Theory of Structures 1

5.0 Deflection

Contents:
5.1 Deflection Diagrams and the Elastic Curve
5.2 Elastic-Beam Theory
5.3 The Double Integration Method
5.4 Conjugate-Beam Method

5.1 Deflection Diagrams and the Elastic Curve

 Deflections of structures can come from loads, temperature, fabrication errors or
settlement.
 In design, deflections must be limited in order to prevent cracking of attached
brittle materials.
 A structure must not vibrate or deflect severely for the comfort of occupants.
 Deflections at specified points must be determined if one is to analyze statically
indeterminate structures
 In this topic, only linear elastic material response is considered.
 This means a structure subjected to load will return to its original undeformed
position after the load is removed.
 It is useful to sketch the shape of the structure when it is loaded in order to visualize
the computed results & to partially check the results.
 This deflection diagram rep the elastic curve for the points at the centroids of the
cross-sectional areas along each of the members.
 If the elastic curve seems difficult to establish, it is suggested that the moment
diagram be drawn first.
 From there, the curve can be constructed.
Deflection diagrams and the Elastic Curve

∆= 0 ∆= 0 ∆= 0; 𝜃𝜃 = 0
Roller or rocker Pin Fixed support

Fixed-connected joint Pin-connected joint

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 Due to pin-and-roller support, the disp at A & D must be zero.
 Within the region of –ve moment, the elastic curve is concave downward.
 Within the region of +ve moment, the elastic curve is concave upward.
 There must be an inflection point where the curve changes from concave down to
concave up.

Loading

Bending moment diagram

Deflection

Example:
Draw the deflected shape of each of the beams.
The roller at A allows free rotation with
no deflection while the fixed wall at B
prevents both rotation & deflection. The
deflected shape is shown by the bold
line.
No rotation or deflection occur at A & B.

The couple moment will rotate end A.

This will cause deflections at both ends
of the beam since no deflection is
possible at B & C. Notice that segment
CD remains un-deformed since no
internal load acts within it.

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 The pin at B allows rotation, so the slope
of the deflection curve will suddenly
change at this point while the beam is
constrained by its supports.
The compound beam deflects as shown.
The slope changes abruptly on each side
of B.

Span BC will deflect concave upwards

due to load. Since the beam is
continuous, the end spans will deflect
concave downwards.

5.2 Elastic-beam theory

 To derive the M-V and M-θ relations, we look at an initially straight beam that is
elastically deformed by loads applied perpendicular to beam’s x-axis & lying in x-
v plane of symmetry.
 Due to loading, the beam deforms under shear & bending.
 If beam L >> d, greatest deformation will be caused by bending.
 When M deforms the beam element, the angle between the cross sections becomes
dθ.

Before deformation After deformation

𝜀𝜀 = (𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠 ′
− 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 and 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠 ′ = (𝜌𝜌 − 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(𝜌𝜌−𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑−𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝜀𝜀 =
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌

1 𝜀𝜀
=−
𝜌𝜌 𝑦𝑦

If the material is homogeneous & behaves in a linear manner, then Hooke’s law
applies: ε = 𝜎𝜎�𝐸𝐸

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 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦�
The flexure formula also applies: σ = − 𝐼𝐼
1 𝑀𝑀
Combining these equations, we have: =
𝜌𝜌 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

ρ: the radius of curvature at a specific point on the elastic curve

M: internal moment in the beam at the point where ρ is to be determined
E: the material’s modulus of elasticity
I: the beam’s moment of inertia computed about the neutral axis
EI: flexural rigidity

𝑀𝑀
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌; 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

From the figure:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜃𝜃 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑣𝑣 𝑀𝑀
∴ =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

5.3 The Double Integration Method

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑣𝑣 𝑀𝑀
 𝑀𝑀 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), successive integration of = will yield the beam’s slope.
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑀𝑀
 𝜃𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃𝜃 = =∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (equation of elastic curve)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝑀𝑀
 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = ∬ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

 The internal moment in regions AB, BC & CD must be written in terms of x1, x2
and x3.

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 Once these functions are integrated & the constants determined, the functions will
give the slope & deflection for each region of the beam.
 It is important to use the proper sign for M as established by the sign convention
used in derivation.
 +ve v is upward, hence, the +ve slope angle, θ will be measured
counterclockwise from the x-axis.

 The constants of integration are determined by evaluating the functions for slope
or displacement at a particular point on the beam where the value of the function
is known.
 These values are called boundary conditions.
 Here x1 and x2 coordinates are valid only within the regions AB & BC, respectively.

 Once the functions for the slope & deflection are obtained, they must give the
same values for slope & deflection at point B.
 This is so for the beam to be physically continuous.

Example:
Determine the maximum deflection of the joist. EI is constant.

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Solution:
Moment function: From the free-body diagram,

𝑥𝑥
𝑀𝑀 = 20𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑥𝑥 � � = 20𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥 2
2
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑣𝑣
Slope and Elastic Curve: 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 20𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥 2
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 10𝑥𝑥 2 − 0.6667𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝐶𝐶1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 3.333𝑥𝑥 3 − 0.1667𝑥𝑥 4 + 𝐶𝐶1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶2

Here 𝑣𝑣 = 0 at 𝑥𝑥 = 0 so that 𝐶𝐶2 = 0, and 𝑣𝑣 = 0 at 𝑥𝑥 = 10, so that 𝐶𝐶1 = −166.7.
The equation of the elastic curve is therefore,
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 3.333𝑥𝑥 3 − 0.1667𝑥𝑥 4 − 166.7𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 521
At 𝑥𝑥 = 5, note that = 0. The maximum deflection is therefore 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = − .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

Example:
The cantilevered beam is subjected to a couple moment M0 at its end. Determine the
equation of the elastic curve. EI is constant.

Solution:
By inspection, the internal moment can be represented throughout the beam using a
single x coordinate. From the free-body diagram, with M acting in +ve direction, we
have: 𝑀𝑀 = 𝑀𝑀0

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 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑣𝑣
Integrating twice yields: 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑀𝑀0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑀𝑀0 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑀𝑀0 𝑥𝑥 2
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = + 𝐶𝐶1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶2
2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Using boundary conditions, = 0 at 𝑥𝑥 = 0 and 𝑣𝑣 = 0 at 𝑥𝑥 = 0,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

then 𝐶𝐶1 = 𝐶𝐶2 = 0.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Substituting these values into the equations: with 𝜃𝜃 = .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑀𝑀0 𝑥𝑥 𝑀𝑀0 𝑥𝑥 2
θ= ; 𝑣𝑣 =
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝑀𝑀0 𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝑀0 𝐿𝐿2

Maximum slope and displacement occur at A (𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿) for which 𝜃𝜃𝐴𝐴 = ; 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 = .
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 2𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

The +ve result for θA indicates counterclockwise rotation & the +ve result for vA
indicates that it is upwards.
In order to obtain some idea as to the actual magnitude of the slope, consider the beam
to:
 Have a length of 3.6 m
 Support a couple moment of 20 kN • m
 Be made of steel having Est = 200 GPa
 If this beam were designed w/o a fos by assuming the allowable normal stress =
yield stress = 250 N/mm2,
20kNm(3.6m)
𝜃𝜃𝐴𝐴 = = 0.0529rad
[200 × 106 kN⁄m2 ][6.8(106 )(10−12 )m4 ]
20kNm(3.6m)2
𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 = = 95.3mm
2[200 × 106 kN⁄m2 ][6.8(106 )(10−12 )m4 ]

Example:
The beam is subjected to a load P at its end. Determine the displacement at C. EI is
constant.

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Solution:
Using the free-body diagrams,

𝑃𝑃
𝑀𝑀1 = − 𝑥𝑥1 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥1 ≤ 2𝑎𝑎
2

𝑃𝑃 3𝑃𝑃
𝑀𝑀2 = − 𝑥𝑥2 + (𝑥𝑥2 − 2𝑎𝑎) = 𝑃𝑃𝑥𝑥2 − 3𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 2𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥2 ≤ 3𝑎𝑎
2 2

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑣𝑣1 𝑃𝑃
For x1, 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = − 𝑥𝑥1
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 2 2

𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣1 𝑃𝑃
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = − 𝑥𝑥1 2 + 𝐶𝐶1
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 4

𝑃𝑃
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑣𝑣1 = − 𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝐶𝐶1 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝐶𝐶2
12 1

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑣𝑣2
For x2, 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑃𝑃𝑥𝑥2 − 3𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2 2

𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣2 𝑃𝑃
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑥𝑥2 2 − 3𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑥𝑥2 + 𝐶𝐶3
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2 2

𝑃𝑃 3
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑣𝑣2 = 𝑥𝑥2 3 − 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑥𝑥2 2 + 𝐶𝐶3 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝐶𝐶4
6 2

The four constants of integration are determined using 3 boundary conditions, namely,
𝑣𝑣1 = 0 at 𝑥𝑥1 = 0 ; 𝑣𝑣1 = 0 at 𝑥𝑥1 = 2𝑎𝑎 and 𝑣𝑣2 = 0 at 𝑥𝑥2 = 2𝑎𝑎 and 1 continuity
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣1 𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣2
equation. Here the continuity of slope at the roller requires = at 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑥𝑥2 =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2

2𝑎𝑎. (Note that continuity of displacement at B has been indirectly considered in the
boundary conditions, since 𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑣2 = 0 at 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑥𝑥2 = 2𝑎𝑎 .) Applying these four
conditions yields:
𝑣𝑣1 = 0 at 𝑥𝑥1 = 0; 𝐶𝐶2 = 0
𝑃𝑃
𝑣𝑣1 = 0 at 𝑥𝑥1 = 2𝑎𝑎; 0=− (2𝑎𝑎)3 + 𝐶𝐶1 (2𝑎𝑎) + 𝐶𝐶2
12
8
 𝑃𝑃 3
𝑣𝑣2 = 0 at 𝑥𝑥2 = 2𝑎𝑎; 0 = (2𝑎𝑎)3 − 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃(2𝑎𝑎)2 + 𝐶𝐶3 (2𝑎𝑎) + 𝐶𝐶4
6 2

𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣1 𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣2 𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃
� = � ; − (2𝑎𝑎)2 + 𝐶𝐶1 = (2𝑎𝑎)2 − 3𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃(2𝑎𝑎) + 𝐶𝐶3
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥 =2𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥 =2𝑎𝑎 4 2
1 2

𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎2 10
Solving, 𝐶𝐶1 = ; 𝐶𝐶2 = 0; 𝐶𝐶3 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎2 ; 𝐶𝐶4 = −2𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎3
3 3

𝑃𝑃 3𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 10𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎2 2𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎3

Substituting C3 and C4, 𝑣𝑣2 = 𝑥𝑥2 3 − 𝑥𝑥2 2 + 𝑥𝑥2 −
6𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 2𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 3𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎3
The displacement at C is determined by setting 𝑥𝑥2 = 3𝑎𝑎, 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐 = −
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

5.5 Conjugate-beam Method

 The basis for the method comes from similarity of equations
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑2 𝑀𝑀
= 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑤𝑤
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑2 𝑣𝑣 𝑀𝑀
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝑉𝑉 = � 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑀𝑀 = � �� 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀
𝜃𝜃 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 = � �� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
 Here the shear V compares with the slope θ, the moment M compares with the
𝑀𝑀
displacement v & the external load w compares with the diagram.
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

 To make use of this comparison we will now consider a beam having the same
length as the real beam but referred to as the “conjugate beam”.

Real Beam Conjugate Beam

𝑀𝑀
 The conjugate beam is loaded with the diagram derived from the load w on the
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

real beam.
 From the above comparisons, we can state 2 theorems related to the conjugate
beam
(i) Theorem 1: The slope at a point in the real beam is numerically equal to the
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 shear at the corresponding point in the conjugate beam.
(ii) Theorem 2: The displacement of a point in the real beam is numerically equal
to the moment at the corresponding point in the conjugate beam.
 Consequently from Theorems 1 & 2, for a pin or roller support at the end of a real
beam, the conjugate beam must be supported by a pin or roller since this support
has zero moment but has a shear or end reaction.
 When the real beam is fixed supported, both slope and displacement at the support
are zero. The conjugate beam has a free end since at this end there is zero shear &
moment.
Real Beam Conjugate Beam

Pin Pin
θ V
∆= 0 𝑀𝑀 = 0

Roller Roller
θ V
∆= 0 𝑀𝑀 = 0

Fixed Free
𝜃𝜃 = 0 𝑉𝑉 = 0
∆= 0 M=0

Free Fixed
θ V
Δ M

Internal pin Hinge

θ V
∆= 0 𝑀𝑀 = 0

Internal roller Hinge

θ V
∆= 0 𝑀𝑀 = 0

Hinge Internal roller

θ V
Δ M
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Example:
Determine the slope and deflection at point B of the steel beam. The reactions have
been computed. 𝐸𝐸 = 200GPa, 𝐼𝐼 = 475 × 106 mm4 .

Solution:

Conjugate beam

𝑀𝑀
The supports at A’ and B’ correspond to supports A and B on the real beam. diagram
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

is negative, so the distributed load acts downward.

250kNm2
+↑ ∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 0; − − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 ′ = 0
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

250kNm2 −250kNm2
𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 ′ = − =[200(10)6
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 kN⁄m2 ][475(10)6 (10)−12 m4 ]

250kNm2
∑ 𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵′ = 0; (8.33m) + 𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵′ = 0
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

2083kNm3
∆𝐵𝐵 = 𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵′ = −
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

2083kNm3
= − [200(10)6 = −0.0219m = −21.9mm
kN⁄m2 ][475(10)6 (10)−12 m4 ]

The negative signs indicate the slope of the beam is measured clockwise and the
displacement is downward.

11
Example:
Determine the maximum deflection of the steel beam. 𝐸𝐸 = 200GPa , I =
60(106 )mm4

Solution:
𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀
The conjugate beam loaded with the diagram is shown. Since the diagram is
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

+ve, the distributed load acts upward.

The external reactions on the conjugate beam are determined first and are indicated on
the free-body diagram.

Max deflection of the real beam occurs at the point where the slope of the beam is zero.
Assuming this point acts within the region 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 9m from A’ we can isolate the
section.
Note that the peak of the distributed loading was determined from proportional triangles,

12
 𝑉𝑉 ′ = 0; Moment = Maximum
18
𝑤𝑤⁄ = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸� = 2𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥 9 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
45 1 2𝑥𝑥
− + � � 𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝑥𝑥 = 6.71m

Using this value for x, the max deflection in the real beam corresponds to the moment
M’. Hence,
45 1 2(6.71) 1
∑ 𝑀𝑀 = 0; (6.71) − � � � 6.71� (6.71) + 𝑀𝑀′ = 0
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 3

201.2kNm3
∆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑀𝑀′ = − = −0.0168m = −16.8mm
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

Example:
The girder is made from a continuous beam and reinforced at its center with cover plates
where its moment of inertia is larger. Determine the deflection at the center C. The
reaction have been calculated. 𝐸𝐸 = 200GPa

Solution:
The bending moment diagram for the beam is determined.

Since 𝐼𝐼 ′ = 2𝐼𝐼, for simplicity the load is expressed on the conjugate beam in terms of
the constant EI.

13
The reactions on the conjugate beam can be calculated by the symmetry of the loading
or using the equation of equilibrium.

Since the deflection at C is to be determined, the internal moment at C’ is computed.

620 400 200 20

∑ 𝑀𝑀𝐶𝐶 ′ = 0; (6) − (3.33) − (1) − (0.67) + 𝑀𝑀𝐶𝐶 ′ = 0
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

2173kNm3
𝑀𝑀𝐶𝐶 ′ = −
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
Substituting the numerical data for EI,
∆𝐶𝐶 = 𝑀𝑀𝐶𝐶 ′ = −0.0402m = −40.2mm
The negative sign indicates that the deflection is downward.

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Example:
Determine the displacement of the pin at B and the slope of each beam segment
connected to the pin for the compound beam. 𝐸𝐸 = 200GPa, 𝐼𝐼 = 18 × 106 mm4

Solution:
Elastic curve

Conjugate beam

External reaction

15
In order to determine (𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 )𝑅𝑅 , the conjugate beam is sectioned just to the right of B’ and
the shear force (𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵′ )𝑅𝑅 is computed.

125 250 2
∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 0; (𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵′ )𝑅𝑅 + − − =0
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

127kNm2
(𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 )𝑅𝑅 = (𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵′ )𝑅𝑅 = = 0.0353 rad
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

The internal moment at B’ yield the displacement of the pin.

125 250 2
∑ 𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵′ = 0; −𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵′ + (1.67) − (2.5) − (5) = 0
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

427kNm3
∆𝐵𝐵 = 𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵′ = − = −0.119m = −119mm
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

The slope (𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 )𝐿𝐿 can be found from a section of beam just to the left of B’.

127 125 250 2

∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 0; (𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵′ )𝐿𝐿 + + − − =0
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

(𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 )𝐿𝐿 = (𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵′ )𝐿𝐿 = 0

∆𝐵𝐵 = 𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵′ for this segment is the same as previously calculated, since the moment arms
are only slightly different.

16