0% found this document useful (0 votes)
15 views14 pages

ELE 576 Lecture VI

Uploaded by

iscnani
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
15 views14 pages

ELE 576 Lecture VI

Uploaded by

iscnani
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 14

Induction motors

Introduction
Induction motor is not only supremely elegant as an electromechanical energy
converter, but is also by far the most important, with something like half of all
the electricity generated being converted back to mechanical energy in induction
motors. Despite playing a key role in industrial society, it remains largely
unnoticed because of its everyday role driving machinery, pumps, fans,
compressors, conveyors, hoists, and a host of other routine but vital tasks. It will
doubtless continue to dominate fixed-speed applications, but, thanks to the
availability of reliable variable-frequency inverters, it is now also a leader in the
controlled-speed arena.
Like the DC motor, the induction motor develops torque by the interaction of
axial currents on the rotor and a radial magnetic field produced by the stator. But
whereas in the DC motor the ‘work’ current has to be fed into the rotor by means
of brushes and a commutator, the torque-producing currents in the rotor of the
induction motor are induced by electromagnetic action, hence the name
‘induction’ motor. The stator winding therefore not only produces the magnetic
field (the ‘excitation’), but al so supplies the energy which is converted to
mechanical output. The absence of any sliding mechanical contacts and the
consequent saving in terms of maintenance is a major advantage of the induction
motor over the DC machine.
Other differences between the induction motor and the DC motor are firstly that
the supply to the induction motor is AC (usually three-phase, but in smaller sizes
single phase); secondly that the magnetic field in the induction motor rotates
relative to the stator, while in the DC motor it is stationary; and thirdly that both
stator and rotor in the induction motor are non-salient (i .e. effectively smooth)
whereas the DC motor stator has projecting poles or saliencies which define the
position of the field windings.
Given these differences we might expect to find major contrasts between the
performance of the two types of motor, and it is true that their inherent
characteristics exhibit distinctive features. But there are also many aspects of
behaviour which are similar. Perhaps most important from the user’s point of
view is that there is no dramatic difference in size or weight between an induction
motor and a DC motor giving the same power at the same base speed, though the
induction motor will usually be cheaper. The similarity in size is a reflection of
the fact that both types employ similar amounts of copper and iron, while the
difference in price stems from the simpler construction and production volume of
the induction motor.
Equivalent Circuit
A single-phase equivalent circuit can be developed for the induction motor by first separating
the stator and rotor circuits. The equivalent circuit of the stator is shown in Figure 1. The stator
is a set of windings made of copper material mounted on the core. The windings have a
resistance R1 and inductive reactance X1. The core, which is made of steel alloy, can be
represented by a linear combination of a parallel resistance and a reactance (Rm and Xm). This
core representation approximately models the hysteresis and eddy current effects. The sum of
currents in Rm and Xm is called the magnetizing current Im. Rm and Xm are each of a high
ohmic value. The number of turns of the stator windings is N1, and its effective voltage drop
E1 is equal to the source voltage V minus the drop across the winding impedance.

(1)

The magnetizing current Im is a small fraction of I1 and can be ignored for heavily loaded
motors.
The rotor circuit needs a special analysis. First, let us assume that the rotor is at standstill. In
this case, the induction machine is behaving similarly to the transformer.

Fig. 1. Equivalent circuit of the stator and the rotor.


For the rotor can be represented by a winding impedance composed of a
resistance R2 and an inductive reactance X2, as shown in the rotor circuit. The
number of turns of the rotor windings is N2, and its terminals are shorted. The
induced voltage across the rotor windings at standstill E2 is
(2)

Now let us assume that the rotor is spinning at speed n. In this case, the induced
voltage across the rotor Eris proportional to the relative speed ∆𝑛 between the
rotor and the field. Keep in mind that the induced voltage at standstill E2 is
proportional to the synchronous speed (∆𝑛 = 𝑛𝑠 ).

(3)

Hence, the rotor voltage Er, at any speed n, is

(4)

The frequency of the rotor current is also dependent on Dn. At standstill (∆𝑛 =
𝑛𝑠 ), the frequency of 𝐸2 or 𝐼2 is the same as the stator’s supply frequency 𝑓. At
any other speed, the frequency of the rotor current depends on the rate by which
the rotor windings cut through the field. Hence, it depends on the relative speed
Dn. At standstill, the rotor frequency 𝑓𝑠𝑠 is

(5)

At any other speed, the rotor frequency 𝑓𝑟 is


(6)

Hence,

(7)
Speed Control of Induction Motors
The speed control of an induction motor requires more elaborate techniques than
the speed control of dc machines.
Firstly, let us analyse the basic relationship for the speed-torque characteristics of
an induction motor given in Equation (1).

(1)

By examining this equation, we can conclude that the speed v (or slip s) can be
controlled if at least one of the following variables or parameters is altered:
i. Armature or rotor resistance
ii. Armature or rotor inductance
iii. Magnitude of terminal voltage
iv. Frequency of terminal voltage
Each of the above techniques by itself is not sufficient. However, when more than
one are combined, the control of the induction motor becomes more effective.
Although it is not evident by examining Equation (1), there are other useful and
effective techniques for speed control. Among them are:
v. Rotor voltage injection
vi. Slip energy recovery
vii. Voltage/frequency control

Speed Control Using Rotor Resistance


Due to the complexity of Equation (1), it is difficult to show the impact of rotor
resistance on motor speed. However, if we are to study steady-state operation, we
can use the small-slip approximation. This is justifiable since at steady state, the
speed of the motor is near the synchronous speed.

(2)
Keep in mind that V is a line-to-line quantity. If the voltage, frequency, and torque
are kept constant, the increase in 𝑅2′ results in an increase in the slip. Hence, the
motor speed is reduced.
Figure 1 shows the motor characteristics for the case when a resistance 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑑 is
added to the rotor circuit. The increase in rotor resistance does not change the
synchronous speed or the magnitude of the maximum torque; it

Fig. 1. Effect of rotor resistance on motor speed


Adding a resistance to the rotor circuit does not cause the motor speed to change
by any appreciable value at light loading conditions. The difference in speed
between points 1 and 2 in Fig. 1 is rather small. Although at heavy loading
conditions, T2, the motor speed may change by a wider range—from point 3 to
point 4—the speed range is still narrow. Therefore, controlling the motor speed
by changing the rotor (or stator) resistance is not considered a realistic option. In
addition, this method increases the motor losses substantially as illustrated in the
next example.
Example:
A three-phase, Y-connected, 30 hp (rated output), 480 V, six-pole, 60 Hz, slip
ring induction motor has a stator resistance 𝑅1 = 0.5 Ω and a rotor resistance
referred to stator 𝑅2′ = 0.5 Ω. The rotational losses are 500 W and the core losses
are 600 W. Assume that the change in the rotational losses due to the change in
speed is minor. The motor load is a constant-torque type. At full-load torque,
calculate the speed of the motor. Calculate the added resistance to the rotor circuit
needed to reduce the speed by 20%. Calculate the motor efficiency without and
with the added resistance. If the cost of energy is $0.05/kWh, compute the annual
cost of operating the motor continuously with the added resistance. Assume that
the motor operates 100 hours a week.
Solution
Consider the power flow of the induction machine given in Chapter 5, which is
also shown in Fig. 2. First, let us compute the rated developed power.
Developed power5output power1rotational losses.
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 30(746) + 500
To compute the motor speed, we can use Equation (1) or the small-slip
approximation of Equation (2).

This equation has two solutions; one of them yields a large slip and should be
ignored since the motor speed at full load is always near synchronous.

To compute the winding losses, we first need to calculate the motor current. The
easiest way is to use the developed power equation.
Losses of motor winding = losses of rotor resistance + loss
Now we need to calculate the size of the added resistance. Let us use the small-
slip approximation given in Equation (2) to create a ratio between the
original and new torque.

The new current can be calculated by using the developed power equation

The new winding losses are


Speed Control by Adjusting the Stator Voltage
Several techniques can be used to change the stator voltage of the motor. Among
them are pulse width modulation (PWM) or the phase control shown in Fig. 2.
The circuit configuration of phase control is a full-wave, three-phase SCR
converter. In this circuit, the induction motor is connected to a three-phase supply
voltage via back-to-back SCR pairs. For each phase, one SCR conducts the
current in one direction (from the source to the motor), and the other SCR
conducts the current in the second half of the cycle (from motor to source). If the
triggering of these SCRs is controlled, the voltage across the motor can be
changed.

Fig. 2. Phase control of IM Fig. 3. Impact of voltage on motor speed

As seen in Equation (1), the torque of the motor is proportional to the square of
its stator voltage. For the same slip and frequency, a small change in motor
voltage results in a relatively large change in torque. A 10% reduction in voltage
causes a 19% reduction in developed torque as well as the starting and maximum
torques.
The characteristics of the motor under voltage control are shown in Fig. 3. The
figure is based on Equation (1) and shows two curves for two different values of
the stator voltage. Note that the slip at the maximum torque remains unchanged
since it is not a function of voltage. For normal operation in the linear region, the
figure shows that the motor speed can be modestly changed when the voltage is
altered. However, a wide range of speed control cannot be accomplished by this
technique. Nevertheless, it is an excellent method for reducing starting current
and increasing efficiency during light loading conditions. The starting current is
reduced since it is directly proportional to the stator voltage. The losses are
reduced, particularly core losses, which are proportional to the square of the
voltage.
Keep in mind that the terminal voltage cannot exceed the rated value to prevent
the damage of the windings’ insulation. Thus, this technique is only suitable for
speed reduction below the rated speed.

Example
For the motor given in Example 7.1, assume that the load torque is constant and
equal to 120 Nm. Ignore the rotational losses and calculate the motor speed at full
voltage. Repeat the computation if the voltage is reduced by 20%.
Solution
First calculate the motor speed at the given load torque. The small-slip
approximation can be used.
Speed Control using Supply Frequency
In steady state, the induction motor operates in the small-slip region, where the
speed of the motor is always close to the synchronous speed of the rotating flux.

(3)

where f is the frequency of the stator voltage and p is the number of poles. Since
the synchronous speed is directly proportional to the frequency of the stator
voltage, any change in frequency results in an equivalent change in motor speed.
If you plot the motor characteristics of Equation (1) for different values of supply
frequencies, you can obtain a family of characteristics similar to the ones shown
in Fig. 4. The effect of frequency on motor current is given by equation (4). The
current characteristics of the motor are shown in Fig. 5.

(4)

Figs. 4 and 5. Impact of frequency on motor speed and motor current


Frequency manipulation appears to be an effective method for speed control
that requires a simple dc. However, there are severe limitations to this method:
very low frequencies may cause motor damage due to excessive currents, and
large frequencies may stall the motor. These limitations are discussed in the
following sections.
Effect of Excessively High Frequency
As shown in Figures 4 and 5, the increase in supply frequency results in the
following changes:
 An increase in the no-load speed (synchronous speed).This increase is due
to the increase in frequency as given by Equation (3)
 A decrease in the maximum torque. The maximum torque equation is as
follows;

The voltage V is a phase-to-neutral value. It shows that the maximum


torque is inversely proportional to both the synchronous speed 𝜔𝑠 and the
equivalent reactance of the windings 𝑋𝑒𝑞 . Each of these quantities
increases by increasing the frequency. Hence, the maximum torque
decreases when the frequency of the supply voltage increases.
 A decrease in the starting torque. The starting torque of the induction
motor, 𝑇𝑠𝑡 , is computed for a single phase system using the following
equation;

As seen in this equation, the starting torque decreases when the


synchronous speed increases.
 An increase in speed at the maximum torque. Due to the increase in
frequency, the slip at maximum torque 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 decreases when the equivalent
reactance increases, as shown in the following equation;
 A decrease in the starting current. This can be seen from the following
equation;

When the frequency increases, the equivalent reactance increases and the
starting current decreases. At high frequencies, the resistance of the motor
windings may also increase due to the skin effect.

Now let us examine the case when the increase in frequency is


excessive. Figure 6 shows two characteristics for two different values of
stator frequency. Assume that the load torque is constant, and the motor
operates initially at frequency f1. The steady-state operation is represented
by point 1. Now assume that the frequency of the stator voltage increases
to a higher value, f2, where the new maximum torque of the motor is less
than the load torque. In this case, no steady-state operating point can be
achieved, and the motor eventually stalls or even operates under braking.
One solution to this problem is to increase the supply voltage when the
frequency increases.

Fig. 6. Characteristics for two different values of stator frequency

Effect of Excessively Low Frequency


Reducing the supply frequency reduces the speed of the motor. However,
frequency reduction may result in an increase in motor current as shown in Fig.
5. At very low frequencies, the equivalent reactance of the motor 𝑋𝑒𝑞 is very low.
Since 𝑋𝑒𝑞 could lead to an excessive current beyond the ratings of the machine.
Moreover, there is a chance of magnetic saturation while decreasing the supply
frequency, that is why not only the frequency but the v/f (i.e. the ratio of supply
voltage and frequency) is controlled and this ratio is tried to be kept constant.
Therefore, if the speed is needed to be changed the ratio of v/f is changed
accordingly.
Common ways to vary AC frequency:
 Six-step inverter
 Pulse-Width-Modulation
 Vector Flux

You might also like