlled.
(viii) Extraneous Variable:
Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the
dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher wants to
test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s gain in social studies
achievement and their self-concept. Here self-concept is independent variable and
achievement in social study is dependent variable. Intelligence may as well affect the social
studies achievement; but since it is not related to the purpose of the study undertaken by
the researcher, it will be termed as extraneous variable. Whatever effect is noticed on
dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an
‘experimental error.’
A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is
attributed entirely to the independent variables and not to some extraneous
variable(s).When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous
variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variable is said to be
confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
Extraneous variable can be controlled by removing the variable causing distraction.
It may be eliminated by selecting cases with uniform characteristics and through
randomization.
(ix) Organismic Variable:
There are some variables which cannot be manipulated. They are accepted by the
researcher as they are. They are levels of intelligence, sex, class levels, and the like. The
researcher can classify the subjects by sex but he cannot modify to suit his research
condition. If a researcher attempts to compare boys and girls on some learning task, any
28
differences might be attributed to sex differences but not necessarily so. The differences
between boys and girls could be due to differences in intelligence, training, motivation or
a myriad of other conditions present in all human beings and not necessarily to biological
differences between sex. Those variables which cannot be manipulated and cannot
themselves point out causal relations are called organismic variables.

Formulation of Hypothesis
The word hypothesis consists of two words –Hypo+Thesis. ‘Hypo’ means tentative or
subject to the verification. ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of the problem. Thus
the literal meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of
the problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically
and based on some rationale.
Again, ’hypo’ means the composition of two or more variables which are to be
verified and ‘thesis’ means position of these variables in the specific frame of reference.

Definitions of Hypothesis:
“Any supposition which we make in order to endeavor to deduce conclusions in accordance
with facts which are known to be real under the idea that if the conclusions to which the
hypothesis leads are known truths, the hypothesis itself either must be or at least likely to
be true.”
J.S. Mill “A hypothesis is a
tentative generalization the validity of which remains to be tested. In its most elementary
stage the hypothesis may be any hunch, guess, imaginative idea which becomes
basis for further
investigation.”
Lundberg “It is a shrewd guess
or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted to explain observed facts or
29
 conditions and to guide in further investigation.”
John W. Best
“A hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is, at the time,
known about a phenomenon, and it is employed as a basis for action in the search for new,
truth, when the hypothesis is fully established, it may take the form of facts, principles and
theories.”
Barr and Scates
“Hypothesis is an assumption whose testability is to be tested on the basis of the
compatibility of its implications with empirical evidence and previous knowledge.”
Gorge J. Mouly

Nature of Hypothesis:
(i) Conceptual: Some kind of conceptual elements in the framework are involved in a
hypothesis.
(ii) Verbal statement in a declarative form: It is a verbal expression of ideas and concepts. It
is not merely mental idea but in the verbal form, the idea is ready enough for empirical
verification.
(iii) It represents the tentative relationship between two or more variables.
(iv) Forward or future oriented: A hypothesis is future-oriented. It relates to the future
verification not the past facts and information.
(v) Pivot of a scientific research: All research activities are designed for verification of
hypothesis.

Functions of Hypothesis:
H.H. Mc Ashan has mentioned the following functions of hypothesis;

(i) It is a temporary solution of a problem concerning with some truth which enables an
investigator to start his research works.
(ii) It offers a basis in establishing the specifics what to study for and may provide possible
solutions to the problem.
(iii) It may lead to formulate another hypothesis.
30
(iv) A preliminary hypothesis may take the shape of final hypothesis.
(v) Each hypothesis provides the investigator with definite statement which may be objectively
tested and accepted or rejected and leads for interpreting results and drawing conclusions
that is related to original purpose.
(vi) It delimits field of the investigation.
(vii) It sensitizes the researcher so that he should work selectively, and have very realistic
approach to the problem.
(viii) It offers the simple means for collecting evidences for verification.

Importance of a Hypothesis:
(i) Investigator’s eyes: Carter V. Good thinks that by guiding the investigator in further
investigation hypothesis serves as the investigator’s eyes in seeking answers to tentatively
adopted generalization.
(ii) Focuses research: Without hypothesis, a research is unfocussed research and remains like
a random empirical wandering. Hypothesis serves as necessary link between theory and the
investigation.
(iii) Clear and specific goals: A well thought out set of hypothesis places clear and specific goals
before the research worker and provides him with a basis for selecting sample and research
procedure to meet these goals.

(iv) Links together: According to Barr and Scates, “It serves the important function of linking
together related facts and information and organizing them into wholes.”
(v) Prevents blind research: In the words of P.V. Young, ”The use of hypothesis prevents a blind
search and indiscriminate gathering of masses of data which may later prove irrelevant to
the problem under study."
(vi) Guiding Light: ”A hypothesis serves as powerful beacon that lights the way for the research
work.”
(vii) It provides direction to research and prevent the review of irrelevant literature and the
collection of useful or excess data.
(viii) It sensitizes the investigator certain aspects of situation which are irrelevant from the
standpoint of problem at hand.
31
(ix) It enables the investigator to understand with greater clarity his problem and its
ramification.
(x) It is an indispensable research instrument, for it builds a bridge between the problem and
the location of empirical evidence that may solve the problem.
(xi) It provides the investigator with the most efficient instrument for exploring and explaining
the unknown facts.
(xii) It provides a frame work for drawing conclusion.
(xiii) It stimulates the investigator for further research.

Forms of Hypothesis:
According to Bruce W. Tuckman following are the forms of hypothesis;
(i) Question form:
A hypothesis stated as a question represents the simplest level of empirical observation. It
fails to fit most definitions of hypothesis. It frequently appears in the list. There are cases
of simple investigation which can be adequately implemented by raising a question, rather
than dichotomizing the hypothesis forms into acceptable / reject able categories.

(ii) Declarative Statement :

A hypothesis developed as a declarative statement provides an anticipated relationship or
difference between variables. Such a hypothesis developer has examined existing evidence
which led him to believe that a difference may be anticipated as additional evidence. It is
merely a declaration of the independent variables effect on the criterion variable.
(iii) Directional Hypothesis :
A directional hypothesis connotes an expected direction in the relationship or difference
between variables. This type of hypothesis developer appears more certain of anticipated
evidence. If seeking a tenable hypothesis is the general interest of the researcher, this
hypothesis is less safe than the others because it reveals two possible conditions. First that
the problem of seeking relationship between variables is so obvious that additional
evidence is scarcely needed. Secondly, researcher has examined the variables very
thoroughly and the available evidence supports the statement of a particular anticipated
outcome.

32
(iv) Non –Directional Hypothesis or Null Hypothesis:
This hypothesis is stated in the null form which is an assertion that no relationship or no
difference exists between or among the variables. Null hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis
testable within the framework of probability theory. It is a non-directional form of
hypothesis.
There is a trend to employ or develop null hypothesis in research in most of the
disciplines. A null hypothesis tentatively states that on the basis of evidence tested there is
no difference. If the null hypothesis is rejected, there is a difference but we do not know
the alternative or the differences. In this the researcher has not to anticipate or give the
rational for the declaration or directional form. It does not make researcher biased or
prejudiced. He may be objective about the expected outcomes of the research or findings.
Actually this is a statistical hypothesis which is self- explanatory. Null hypothesis means zero
hypotheses. A researcher has not to do anything in developing it. While research hypothesis
is second step in the process of reflective thinking.
A null hypothesis in an appropriate form is order to accommodate the object of
inquiry for extracting this information. It does not necessarily reflect the expectations of
the researcher so much as the utility of the null form as the best fitted to the logic of chance
in statistical knowledge or science.
It is the no difference form, i.e. there is no difference or relationship between or
among variables under certain conditions.
Statistical tests of significance are used to accept and reject the null hypothesis. If it
is rejected, the general hypothesis is accepted.
Non-directional hypothesis is known as null hypothesis because it ‘nullifies’ the
positive argument of the findings or non-directional statement of the generalization. It is
also termed as statistical or zero hypothesis because it denies the existence of any
systematic principles apart from the effect of chance. It assumes that none or zero
difference exists between the two population means or the treatments.

Formulation of Testable Hypothesis:

A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory. It is used as a
guide in the investigation of other facts and theory that are as yet unknown. Its formulation
is one of the most difficult and most crucial step in the entire scientific process. A poorly
33
 chosen or poorly worded hypothesis can prevent the following:
(i) The obtaining of enough pertinent data,
(ii) The drawing of conclusions and generalizations ,and
(iii) The application of certain statistical measures in the analysis of the result.

Hypothesis is the central core of study that directs the selection of the data to be gathered,
the experimental design, the statistical analysis and the conclusions drawn from the study.
A study may be devoted to the testing of one major hypothesis, a number of
subsidiary hypothesis, or both major and subsidiary hypotheses. When several hypotheses
are used, each should be stated separately in order to anticipate the type of analysis
required and in order to definitely accept or reject each hypothesis on its own merit.
Irrespective of number or type used each hypothesis should be testable and based upon a
logical foundation.

Fundamental Basis of Hypothesis:

The researcher deals with reality on two levels;
1. The Operational Level:
On the operational level researcher must define events in observable terms in order to
operate with the reality necessary to do researches.
2. The Conceptual Level:
On the conceptual level the researcher must define events in terms of underlying
communality with other events. Defining at a conceptual level, the researcher can abstract
from single specific to general instance and begin to understand how phenomena operate
and variables interrelate. The formulation of a hypothesis very frequently requires going
from an operational or concrete level to the conceptual or abstract level. This movement
to the conceptual level enables the result to be generalized beyond the specific conditions
of a particular study and thus to be of wider applicability.
Research requires the ability to move from the operational to the conceptual level
and vice–versa. This ability is required not only in constructing experiments but in applying
their findings as well. The process of making conceptual contrasts between operational
programme is called conceptualization or dimensionalization.
34
 Difficulties in the Formulation of Useful Hypothesis:
Moving from the operational to the conceptual level and vice –versa is a critical ingredient
of the research to demonstration process. The following are the difficulties in the
formulation of hypothesis:
1. Absence of knowledge of a clear theoretical framework.
2. Lack of ability to make use of the theoretical framework logically.
3. Lack of acquaintance with available research technique resulting in failure to be able to
phrase the hypothesis properly.

35
 8

A survey may be conducted by either of two methods

1. Census Method or Parametric method and
2. Sampling method or non-parametric method.

1. Census method:
It deals with the investigation of the entire population. Here the data are collected for each
and every unit of the universe. This method provides more accurate and exact information
as no unit is left out.

2. Sampling method:
Here a small group is selected as representative of the whole universe. It works with the
objective to obtain accurate and reliable information about the universe with minimum of
cost, time and energy and to set out the limits of accuracy of such estimates. It makes
exhaustive and intensive study possible with much less time, money and material. Its more
popular in research work.

Population:
Population or universe means, the entire mass of observations, which is the parent group
from which a sample is to be formed. The term population or universe conveys a different
meaning than a traditional one. In census survey, the count of individuals (men, women and
children) is known as population.
But in Research Methodology population means characteristics of a specific group. For
example, secondary school teachers of, who have some specific features like teaching
experience, teaching attitudes etc.
Sampling means selecting a given number of subjects from a defined population as
representative of that population.
36
 One type of population distinguished by educational researchers is called the target
population.
By target population distinguished by educational researchers is called the target
population.
By target population, also called universe, we mean all the members of a real or
hypothetical set of people, events or objects to which we wish to generalize the results of
our research.

The first step in sampling is to define the target population.

Research work is guided by inductive thinking. The researcher proceeds from specificity to
generality. The sample observation is the specific situation, which is applied to the
population, it is the general situation.
The measures of a sample are known as statistics and measures of a population are
termed as parameter. Mean, S.D., coefficient of Correlation of sample observation known
as Statistics and Mean, S.D., coefficient of correlation of population are known as
parameters. Generally parameters are estimated on the basis of sample statistics.
Sampling is indispensable technique in behavioral research and not so common in
physical sciences. It is fundamental to all statistical methodology of behavioral and social
research. It makes research findings economical and accurate. Sampling means selection of
individuals from the population in such a way that every individual has equal chance to be
taken into the sample.
Term sample should be reserved for a set of units or portion of an aggregate of
material which has been selected in the belief that it will be representative of the whole
aggregate. By Frank Yates “Sample is set of units of an aggregate.”

Assumptions of Sampling:
1. Homogeneity amidst complexity:
Social phenomenon is very complex in nature and every unit appears to be different from
another. But at the same time, they also possess similarities in many respects. It is,
therefore, assumed that there is the possibility of such representative types in the whole
population that makes sampling possible.
37
2. Possibility of Representative Selection:
Sampling has its origin in the mathematical theory of probability and law of statistical
regularity. The law of statistical regularity lays down that a group of objects chosen at
random from a large group tend to possess the characteristics of that large group (universe)
by
L. R. Conner.

3. Absolute accuracy not essential but relative or significant accuracy i.e. needed in case of
large scale observations. Because it is practically impossible to achieve because of errors in
measurement, collection of data , its analysis, interpretation.
Definition:
“A statistical sample is a miniature picture or cross –section of the entire group or
aggregate from which the sample is taken.”
P. Y. Young

A sample is a small proportion of a population selected for observation and analysis.

It is a collection consisting of a part or sub-set of the objects or individuals of population
which is selected for the express purpose of representing the population.
By observing the characteristics of the sample, one can make certain inferences
about characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.
Sampling,”. It is the process of selecting a sample from the population. For this
purpose, the population is divided into a number of parts called sampling units.”
Sampling designs means the joint procedure of selection and estimation. Sampling
is a part of the strategy of research.
Sampling should be such that the error of estimation is minimum.
Good and Hatt,
“In every branch of science, we lack the resources, to study more than a fragment
of the phenomenon that might advance our knowledge.” i.e., fragment is sample and
phenomenon is population. The sample observations are applied to the phenomenon i.e.,
generalization.

38
 David S. Fox,
“In the social sciences, it is not possible to collect data from every respondent
relevant to our study but only from some fractional part of the respondents. The process of
selecting the fractional part is called sampling.”

Need of Sampling:
1. Economy of time.
2. Economy of money.
3. True detailed knowledge.
4. Utility in experimental study.
5. It has reliability because it is based on probability theory.

Advantages of Sampling:
1. It has a greater adaptability.
2. It is an economical technique.
3. It has high speed for generalization.
4. According to W.G. Cocharan, “It has greater precision and accuracy in the observation”.
5. This technique has great accuracy.
6. It has a greater speed in conducting a research work.
7. It has a greater scope in the field of research.
8. It reduces the cost of observation or data collection.

Disadvantages or Limitation of Sampling:

1. Scope of biasness. (Less accuracy)
2. Problem of representative sample-Difficulty in selecting a truly representative sample.
3. Need of eligible researchers.
4. Instability of sample subjects or changeability of units i.e. in heterogeneous
population.
5. There are certain situations where sampling is possible.
39
 Essentials of an Ideal Sample:
➢ Homogeneity: The units included in sample must be as likeness with other units.
➢ Adequacy: A sample having 10% of the whole data is adequate.

➢ Independence: Every unit should be free to be included in the sample.

➢ Representativeness; An ideal sample must be such that it represents the whole data
adequately.
In the number of units included in a sample should be sufficient to enable
derivation of conclusions applicable to the whole data.
Economical in terms of time and money.

High level of reliability.

Characteristics of a Good Sample:
1. A good sample is the true representative of the population corresponding to its properties.
2. The population is known as aggregate of certain properties and sample is called sub-
aggregate of the universe.
3. A good sample is free from bias; the sample does not permit prejudices, the learning and
pre-conception, imaginations of the investigator to influence its choice.
4. A good sample is an objective one; it refers objectivity in selecting procedure or absence of
subjective elements from the situation.
5. A good sample maintains accuracy .It yields an accurate estimates or statistics and does
not involve errors.
6. A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This feature of a closely linked with true-
representativeness. Comprehensiveness is a quality of a sample which is controlled by
specific purpose of the investigation. A sample may be comprehensive in traits but may not
be a good representative of the population.
7. A good sample has the practicability for research.

40
 Types of Sampling Designs/Methods of Sampling Sampling

A Probability Sampling B Non-Probability Sampling

A 1 Random Sampling B-1 Incidental or Accidental Sampling
A-2 Systematic Sampling B-2 Judgment Sampling
A-3 Stratified Sampling B- 3 Purposive Sampling
A-4 Multistage Sampling B-4 Quota Sampling A-5 Purposive Sampling
A-6 Cluster Sampling
A-7 Multiple Sampling or Double Sampling

Difference between Probability and Non-Probability Sampling

Probability Sampling Non-probability Sampling

It is a method of sampling which gives the In the absence of any idea of probability the
1. probability that a sample is representative of method of sampling is known as non-
population. probability sampling.
It is generally used in action researches in
Probability sampling is generally used in
2. fundamental research in which the purpose is which one studies a class without any
generalization purpose.
to generalize the results.
It refers from the sample as well as the
3. There is no idea of population.
population.
Every individual of the population has equal
There is no probability of selecting any
4. probability to be taken into the sample.
individual.
It may be representative of the population.
5. It has free distribution.
Its observations (data) are used for the The observations are not used for
6.
inferential purpose. generalization purpose.
41
 7. Inferential or parametric statistics are Non-inferential or non-parametric
used. statistics are used.
There is no risk for drawing conclusions.
8. There is a risk of drawing conclusion.
It is based on Law of probability sampling i.e.
It is not based on law of probability sampling.
9. Law of Statistical Regularity and Law of Inertia
of the Large Sample.

Probability Sampling:

G.C. Halmstadter, “A probability sample is one that has been used selected in such a way
that every element chosen has a known probability of being included.”

Probability sampling is of different types:

(1) Simple Random Sampling:
It is one in which each element of the population has an equal and independent chance of
being included in the sample i.e. a sample selected by randomization method is known as
simple random sample and this technique is simple randomizing.
Randomization is done by using the following techniques:
(a) Tossing a coin (b) Throwing a dice
(b) Lottery method(d) Blind folded method
(c) Tippett’s table method
Merits of Randomization:
1. It requires the minimum knowledge of population.
2. It is free from subjectivity and free from personal error.
3. It provides appropriate data for one’s purpose.

4. The observations of the sample can be used for inferential purpose.

42
 Demerits of Randomization:
1. It cannot ensure the representativeness of a sample.
2. It does not use the knowledge about the population.
3. Its inferential accuracy depends upon the size of the sample.

(2) Systematic Sampling:

Systematic sampling is an improvement over the simple random sampling. This method
requires the complete information about the population. There should be a list of
information of all the individuals of the population in any systematic way.
Now we decide the size of the sample:
Let the size of sample is = n and population size is = N
Now we select each N/n individual from the list and thus we have the desired size of sample
which is known as systematic sample. Thus, for this technique of sampling population
should be arranged in any systematic way.
Merits:
1. This is a simple method of selecting a sample.
2. It reduces the field cost.
3. Inferential statistics may be used.
4. Sample may be comprehensive and representative of population.
5. Observations of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions and generalizations.
Demerits:
1. This is not free from error, since there is subjectivity due to different ways of
systematic list by different individuals.
2. Knowledge of population is essential.

3. Information of each individual is essential.

4. This method can’t ensure the representativeness.
5. There is a risk in drawing conclusions from the observations of the sample.

43
(3) Stratified Sampling:
It is an improvement over the earlier methods. When we employ this technique, the
researcher divides his population into strata on the basis of some characteristics and from
each of these smaller homogenous groups (strata) draws at random a predetermined
number of units. Researcher should choose that characteristic as criterion which seems to
be more relevant in his research work.
Stratified sampling may be of three types;
(a) Disproportionate:
Means that the size of the sample in each unit is not proportionate to the size of the unit
but depends upon considerations involving personal judgement and convenience. This
method of sampling is more effective for comparing strata which have different error
possibilities. It is less efficient for determining population characteristics.
(b) Proportionate:
It refers to the selection from each sampling unit of a sample that is proportionate to the
size of the unit. Advantages of this procedure includes representativeness with respect to
variables used as the basis of classifying categories and increased chances of being able
to make comparisons between strata. Lack of information on proportion of the population
in each category and faulty classification may be listed as disadvantages of this method.
(c) Optimum allocation:
Stratified sampling is representative as well as comprehensive than other stratified
samples. It refers to selecting units from each stratum. Each stratum should be in
proportion to the corresponding stratum the population. Thus sample obtained is known
as optimum allocation sample.
Merits:
(i) It is a good representative of the population.
(ii) It is an improvement over the earlier technique of sampling.
(iii) It is an objective method of sampling.
(iv) Observations can be used for inferential purpose.
Demerits:
(i) Serious disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult for the researcher to decide the

44
 relevant criterion for stratification.
(ii) Only one criterion can be used for stratification, but generally it seems more than one
criterion relevant for stratification.
(iii) It is costly and time consuming method.
(iv) Selected samples may be representative with reference to the used criterion but not for
the other.
(v) There is a risk of generalization.

(4) Multiple or Double Repetitive Sampling:

Generally, this is not a new method but only a new application of the samplings. This is most
frequently used for establishing the reliability of a sample. When employing a mailed
questionnaire, double sampling is sometimes used to obtain a more representative sample.
This is done because some randomly selected subjects who are sent questionnaires may
not return them. Obviously, the missing data will bias the result of the study, if the people
who fail to reply the query differ in some fundamental way from the others in respect to
the phenomenon being studied.
To eliminate this bias, a selected sample may be drawn at random from the non-
respondents and the people interviewed to obtain the desired information. Thus this
technique is also known as repeated or multiple sampling.
This double sampling technique enables one to check on the reliability of the
information obtained from first sample. Thus, double sampling, where in one sample is
analyzed and information obtained is used to draw the next sample to examine the problem
further.
Merits:
(i) Thus sampling procedure leads to the inferences of free determine precision based
on a number of observations.
(ii) This technique of sampling reduces the error.
(iii) This method maintains the procedure of the finding evaluate the reliability of the
sample.
Demerits:
(i) This technique of sampling cannot be used for a large sample . It is applicable only for
45
 small sample.
(ii) This technique is time consuming and costly.
(iii) Its planning and administration is more complicated.

(5) Multi Stage Sampling:

This sample is more comprehensive and representative of the population. In this type of
sampling primary sample units are inclusive groups and secondary units are sub-groups
within these ultimate units to be selected which belong to one and only one group.
Stages of a population are usually available within a group or population, whenever
stratification is done by the researcher. The individuals are selected from different stages
for constituting the multi stage sampling.
Merits:
(i) It is a good representative of the population.
(ii) Multistage sampling is an improvement over the earlier methods.
(iii) It is an objective procedure of sampling.
(iv) The observations from multi stage sample may be used for inferential purpose.
Demerits:
(i) It is a difficult and complex method of sampling. It involves errors when we consider the
primary stages.
(ii) It is again a subjective technique of sampling.

(6) Cluster Sampling:

To select the intact group as a whole is known as a cluster sampling. In cluster sampling the
sample units contain groups of element (cluster) instead of individual members or items in
the population. Rather than listing all elementary school children in a given city and
randomly selecting 15 % of these students for the sample, a researcher lists all of the
elementary schools in the city, selects at random 15 % of these clusters of units, and uses
all of the children in the selected schools as the sample.
Merits:
(i) It may be a good representative of the population.
46
(ii) It is an easy method.
(iii) It is an economical method.
(iv) It is practicable and highly applicable in education.
(v) Observations can be used for inferential purpose.
Demerits:
(i) Cluster sampling is not free from errors.
(ii) It is not comprehensive.

Non-Probability Sampling Method:

Samples which are selected through non-random methods are called non probability
samples. Depending upon the technique used it may be;

(1) Incidental or Accidental Sampling:

The term incidental or accidental applied to those samples that are taken because they are
most frequently available i.e. this refers to the groups which are used as samples of a
population because they are readily available or because the researcher is unable to
employ more acceptable sampling methods.
Merits:
(i) It is very easy method of sampling.
(ii) It is frequently used method in behavioural sciences.
(iii) It reduces the time, money and energy i.e. it is an economical method.
Demerits:
(i) It is not representative of the population.
(ii) It is not free from errors.
(iii) Parametric statistics cannot be used.

(2) Judgment Sampling:

This involves the selection of a group from the population on the basis of available
information assuming as if they are representative of the entire population. Here group
may also be selected on the basis of intuition or on the basis of the criterion deemed to be
self-evident. Generally, investigator should take the judgment sample so this sampling is
47
 highly risky.
Merits:
(i) Knowledge of investigator can be best used in this technique of sampling.
(ii) This method of sampling is economical.
Demerits:
(i) This technique is objective.
(ii) It is not free from errors.
(iii) It includes uncontrolled variation.
(iv) Inferential statistics cannot be used for the observation of this sampling, so generalization
is not possible.

(3) Purposive Sampling:

The purposive sampling is selected by some arbitrary method because it is known to be
representative of the total population, or it is known that it will produce well matched
groups. The idea is to pick out the sample in relation to criterion which are considered
important for the particular study. This method is appropriate when the study places
special emphasis upon the control of certain specific variables.
Merits:
(i) Use the best available knowledge concerning the sample subjects.
(ii) Better control of significant variables.
(iii) Sample groups data can be easily matched.
(iv) Homogeneity of subjects used in the sample.
Demerits:
(i) Reliability of the criterion is questionable.
(ii) Knowledge of population is essential.
(iii) Errors in classifying sampling subjects.
(iv) Inability to utilize the inferential parametric statistics.

(v) Inability to make generalization concerning total population.

(4) Quota Sampling:

This combines both judgment sampling and probability sampling: on the basis of judgment
48
 or assumption or the previous knowledge, the proportion of population falling into each
category is decided. Thereafter a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed and the observer is
allowed to sample as he likes. Quota sampling is very arbitrary and likely to figure in
municipal surveys.
Merits:
(i) It is an improvement over the judgment sampling.
(ii) It is an easy sampling technique.
(iii) It is not frequently used in social surveys.

Demerits:
(i) It is not a representative sample.
(ii) It is not free from errors.
(iii) It has the influence of regional , geographical and social factors.

(5) Snowball Sampling:

The term; snow ball sampling’ has been used to describe a sampling procedure in which the
sample goes on becoming bigger and bigger as the observation or study proceeds. The term
snowball stems from the analogy of a snowball sample which would allow computation of
estimates of sampling error and use of statistical test of significance.
For example, an opinion survey is to be conducted on smokers of a particular brand
of cigarette. At the first stage, we may pick up a few people who are known to us or can be
identified to be the smokers of that brand. At the time of interviewing them, we may obtain
the names of other persons known to the first stage subjects. Thus the subjects go on
serving an informant for the identification of more subjects and the sample goes on
increasing.
Merit:
Snowball sampling which is generally considered to be non- probabilistic can be
converted into probabilistic by selecting subjects randomly within each stage.

Demerits:
Sampling errors may creep in.

49
(6) Purposive or Expert Choice Sampling:
Samples are sometimes expressly chosen because, in the light of available information,
these mirror some larger group with reference to one or more given characteristics. The
controls in such samples are usually identified as representative areas (city, country, state,
district), representative characteristics of individuals (age, sex, marital status, socio-
economic status, race) or types of groups (administrator, counselors, teachers etc.).
These controls may be further sub-divided by specified categories within classes
such as amount of training, years of experience or attitudes towards a specific
phenomenon. Up-to this stage, these controls are somewhat similar to those used in
satisfaction. Purposive sampling differs from stratified random sampling in that the actual
selection of the units to be included in the sample in each group is done purposively rather
than by random method.

50
 9

A researcher requires many data – gathering tools or techniques. Tests are the tools of
measurement and it guides the researcher in data collection and also in evaluation. Tools
may vary in complexity, interpretation, design and administration. Each tool is suitable for
the collection of certain type of information.
One has to select from the available tools those which will provide data he seeks for
testing hypothesis. It may happen that existing research tools do not suit the purpose in
some situation, so researcher should modify them or construct his own.
Different tools used for data collection may be;
1. Questionnaires
2. Interviews
3. Schedules
4. Observation Techniques
5. Rating Scales

1. Questionnaire:
It is list of questions related to one topic. It may be defined as; “A questionnaire is a
systematic compilation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of population from
which information is desired.”
Barr, Davis & Johnson

“In general, the word questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to questions by
using a form which the respondent fills in himself.”
W. J. Goode & K. Hall
The questionnaire is probably most used and most abused of the data gathering devices .It
is easy to prepare and to administer.

51
 The questionnaire is a form prepared and distributed to secure responses to certain
questions. It is a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which the
respondent will fill by himself.
It is a systematic compilation of questions. It is an important instrument being used
to gather information from widely scattered sources. Normally used where one cannot see
personally all of the people from whom he desires responses or where there is no particular
reason to see them personally.
Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire:
1. It deals with an important or significant topic.
2. Its significance is carefully stated on the questionnaire itself or on its covering letter.
3. It seeks only that data which cannot be obtained from the resources like books, reports
and records.
4. It is as short as possible, only long enough to get the essential data.
5. It is attractive in appearance, nearly arranged and clearly duplicated or printed.
6. Directions are clear and complete, important terms are clarified.
7. The questions are objective, with no clues, hints or suggestions.
8. Questions are presented in a order from simple to complex.
9. Double negatives, adverbs and descriptive adjectives are avoided.
10. Double barreled questions or putting two questions in one question are also avoided.
11. The questions carry adequate number of alternatives.
12. It is easy to tabulate, summarize and interpret.
Merits of Questionnaire Method:
1. it’s very economical.
2. It’s a time saving process.
3. It covers the research in wide area.
4. It’s very suitable for special type of responses.
5. It is most reliable in special cases.
Demerits of Questionnaire Method:
1. Through this we get only limited responses.
2. Lack of personal contact.
3. Greater possibility of wrong answers.
52
4. Chances of receiving incomplete response are more.
5. Sometimes answers may be illegible.
6. It may be useless in many problems.

The Interview:
Interview is a two-way method which permits an exchange of ideas and information.
“Interviewing is fundamentally a process of social interaction.”
W. J. Goode & P.K. Hatt
“The interview constitutes a social situation between two persons, the psychological
process involved requiring both individuals mutually respond though the social research
purpose of the interview call for a varied response from the two parties concerned.”
Vivien Palmar

“The interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which a person enters more or
less imaginatively into the inner life of a comparative stranger.”
P.V. Young

In an interview a rapport is established between the interviewer and the interviewee. Not
only is physical distance between them annihilated, the social and cultural barrier is also
removed; and a free mutual flow of ideas to and from takes place. Both create their
respective impression upon each other.
The interview brings them both on the same level and an emotional attachment
supervenes between them.
In an interview all formalities are laid down and the gate is opened for delivering
into the intellectuals, emotional and subconscious stirrings of the interviewee. Thus here
the ‘depth’ of subject (man) is gone to the very bottom of his emotional pool and may check
his truthfulness of responses.

53
 Difference between Interview and Questionnaire

Questionnaire Method Interview Method

1. Data is gathered indirectly. 1. Data is gathered directly.
2. No face-to-face contact between two. 2. There is face to face contact between
3. Interviewer should have the general interviewer and interviewee.
knowledge of the topic. 3. Skillful interviewer is needed.
4. Interviwee will hesitate to write it. 4. Some confidential information can also be
5. We get written information only. obtained.
5. We get written and oral both type of
information.

Characteristics of an Interview:
1. The interviewer can probe into casual factors, determine attitudes, discover the origin of
problem.
2. Its appropriate to deal with young children and illiterates person.
3. It can make cross questioning possible.
4. It helps the investigator to gain an impression of the person concerned.
5. It can deal with delicate, confidential and even intimate topics.
6. It has flexibility.
7. Sincerity, frankness, truthfulness and insight of the interviewee can be better judged
through cross questioning.
8. It gives no chance for respondent to modify his earlier answer.
9. It is applicable in survey method, but it is also applicable in historical,
experimental, case studies and clinical studies.
Merits of Interview:
1. Direct research.
2. Deep research
3. Knowledge of past and future.
4. Knowledge of special features.
5. Mutual encouragement is possible.
6. Supra-observation is possible.
54
7. Knowledge of historical and emotional causes.
8. Examination of known data.
Disadvantage of Interview:
1. May provides misleading information.
2. Defects due to interviewee (low level of intelligence or may be emotionally unbalanced)
3. Result may be affected due to prejudices of interviewer.
4. Result may be affected due to the difference in the mental outlook of interwee and
interviewer.

5. One sided and incomplete research.

6. Art rather than science.

Schedule:
When a researcher is using a set of questionnaires for interview purpose it is known as
schedule.

“Schedule is the name usually applied to set of questions, which are asked and filled by an
interviewer in a face-to-face situation with another.”
W.J. Goode & P. K. Hatt
By a schedule we cannot, however, obtain information about many things at once. It is best
suited to the study of a single item thoroughly.
According to Thomas Carson Macormie, “The schedule is nothing more than a list
of questions which, it seems necessary to test the hypothesis.”
Thus schedule is a list of questions formulated and presented with the specific
purpose of testing an assumption or hypothesis.
In schedule method interview occupies a central and plays a vital role.
As a matter of fact success in the use of schedule is largely determined by the ability
and tact of the interviewer rather than by the quality of the questions posed.
Because the interviewer himself poses the questions and notes down the answers
all by himself, the quality of questions has not any great significance.
55
 Important Features of Schedule:
1. The schedule is presented by the interviewer. The questions are asked and the
answers are noted down by him.
2. The list of questions is a mere formal document, it need not be attractive.
3. The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research.
4. It aids to delimit the scope of the study and to concentrate on the circumscribed elements
essential to the analysis.
5. It aims at delimiting the subject.
6. In the schedule the list of questions is preplanned and noted down formally and the
interviewer is always armed with the formal document detailing the questions.
Thus, interviewer not to depend upon the memory.
Points to be kept in mind while designing schedule;
1. Interviewer should not frame long, complex, defective questions.
2. Unrelated and unnecessary questions should not be asked.
3. Schedule should not contain personal and upsetting questions.
4. Its questions should be simple, clear and relevant to topic.
5. Questions be suitable to respondent’s intelligence level.
6. Impersonal, indirect and unambiguous questions should be included in schedule.
Merits of Schedule:
1. Higher percentage of responses.
2. Possible to observe personality factors.
3. Through interview personal contact is possible.
4. It is possible to give human touch to schedule.
5. Removal of doubts is possible because face to face interaction is there.
6. It is possible to know about the defects of the interviewee.

Observation Technique:
This is most commonly used technique of evaluation research. It is used for evaluating
cognitive and non-cognitive aspects of a person. It is used in evaluation performance,
interests, attitudes, values towards their life problems and situations. It is most useful
technique for evaluating the behaviors of children.
56
 It is technique of evaluation in which behavior are observed in a natural situations.
“It is thorough study based on visual observation. Under this technique group
behaviours and social institutions problems are evaluated.”
C. Y. Younge
“Observation employs relatively more visual and senses than audio and vocal
organs.”
C.A. Mourse
The cause- effect relationship and study of events in original form, is known as
observation.
Observation seeks to ascertain what people think and do by watching them in action
as they express themselves in various situations and activities.
Observation is recognized as the most direct means of studying people when one is
interested in their overt behavior.
In questionnaires and interview people may write answer as they think, they do but
this is often different from what they actually do. These restrictions are missing in
observation so observation is a more natural way of gathering data. Artificiality and
formality of questionnaires and interview is replaced by reality and informality in
observation. Data obtained through observation are more real and true than the data
collected by any other method. It also plays a particular part in survey procedure.

Characteristics of Observation Schedule:

According to Jahoda it has many characteristics;
1. It serves a formulated research purpose.

2. It is planned systematically rather than occurring haphazardly.

3. It is systematically recorded and related to more general propositions.
4. It is subjected to checks and controls with respect to validity , reliability and precision.
5. It is a direct technique to study an object, an event or a problem.
6. It is based mainly on visual –audio scene.
7. It employs own experiences.
8. It establishes cause-effect relationship.
57
9. It is an objective technique of data collection.
10. It is both objective and subjective evaluation technique.
11. It is formal as well as informal technique.
12. It is quantitative as well as qualitative technique for data collection.
Advantages:
1. It is reliable and valid technique of collecting data and information.
2. We get first hand data through this method.
3. Record of observation is also available immediately.
4. It is simple, broad and comprehensive method.
5. It is an oldest technique of data collection and getting direct information.
Limitations:
1. It has a limited scope for its use because all the events cannot be observed directly.
2. It is subjective method.
3. It is very time-consuming process.
4. Costly so energy consuming also.
5. Presence of observer influences the behavior of the person i.e. subject becomes
conscious.
6. In case covert behavior, which can’t be observed, it is not useful.
7. Observer should be trained and experienced.

Rating Scale:
Ratting is term applied to express opinion or judgment regarding some situation,
object or character. Opinions are usually expressed on a scale of values; rating techniques
are devices by which such judgments may be quantified.
“Rating is an essence and direct observation.”
Ruth Strong
“A rating scale ascertains the degree, intensity and frequency of a variable.”
Von Dallen
Rating techniques are more commonly used in scaling traits and attributes.
A rating method is a method by which one systematizes, the expression of opinion
58
 concerning a trait.
The rating is done by parents, teachers, a board of interviewers and judges and even
by the self as well.
The special feature of rating scale is that the attitudes are evaluated not on the basis
of the opinions of the subjects but on the basis of the opinions and judgments of the
experimenter himself.
In rating scale data are collected by; Verbal behavior, facial expression, personal
documents, clinical type interview, projective techniques and immediate experiences as
emotions, thoughts and perceptions.
Advantages:
1. Writing reports to parents.
2. Filling out admission blanks for colleges.
3. Finding out students’ needs.
4. Making recommendations to employers.
5. Supplementing other sources of under taking about child.
6. Stimulating effect upon the rates.
Limitations:
1. Difference in rating abilities.
2. Difference in reliability as subjects for rating.
3. Agreement among raters of one type of contact only.
4. Average superior than single.
5. Impact of emotions.
6. Limits of self-rating.
7. Over rating.
8. Limits of rating of specific qualities.
9. Limits of justifications.
Activities Involved in Data Collection:
Data must be collected and recorded in a form suitable for the intended analysis.
The collection of data requires time and substantial effort for acquiring skills and making
the necessary arrangements for collection and to ensure adequate quality.
59
 Access to Data:
Generally, it is a problem for researcher to get access to data because the
institutions or the persons who generally control the data are not willing to provide him
data for one or the other reason or excuse. Some necessary steps are required to motivate
such institutions or persons to provide necessary data willingly. Some educational
problems are of such nature that the subjects specially girls are not willing to disclose
correct information. Similarly, a researcher of any board or university may not have access
to confidential data.

Adequate Standard:
The researcher should demonstrate that his data were properly collected. It is possible if
the following conditions are fulfilled.
(i) It should be ensured that the supplied data met e requirement of validity. In other words
the data should, ensure what they claimed to measure.
(ii) Proper attention should be paid to measurement error. The following types of error are
possible in data collection;
(a) Errors due to malfunctioning of measuring equipment/ instrument.
(b) Error of bias.
(c) Deliberate falsehood.
(d) Distortion of facts.
(e) Random errors.
(iii) It should be ensured that a suitable sample was drawn out of the population so that proper
generalization could be made.
(iv) It should also be checked that the data were properly recorded. The conditions under which
the data were gathered should be properly noted and suitable data recording method
should be used. The efforts should be made to detect and eliminate errors arising during
recording. The data are generally recorded in the following forms;
(a) notes of the researcher
(b) Log books and journals are used by a researcher doing the experiment or conducting
a field study
(c) Interview notes
(d) Responses to questionnaires
60
(e) Recording on tape recorder.
(f) Video cameras
(g) Transcribing data for computer input

Data Organization:
Whatever method is used for collection of data it will be necessary that an extensive set of
supplementary notes should be made for the following;
(a) Sources of data
(b) Conditions under which data were gathered.
There should be stored in such a way as offer some reasonable prospects of retrieval
when required.
Collecting Primary Data and Secondary Data:
The primary data can be collected through laboratory measurement, field observation,
questionnaires, interviews, opinionnaires, schedules etc.
The secondary data can be collected from technical publications such as manuals,
handbooks, data sheets, and standards, books and journals, official publications of the
Central government, state governments, local bodies, private data services and computer
data base.
General Rules:
There are some general rules that apply to all types of data collection. They are as follows;
(i) Do not collect more information than is required for the research problem.
(ii) Make sure the wording of the data collection instrument is clear and unambiguous.
(iii) Use clear and explicit instructions in data collection instruments.
(iv) Design the response options as carefully as the items stems themselves.
(v) Make responding to the measuring instrument as alternative as possible.
(vi) Make sure that the final products look professional.

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 10

Data analysis embraces a whole range of activities of both the qualitative and quantitative
type. It is usual tendency in behavioral research that much use of quantitative analysis is
made and statistical methods and techniques are employed. The statistical methods and
techniques are employed. The statistical methods and techniques have got a special
position in research because they provide answers to the problems.
Kaul defines data analysis as, ”Studying the organized material in order to discover
inherent facts. The data are studied from as many angles as possible to explore the new
facts.”
Purpose:
The following are the main purposes of data analysis:
(i) Description:
It involves a set of activities that are as essential first step in the development of most fields.
A researcher must be able to identify a topic about which much was not known; he must
be able to convince others about its importance and must be able to collect data.
(ii) Construction of Measurement Scale:
The researcher should construct a measurement scale. All numbers generated by
measuring instruments can be placed into one of four categories:
(a) Nominal: The number serves as nothing more than labels. For example no 1 was not less
than no 2. Similarly, no 2 was neither more than no 1 and nor less than no 3.
(b) Ordinal: Such numbers are used to designate an ordering along some dimensions such as
from less to more, from small to large, from sooner to later.
(c) Interval: The interval provides more précised information than ordinal one. By this type of
measurement, the researcher can make exact and meaningful decisions. For example if A,B
and C are of 150 cm, 145cm and 140 cm height, the researcher can say that A is 5 cm taller
than B and B is 5 cm taller than C.
(d) Ratio Scale: It has two unique characteristics. The intervals between points can be

62
 demonstrated to be precisely the same and the scale has a conceptually meaningful zero
point.
(iii) Generating empirical relationships:
Another purpose of analysis of data is identification of regularities and relationships among
data. The researcher has no clear idea about the relationship which will be found from the
collected data. If the data were available in details it will be easier to determine the
relationship. The researcher can develop theories if he is able to recognize pattern and
order of data. The pattern may be showing association among variables, which may be done
by calculating correlation among variables or showing order, precedence or priority. The
derivation of empirical laws may be made in the form of simple equations relating one
interval or ratio scaled variable to a few others through graph methods.

(iv) Explanation and prediction:

Generally, knowledge and research are equated with the identification of causal
relationships and all research activities are directed to it. But in many fields the research
has not been developed to the level where causal explanation is possible or valid
predictions can be made. In such a situation explanation and prediction is construct as
enabling the values of one set of variables to be derived given the values of another.
Functions:
The following are the main functions of data analysis:
(i) The researcher should analyze the available data for examining the statement of the problem.
(ii) The researcher should analyze the available data for examining each hypothesis of the problem.
(iii) The researcher should study the original records of the data before data analysis.
(iv) The researcher should analyze the data for thinking about the research problem in lay man’s
term.
(v) The researcher should analyze the data by attacking it through statistical calculations.
(vi) The researcher should think in terms of significant tables that the available data permits
for the analysis of data.

63
 Statistical Calculations:
The researcher will have to use either descriptive statistics or inferential statistics for the
purpose of the analysis.
(i) The descriptive statistics may be on any of the following forms:
(a) Measures of Central Tendency:
These measures are mean, median, mode geometric mean and harmonic mean. In
behavioral statistics the last two measures are not used. Which of the first three will be
used in social statistics depends upon the nature of the problem.

(b) Measures of Variability:

These measures are range, mean deviation, quartile deviation and standard deviation. In
social statistics the first two measures are rarely used. The use of standard deviation is very
frequently made for the purpose of analysis.

(c) Measures of Relative Position:

These measures are standard scores (Z or T scores), percentiles and percentile ranks .All of
them are used in educational statistics for data analysis.

(d) Measures of Relationship:

There measures are Co-efficient of Correlation, partial correlation and multiple
correlations. All of them are used in educational statistics for the analysis of data. However
the use of rank method is made more in comparison to Karl Pearson method.
(ii) The inferential statistics may be in any one of the following forms:
(a) Significance of Difference between Means:
It is used to determine whether a true difference exists between population means
of two samples.

(b) Analysis of Variance:

The Z or t tests are used to determine whether there was any significant difference between
the means of two random samples. The F test enables the researcher to determine whether

64
 the sample means differ from one another to a greater extent then the test scores differ
from their own sample means using the F ratio.
(c) Analysis of Co-Variance:
It is an extension of analysis of variance to test the significance of difference between
means of final experimental data by taking into account the Correlation between the
dependent variable and one or more Co-variates or control variables and by adjusting initial
mean differences in the group.

(d) Correlation Methods:

Either of two methods of correlation can be used for the purpose of calculating the
significance of the difference between Co-efficient of Correlation.
(e) Chi Square Test:
It is used to estimate the like hood that some factor other than chance accounts to the
observed relationship. In this test the expected frequency and observed frequency are used
for evaluating Chi Square.
(f) Regression Analysis:
For calculating the probability of occurrence of any phenomenon or for predicting the
phenomenon or relationship between different variables regression analysis is cone.

65
 11

According to F.L. Whitney, interpretation means an adequate exposition of the true

meaning of the material presented in terms of the purposes of the study being reported
and of the chapter and section topic involved.

Purposes:
The following are the main purposes of interpretation of data or results;
(i) To throw light on the real significance of the material in the context.
(ii) To understand implications of the data.
(iii) To provide hints of conclusions and recommendations of the researcher.
(iv) To show the values of greatest worth that has resulted from the research.
(v) To refer important generalization.

Factors:
The researcher should keep the following factors in consideration in interpretation of
data;

(i) Not to ignore those factors which are unstudied:

In social / behavioral researches there are many factors which have their impact upon the
findings of the research but no researcher is in the position to study all the factors. Naturally
he does not take into account in interpretation of the results those factors which have
not been studied. It has its effect upon the search of truth. Thus the researcher should take
into consideration such factors in his interpretation. For example if a comparison has been
made between the traditional method of teaching and any modern method of teaching in
respect of effectiveness of teaching, the interpretation that successful attainment is the
result of method of teaching only is complete denial of the role of general mental ability,
66
 high achievement motivation and better study habits etc.

(ii) Not to ignore those factors which have not been selected for study:
In social / behavioral researches, the subjects are generally so large that the researcher
collects the data from a selected group only. The researcher should remember that some
factors which have not been included in selective group are equally important in their
impact upon findings. For example if the researcher collects data from a particular school
in a particular area and then he concludes about all the schools/colleges.

(iii) Not to over –interpret the expected results:

The researcher should remember that even if he finds the findings of the research as per
his expectations, he should not interpret more than what can be interpreted on the basis
of data available. The researcher should be cautious that he reports all such factors which
might be responsible for the findings.

(iv) Not to exercise defense mechanism in interpreting the results:

The researcher should remember that it is not necessary that the hypotheses should always
be confirmed. It is possible that the researcher may exercise defense mechanism if the
results of the study are not found as per expectations of the research. In such a situation
he should not try to find faults in tools or samples for the results against his expectations. If
any researcher tries to do so, his interpretation will not be considered fair. The hypotheses
are made in the beginning of the research when the knowledge of the researcher about the
problem is very limited. Agreement between the tentative and the results is not necessary.

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 12

The term survey is used for the techniques of investigation by a direct observation of a
phenomenon or a systematic gathering of data from population by applying personal
contact and interviews when adequate information about certain problem is not available
in records, files and other sources.
The survey is an important tool to gather evidences relating to certain social
problems. The term social survey indicates the study of social phenomena through a survey
of a small sampled population and also to broad segments of population. It is concerned
with the present and attempts to determine the status of the phenomenon under
investigation.

Definitions:
“A social survey is a process by which quantitative facts are collected about the social
aspects of a community composition and activities.”
A. F. Well
“The survey is in briefly a method of analysis in scientific and orderly form for defined
purpose of given social situation of problem and population.”
S. Herman
Objects of Social Survey:
(i) Direct and close contact of researcher to the phenomenon under study.
(ii) To collect general information.
(iii) A basis for hypothesis.
(iv) To explain cause and effect relationship.
(v) To know opinion and attitudes of the people.

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 Purposes:
(i) It provides necessary information which helps the administrator for making decisions.
(ii) It provides necessary information and plan for improvement so it is forward-looking.
(iii) It interprets, synthesizes and integrates data and points out their implications.
(iv) It is more realistic because investigation is done in this method in natural setting.
(v) It is the only method through which the researcher can obtain the opinions, attitudes and
suggestions for improvement.
(vi) It is useful in the development of research tools such as checklists, questionnaires etc.

Types of Descriptive Method:

Descriptive method is divided into four parts. They are;

The Survey Studies: They are of following types;

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 The Inter-relationship Studies are of following types;

The Developmental Studies are of the following types;

The Content Analysis deals with the nature utility and procedure of content analysis.
The important problems in this area are as follows;
(i) Developing and modifying curriculum.
(ii) Developing a standardized test in any subject.
(iii) Differentiating aspects of different writing styles.
Characteristics of Survey Method:
(i) Social survey is confined to the study of specific current problems of society eg poverty,
unemployment etc.
(ii) A survey research is planned collection of data for prediction of relations between the
variables.

(iii) Survey is concerned with large or widely dispersed group of peoples contrasted with
the lab experiments.
(iv) Under this method observation, interviews, attitude scales, projective techniques, small
scale experiments etc. are used to collect data.
(v) The facts collected here may form the basis of further social researches.
Planning a Survey Method:
The following are the steps which are involved in survey methods;
(i) Select a problem.
(ii) Preliminary or pilot study should be done.
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(iii) General and Specific objectives of the study are to be framed.
(iv) It should be determined that for which of the variables, identified in the problem whether;
adequate techniques for data collection are available, and if not then is it possible for the
researcher to design them.
(v) Population should be identified and representative sample should be selected.
(vi) Data collection design should be prepared.
(vii) The data should be collected.
(viii) The data should be analyzed.
(ix) The report should be prepared which should have descriptive past, comparative or
evaluative past and findings.
Merits of Survey Methods:
(i) Direct and close contact between researcher and respondents.
(ii) Greate objectivity.
(iii) Testing the validity of theories.
(iv) Formulation and testing of hypothesis.
(v) Social surveys are based on actual observation.
(vi) It has universal application.

Limitations:
(i) Survey method is costly, time consuming and wasteful in certain cases where the objectives
are limited.
(ii) The survey method is unsuitable if the numbers of persons to be surveyed are very large or
if they spread over a large geographical area.
(iii) In this method personal bias may vitiate the result.
(iv) It lacks the flexibility.
(v) In this method, it is very difficult to verify the accuracy of the data collection.
(vi) Only useful for current problems.
(vii) It does not permit more comprehensive and dynamic study of the society but deals with
the problems of immediate importance only.
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(viii) Under this method most of the surveys are conducted on sample basis. If the sample is not
carefully planned, inferences drawn may be inaccurate and misleading.

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