15.

Polarization

Linear, circular, and elliptical polarization

Mathematics of polarization

Uniaxial crystals

Birefringence

Polarizers
Polarization Notation near an interface
Parallel ("p") Perpendicular ("s")
polarization polarization

These are only defined relative to an interface between two media.

But even when there is no interface around, we still need to consider
the polarization of light waves.
Polarization of a light wave
We describe the polarization of a light wave (without any interface
nearby) according to how the E-field vector varies in a projection onto
a plane perpendicular to the propagation direction.

For convenience, the propagation direction is generally assumed to be

along the positive z axis.

Here are two possibilities:

E-field variation over
y time (and space) y

x x
   
E (r , t )  E0 yˆ exp  j (kz  t )  E (r , t )  E0 xˆ exp  j (kz  t ) 
 

In these diagrams, the propagation direction is out of the page at you.

45° Polarization
Ex ( z , t )  Re  E0 exp  j (kz  t ) 

E y ( z , t )  Re  E0 exp  j (kz  t ) 

and the total wave is:

E ( z , t )  Ex xˆ  E y yˆ
Here, the complex
amplitude, E0 is the
same for each
component.

So the components
are always in phase.
Arbitrary-Angle Linear Polarization

Ex ( z , t )  Re  E0 cos   exp  j (kz  t ) 


E y ( z , t )  Re  E0 sin   exp  j (kz  t ) 

and (as always) the total wave is:

E ( z , t )  Ex xˆ  E y yˆ E-field
variation over
y time (and
space)
Here, the y-component is in phase
with the x-component, but has 
different magnitude. x
The Mathematics of Polarization
Define the polarization state of a field as a 2D vector—
 Ex 
“Jones vector” —containing the two complex amplitudes: E 
 Ey 
 1 
E 
 Ey 
For many purposes, we only care
about the relative values:
Ex  
 Ex 

1 
Specifically: 0
  0
0° linear (x) polarization: Ey /Ex = 0
1 
90° linear (y) polarization: Ey /Ex =   
45° linear polarization: Ey /Ex = 1
Arbitrary linear polarization: E y sin 
  tan 
Ex cos 
 Jones vectors - a common mistake

NOTE: the Jones vector contains the complex amplitudes only.

Its components do not depend on x,y,z, or t.

 Ex e j  kz t  
E j  kz t 
 This is wrong!
 E y e 
Circular (or Helical) Polarization
Ex ( z , t )  E0 cos(kz  t )
E y ( z , t )  E0 sin(kz  t )
or, in complex notation:
Ex ( z , t )  Re  E0 exp  j (kz  t ) 

E y ( z , t )  Re  jE0 exp  j (kz  t ) 


Here, the complex amplitude of

the y-component is -j times the
complex amplitude of the x-
component.
The resulting E-field rotates
clockwise around the k-vector
So the components are
(looking along k). This is called a
always 90° out of phase.
right-handed rotation.
 Right vs. Left Circular (or Helical) Polarization
Ex ( z , t )  E0 cos(kz  t ) E-field variation
over time (and y
E y ( z , t )   E0 sin(kz  t ) space)

or, more generally:

x
Ex ( z , t )  Re  E0 exp  j (kz  t ) 

E y ( z , t )  Re  jE0 exp  j (kz  t )  kz-t = 0°
 kz-t = 90° Note: In this drawing, the z axis is
Here, the complex amplitude coming out of the screen at you. So
you are looking in the opposite
of the y-component is +j times direction from the k-vector, which is
why it rotates clockwise according
the complex amplitude of the to the arrow - but we refer to this as
a counter-clockwise rotation.
x-component.
The resulting E-field rotates
So the components are always counterclockwise around the
90° out of phase, but in the k-vector (looking along k).
other direction. This is a left-handed rotation.
Circular Polarization - the movie
Question: is this cartoon
showing right-handed or left-
handed circular polarization?
 Unequal Arbitrary-Relative-Phase
Components yield "Elliptical Polarization"
Ex ( z , t )  E0 x cos(kz  t )
E-field variation
E y ( z , t )  E0 y cos(kz  t   ) over time (and y
space)
where E0 x  E0 y
or, in complex notation: x
Ex ( z , t )  Re  E0 x exp  j (kz  t ) 

E y ( z , t )  Re  E0 y exp  j (kz  t ) 

where E0 x and E0 y are arbitrary
 
complex amplitudes. The resulting E-field can rotate
clockwise or counter-clockwise
around the k-vector.
The Mathematics of Circular and
Elliptical Polarization
Circular polarization has an imaginary Jones vector y-component:

 Ex   1 
E  
 Ey   j 
A clockwise rotation,
Right circular polarization: E y / Ex   j when looking along the
propagation direction.

Left circular polarization: E y / Ex   j counterclockwise rotation.

For elliptical polarization, the two components have different amplitudes,

and may even be complex:
E y / Ex  a  jb
We can calculate the eccentricity and tilt of the ellipse if we feel like it.
 An example  1 
E 
1  j 
What is the polarization of this wave?

This Jones vector is equivalent to: E  z , t   E0  xˆ  1  j  yˆ  e
 j  kz t 

Ex  E0 cos t 
Using 1  j   2e j 4
we find, at z = 0:
E y  2 E0 cos t   4 
Ex Ey
t = 0 E0 E0 y

t = /4 E0  2 2 0

t = /2 0  E0 x

t = 3/4  E0  2 2  2 E0 left-handed
elliptical
t =   E0  E0 polarization
 A polarizer is a device which filters
out one polarization component

The light can excite electrons to move along the wires. These moving
charges then emit light that cancels the input light. This cannot happen if
the E-field is perpendicular to the wires, since the current can only flow
along the wires.
Such polarizers are commonly used for long-wave infrared radiation,
because the wire spacing has to be much smaller than the wavelength
(and so it is easier to manufacture if the wavelength is longer).
Polymer-based polarizers
A polymer is a long chain molecule. Some polymers can conduct
electricity (i.e., they can respond to electric fields similar to the way a
wire does).

The light can excite electrons to move along the wires, just as in
the case of the polymer chains.

This is how polarized sunglasses work.

Crossed polarizers block light

Blocking both x and y

polarizations means
that you have blocked
everything.

Inserting a third polarizer

between the two crossed
ones can allow some
light to leak through.
Why sunglasses are polarized

no sunglasses

sunglasses

Brewster’s angle revisited

Birefringence
The molecular "spring constant"
can be different for different
directions.

The x- and y-polarizations can see

different refractive index curves.

Hence, the refractive index of a

material can depend on the
orientation of the material
relative to the polarization axis!
Uniaxial crystals have an optic axis
Uniaxial crystals have one
refractive index for light polarized
along the optic axis (ne) and
another for light polarized in
either of the two directions
perpendicular to it (no).

Light polarized along the optic

axis is called the extraordinary
ray, and light polarized
perpendicular to it is called the
ordinary ray. These
polarization directions are the
crystal “principal axes.”

Light with any other polarization must be broken down into its
ordinary and extraordinary components, considered
individually, and recombined afterward.
Birefringence can separate the two
polarizations into separate beams
Due to Snell's Law, light of different
polarizations will refract by different
amounts at an interface.
o-ray

no e-ray

ne
Birefringent Materials

Calcite, CaCO3

Calcite is one of the most birefringent materials known.

Some polarizers use birefringence.
optic optic E-ray
axis axis

O-ray

For example, a Wollaston prism:

Combine two calcite prisms, rotated so that the

ordinary polarization in the first prism is
extraordinary in the second (and vice versa).

The ordinary ray in the first prism becomes the

extraordinary ray in the second one. Since ne < no,
the E-ray is refracted away from the normal to the
interface. The opposite happens for the O-ray.