International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:8087–8104

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-022-04680-0

REVIEW

Review: ­CO2 capturing methods of the last two decades

S. Kammerer1 · I. Borho1 · J. Jung1 · M. S. Schmidt1

Received: 14 July 2022 / Revised: 14 November 2022 / Accepted: 18 November 2022 / Published online: 12 December 2022
© The Author(s) 2022

Abstract
Due to the annual increase in C­ O2 emissions, climate change continues to progress. In order to achieve the goals set in the
Paris Climate Agreement, ­CO2 capturing measures are necessary in addition to the reduction in carbon dioxide emissions.
This review article describes and discusses the C­ O2 capturing methods published in the last 20 years. Processes for absorp-
tion, gas–solid reaction, adsorption, cryogenic processes, membrane processes and the capture of carbon dioxide with natural
inclusion were examined in more detail.

Keywords CO2 capturing · Pre-combustion · Post-combustion · Oxy-combustion · Absorption process · Processes with
gas–solid reactions · Adsorption processes · Cryogenic processes · Membrane processes · Natural inclusion · Carbon
capture and utilization · Carbon capture and storage

Introduction Climate change

Since the industrial revolution in the 19th century, the level Climate change describes the long-term change in the Earth's
of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in the atmos- global climate. This has serious consequences for precipita-
phere has steadily increased, especially the concentration of tion and ocean currents, but also for extreme weather condi-
carbon dioxide. To prevent global warming from increasing tions and a significant rise in temperature. According to the
even further, it is necessary to take action to reduce the con- Paris Climate Agreement, global warming should be limited
centration of carbon dioxide. This can be done, on the one to well below 2 °C compared to pre-industrial times. A limit
hand, by emitting less carbon dioxide and, on the other hand, of 1.5 °C would be necessary to prevent serious impacts
by specifically reducing C­ O2 emissions. Many methods have on the global climate. To achieve this goal, a reduction in
been developed over the last 20 years and in the future more products or activities that lead to greenhouse gas emissions
possibilities will be explored to recapture the carbon dioxide is necessary. In addition, greenhouse gas-intensive tech-
produced and make it usable. nologies and products should be substituted by greenhouse
This article focuses on the different options for ­CO2 cap- gas-neutral ones. A third approach is to reduce the carbon
ture in industrial plants that have been developed over the dioxide concentrations already emitted in the atmosphere.
last 20 years. In power plants, for example, capture can take This can be achieved by specifically capturing the carbon
place before combustion, after combustion or after combus- dioxide from the exhaust gases and the air (Umweltbunde-
tion in the oxygen atmosphere. The individual C ­ O2 capture samt. 2022).
methods can then be divided into these three categories. Figure 1 shows the global carbon dioxide emission by
Over 60 articles were reviewed for this paper. sector in 2018. The electricity and heat generation has the
most emissions with 42%. Transport is responsible for a
quarter of the emissions and the industry for nearly one fifth.
Editorial responsibility: Binbin Huang.
6% of emissions are caused by housing and 5% by other
* M. S. Schmidt energy production. Commercial and public services cause
[email protected] the smallest share of emissions. These figures show that car-
1
bon capturing methods in power plants are very useful, as
Institute of Precision Medicine, Organic and Bioorganic
Chemistry Labs, Medical and Life Sciences Faculty,
they produce the most carbon dioxide.
Furtwangen University, Jakob‑Kienzle‑Str. 17,
78054 VS‑Schwenningen, Germany

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8088 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:8087–8104

Fig. 1  Distribution of energy-

related ­CO2 emissions world-
wide by sector in 2018. (IEA
2018)

CO2 capturing in power plants Figure 2 shows a flow diagram of a power and heat gen-
eration process using the pre-combustion method. Car-
Carbon dioxide can be separated in power plants using vari- bonaceous fuel is heated to 1000–1700 °C with oxygen
ous methods. The separation systems can be divided into and hydrogen. In the gasifier reactor, synthesis gas is thus
three different categories: Pre-combustion, post-combustion produced under elevated pressure. This consists mainly of
and oxy-combustion. These three strategies to capture the hydrogen and carbon monoxide. With further processing
carbon dioxide emissions are described below. ­ O2 and hydro-
steps, the synthesis gas is converted into C
gen with the addition of steam. Wet gas scrubbers are then
Pre‑combustion used to separate the ­CO2 from the hydrogen (Madejski et al.
2022).
In pre-combustion, carbon dioxide is separated before the
combustion process.

Fig. 2  Pre-combustion. (Madejski et al. 2022)

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:8087–8104 8089

Post‑combustion extraction of pure oxygen from the air is very energy inten-
sive (Fischedick et al. 2015).
In post-combustion, the carbon dioxide is separated after
combustion. CO2 capturing methods
Figure 3 shows a flow diagram of a power and heat gen-
eration process using the post-combustion method. In this Carbon dioxide can be separated using various methods or
process, after the overall process in the power plant, another processes.
cleaning step is added afterwards. In most cases, cleaning is Figure 5 shows an overview of the different methods
carried out wet-chemically by means of gas scrubbing with of ­CO2 capturing. They can be subdivided into absorption
solvents. The carbon dioxide from the exhaust gas is bound process, processes with gas–solid reactions, adsorption pro-
to the scrubbing agent. By heating the scrubbing liquid, the cesses, (Figs 6, 7, 8) cryogenic processes, membrane pro-
carbon dioxide can be released again. Thus, a regeneration cesses and natural inclusion. The individual methods are
of the scrubbing agent takes place. Another process would explained in detail in the following subchapters.
be dry adsorption, in which the C ­ O2 is attached to solids.
Membrane technologies can also be used for post-combus-
tion. In this process, the gas mixture is separated by a mem- Absorption process
brane. (Fischedick et al. 2015)
In absorption, a component of a gas phase is transferred
Oxy‑combustion into a liquid or a solid. The aim is to remove the component
from the gas phase as selectively as possible through the
Carbon capture by oxy-combustion occurs after the combus- absorbent. In the case of absorption, a distinction is made
tion process in the oxygen atmosphere. between chemical absorption (Chemisorption) and physical
Figure 4 shows a flow diagram of a power and heat absorption (Physisorption). (Schwister and Leven 2020)
generation process using the oxy-combustion method. In
a coal-fired power plant, the coal is not burned in the air Chemical absorption
but with pure oxygen. The exhaust gas consists mainly of
­CO2 and water vapour. When the water vapour is cooled, it The chemical absorption (Chemisorption) is commonly
condenses and can be separated. Through further cleaning used in post-combustion capture. In the process, a chemi-
steps, the remaining waste gas can be freed from accom- cal reaction of the component to be absorbed occurs in the
panying substances such as S ­ O2. The advantages of the liquid. (Schwister and Leven 2020) The chemical absorp-
oxy-combustion process are that the carbon dioxide is thus tion methods are the most frequently used C
­ O2 separation
completely retained. The disadvantage, however, is that the methods. The main advantage of chemical absorption is the

Fig. 3  Post-combustion. (Madejski et al. 2022)

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8090 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:8087–8104

Fig. 4  Oxy-combustion. (Madejski et al. 2022)

Fig. 5  Overview of ­CO2 capturing methods. (Madejski et al. 2022)

high purity of the carbon dioxide product stream (more than The carbon dioxide first dissolves in water and is then bound
99% ­CO2). Thus, no further purification step is necessary. to monoethanolamine in a chemical reaction. The remaining
However, a high energy requirement is needed for the down- gas is thus purified of C
­ O2. (scinexx | Das Wissensmagazin.
stream detergent regeneration step. (Fischedick et al. 2015) Einfach rauswaschen. 2021)

Amines R − NH2 + CO2 ⇌ R − NHCOO− + H + (1)

In the following step, the amine solution loaded with C

­ O2
Amine scrubbing is a method for C ­ O2 separation. Monoetha- is heated and decompressed at low pressure. The counter-
nolamine (MEA) and methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) can reaction thus promoted can now take place and the carbon
be used for this procedure. In this process, the gas to be dioxide is released again. The released amine can be used
purified flows into a container at elevated pressure. Finely for another wash. (scinexx Das Wissensmagazin. Einfach
distributed droplets of the amine absorber are sprayed into it. rauswaschen. 2021)

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:8087–8104 8091

Fig. 6  Principle of amine wash-

ing. (Schwister and Leven 2020)

Fig. 7  Reaction of the N-substituted amino acid with carbon dioxide. (Liu et al. 2012)

Fig. 8  Schematic diagram

of typical Selexol process.
(Ghasem 2020)

Amine scrubbing is well suited for clean gases with high the gas of nitrogen oxides and sulphur-containing gases in
carbon dioxide content. If there are a lot of nitrogen oxides advance. (Schwister and Leven 2020)
or sulphurous gases, these react with the amine and reduce
the efficiency. In this case, it would be necessary to purify R − NH2 + H2 S ⇌ R − NH+3 + HS− (2)

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8092 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:8087–8104

The publication by Daneshvar et al. (2004) shows that Na2 CO3 + H2 O ⇌ 2 Na+ + HCO−3 + OH− (6)
the process can be optimized by using amine mixtures. For
example, with MDEA + PZ (piperazine) the disadvantage Alkaline salt solutions such as potassium carbonate
of slow absorption kinetics of MDEA can be compensated solution and sodium carbonate solution are mainly used
by the fast reaction kinetics of the activator PZ. (Daneshvar for the separation of C
­ O2 because of their basic character.
et al. 2004) (Fischedick et al. 2015)
The Benfield process (hot potash wash) uses a potassium
Amino acid salts carbonate solution.

An alternative to the amines are the amino acid salts. To

CO2 + K2 CO3 + H2 O ⇌ 2 KHCO3 (7)
increase solubility, the amino acids are neutralized with During absorption, elevated temperatures (> 60 °C)
a powerful base such as sodium or potassium hydroxide. are used for the potash solution to avoid precipitation
Alternatively, the salt of the amino acid can be used directly. of the salt. The process is done at an increased pressure
(Fischedick et al. 2015) (> 20 bar), which leads to an improved mass transfer. In
In the publication by Liu et al. N-substituted amino acid addition, enhancers are added to accelerate the formation of
salts are used for the separation of carbon dioxide. The the hydrogen carbonate ions via the formation of carbamate
N-substituted amino acid salts are dissolved in polyethyl- ions. (Erich et al. xxxx)
ene glycol. These reversibly absorb carbon dioxide in a 1:1 With the help of additives such as piperazine, an even bet-
ratio. The absorbed carbon dioxide was converted into oxa- ter mass transfer can be achieved. However, this substance
zolidinones. Desorption of the C ­ O2 was thus circumvented. should be used in high dosages, which requires additional
(Liu et al. 2012) measures to reduce emissions. (Hilliard and Rochelle 2004)
The use of amino acids has the advantage that they are After absorption, regeneration follows at a temperature of
stable against oxidative and thermal degradation. In addi- approx. 130 °C (Erich et al. xxxx).
tion, they have only a low toxicity. (Madejski et al. 2022)
Ionic liquids
Carbonates
Ionic liquids (ILs) are salts in liquid state or highly con-
Carbonates represent another possibility for chemical centrated aqueous salt solutions, which consist of anions
absorption. and cations. (Fraunhofer-Institut für Naturwissenschaftlich-
Absorption of carbon dioxide in aqueous solutions Technische Trendanalysen INT. Ionische Flüssigkeiten -
Fraunhofer INT. 2022) When using ionic liquids for C ­ O2
capturing, the vapour pressure can be neglected, furthermore
they are minimally flammable, dissolve C ­ O2 very well and
(3) are thermally and chemically stable. (Pakzad et al. 2020)
Ionic liquids can be classified into three groups: Room
Temperature Ionic Liquids (RTILs), Task Specific Ionic
Liquids (TSILs) and Supported Ionic Liquid Membranes
(SILMs). RTILs are made of organic cations and organic
or inorganic anions. TSILs behave like chemical solvents
at low pressures (> 1 bar) and can absorb up to three times
(4) more ­CO2 than RTILs. At high temperature and pressure, a
mixture of TSILs and SILMs may be a suitable alternative
for carbon dioxide capture. (Pakzad et al. 2020)
The properties of ionic liquids can be modified by vari-
The above reactions show the equilibrium reactions in the
ous mixtures of anions and cations. (Pakzad et al. 2020)
absorption of carbon dioxide in aqueous solutions. The reac-
Furthermore, these substances are very well suited for the
tion rate of carbon dioxide absorption is limited by the rate
incorporation of reactive substituents. For example, the inte-
of hydrogen carbonate formation. (Fischedick et al. 2015)
gration of an amine group can significantly improve the ­CO2
Reactions in aqueous carbonate solutions
absorption properties. (Fischedick et al. 2015)
K2 CO3 + H2 O ⇌ 2 K + + HCO−3 + OH− (5)

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:8087–8104 8093

Ammonia Physical absorption

Ammonia scrubbing is a chemical absorption process. The The physical absorption (Physisorption) is commonly used
carbon dioxide first passes from the gas phase into the liquid in pre-combustion capture. It is based on physical interac-
phase due to the partial pressure gradient. After hydrolysis tions (Van der Waals forces). Since these bonds are only
of ­CO2, it reacts with N
­ H3 in an aqueous environment to very weak, the absorption process can be reversed (desorp-
form an ammonium carbamate compound. (Fischedick et al. tion). This requires changes in pressure and temperature. To
2015) dissolve a high amount of gas in liquid high partial pressures
Overall reaction are necessary and low concentrations of the dissolved gas in
the liquid. (Schwister and Leven 2020)
(8)
( )
CO2 (g) + NH3 (aq) + H2 O (l) ⇌ NH4 HCO3 (aq) Different detergents are used for physical washing.
Table 1 shows a comparison of the process conditions
Individual reactions
and selected physical/chemical properties of three physical
CO2 (g) ⇌ CO2 (ag) (9) solvents used on a large scale. The solubility of carbon diox-
ide is specified at 25 °C. For methanol, the solubility was
2NH3 (aq) + CO2 (aq) ⇌ NH2 COONH4 (aq) (10) indicated at −25 °C because it is highly volatile. (Fischedick
et al. 2015)
NH2 COONH4 (aq) + H2 O ⇌ (NH4 )HCO3 (aq) + NH3 (aq)
Selexol
(11)
(NH4 )HCO3 (aq) + NH4 (aq) + OH− (aq) A physical absorption method is the one used with Selexol.
(12)
For this, dimethyl ether of polyethylene glycol is used as
( )
⇌ NH4 2 CO3 (aq) + H2 O (aq)
the absorbent. The carbon dioxide and sulphur compounds
( ) ( ) are removed with water and aromatic compounds. (Ghasem
NH4 2 CO3 + CO2 (aq) + H2 O (1) ⇌ 2 NH4 HCO3 (aq)
2020)
(13)
Before the gas stream enters the Selexol unit, it is dehy-
The reactions in the solution are reversible. The chemi- drated. On the one hand, the gas stream is thus dried out and,
cal equilibrium depends on the temperature and the con- on the other hand, the acid gas is removed. At the bottom of
centration. Therefore, a low temperature (0–10 °C) is set the Selexol absorber, the gas then enters the unit and rises
for absorption, because the equilibrium of reactions 3–8 is upwards, while the solvent enters at the top and flows down-
on the right side of the reaction equation. (Fischedick et al. wards. Via physical absorption, the carbon dioxide is thus
2015) purified and leaves the plant at the top. The spent solvent
With a high temperature, the chemical equilibrium is on leaves the plant at the bottom of the absorber and is reintro-
the left side. Therefore, a temperature > 120 °C is set during duced at the top after recycling. (Ghasem 2020)
the subsequent regeneration. The carbon dioxide is released The advantage of the Selexol process is that little or no
from the liquid phase again. The gaseous ­CO2 is collected energy is required. The process can also be carried out with
and compressed for transport. (Pieper and EnArgus.) or without cooling. However, the process is not suitable for
Compared to amine scrubbing, ammonia scrubbing streams with high hydrocarbon content or low acid gas par-
requires less energy. However, low absorber temperatures tial pressures. (Ghasem 2020)
are required to limit ammonia losses. (Pieper and EnArgus.) The process can be used in the cement industry, for
example. In the research work by Tsunatu et al. (2015), the
Selexol-based ­CO2 capturing method was technically evalu-
ated. The simulation results showed that 97% of the carbon

Table 1  Comparison of Selexol Rectisol Purisol

detergents for physical gas
washes. (Fischedick et al. 2015) Detergent Polyethyleneglycol Methanol N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone
dimethylether

absorber pressure > 20 bar > 20 bar > 20 bar

absorption temperature − 40 °C − 70– − 10 °C − 40–20 °C
CO2 solubility (­ m3 ­CO2/m3 3,628 13,458 (− 25 °C) 3,568
solvent) (25 °C,1 bar)

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8094 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:8087–8104

dioxide can be captured. The Selexol method was able to the separation of the ­CO2. If a C
­ O2-selective membrane is
reduce ­CO2 emissions from 4.86 to 0.13% in the simulation used, a higher purity can be reached. (Scholes et al. 2013)
of the Ashaka cement plant. (Tsunatu et al. 2015)
Purisol
Rectisol
The Purisol process was developed by the Lurgi Company
In the rectisol process, the solvent methanol is used to and is particularly suitable for cleaning synthesis gas in
remove carbon dioxide from the synthesis gas. It was devel- gas turbines with integrated gasification (IGCC systems).
oped independently by the two companies Linde and Lurgi. A mixture of N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) and water is
Absorption in the rectisol wash occurs at a temperature used as the absorbent. (Fischedick et al. 2015)
of − 50 °C to limit losses of the detergent. A refrigeration Absorption usually proceeds at ambient temperature
system is required for the low operating temperatures. The (although temperatures as low as −40 °C are also possible)
subsequent desorption is done with nitrogen and temperature and at a pressure of about 70 bar. Desorption is then carried
change. The detergent loaded with carbon dioxide is thus out by reducing the pressure and boiling out the solvent.
regenerated (Pieper and EnArgus.). (Fischedick et al. 2015)
Figure 9 shows the process flow diagram of the simpli-
fied Rectisol Process. Because the focus of this process is
on the recovery of H
­ 2, the required purity is not achieved in Processes with gas–solid reactions

Solids like metal oxides, zeolites or metal organic frame-

works (MOF) can be used for carbon capture. MOF consists
of hydrocarbon framework with embedded metal ions to
achieve selectivity towards certain molecules. Solids in gen-
eral are compact, have a high absorption speed and can bind
more carbon dioxide per volume unit than liquid solutions.

CaO

The CaO-looping method can be also used for carbon cap-

ture. Limestones are used as a source of CaO. The sorbent
circulates between two connected fluidized bed reactors. The
CaO looping process is shown schematically in Fig. 10. Flue
gas is fed into the carbonator which consists of a material
based on CaO. The carbon dioxide reacts fast with the CaO
by high temperatures around 580 to 700 °C to calcium car-
bonate. In the calciner the regeneration of CaO takes place
and a concentrated carbon dioxide steam is produced. (Erans
et al. 2016)
Exotherm reaction ∶ CaO + CO2 → CaCO3 (14)

Endotherm reaction ∶ CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 (15)

Fig. 9  Process flow diagram of the simplified Rectisol Process.
(Scholes et al. 2013)

Fig. 10  Schematic representa-

tion of CaO-looping. (Manovic
and Anthony 2010)

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:8087–8104 8095

Fig. 11  Schematic of mem-

brane-based ­CO2 separation
process from flue gas streams.
(Khalilpour et al. 2015)

The temperature of the exothermic reaction is a limited the pore size and the addition of extra metal cations. (Wang
factor. If the temperature is too high, no reaction takes place. et al. 2018)
(Erans et al. 2016) MOFs can also be used in combination with water-dis-
Sulphur dioxide is also a component of flue gas and reacts persible nanocatalysts for the desorption reaction of carbon
irreversible with CaO to calcium sulphate. This leads to a dioxide, which greatly reduces the energy required. This
reduced carbon dioxide binding capacity on the surface of contributes to an energy-efficient carbon capture. There-
the CaO. Other sintering processes occur while the calcina- fore, acidic F­ e3O4 nanoclusters were used as substrates
tion because of high steam pressure or carbon dioxide partial for the modulated self-assembly of various MOFs. The
pressure. (Erans et al. 2016) presence of carboxylates on the core surface promotes the
Research to improve the process has been done. Lime- formation of active mesoporosity throughout the network
stones from different regions were used. A steam reactiva- of assembled MOFs. The mesoporous shell created in
tion was performed in which the sorbent was hydrated by this way simplifies the subsequent coordination of chelat-
water steam. This led to a higher activity and to a better ing sulphate groups on the metal clusters and enables a
sorbent property. A thermal pre-treatment with different higher density of Brønsted acid sites. The water-dispersible
temperatures and time periods to stabilize the morphology ­Fe3O4@MOF-SO4 nanocatalysts can actively contribute to
of the sorbent has also been investigated. Not all limestones carbon dioxide desorption reactions (Fig. 11). The energy
showed improved results. A palletization with aluminate- consumption required for desorption is strongly reduced in
based cements leads to a loss of activity by high tempera- this process. (Alivand et al. 2022)
tures. The pellets can be formed new when reactivated with
water and many cycles can be done. The palletization causes
the formation of macropores and mesopores. The different Adsorption processes
methods are promising, and a combination of these methods
seems to improve the performance of the sorbent. (Manovic In an adsorption process, components of a gas phase attach
and Anthony 2010) themselves to the solid surface. In the case of physical
adsorption, the substances are bound to the surface of the
MOF solid by London dispersion forces, whereas in the case of
chemical adsorption, the molecules form a chemical bond
MOFs are porous and crystalline. They consist of metal (covalent or ionogenic) at the phase interface. It is important
ions or metal group peaks which are connected by organic that the adsorbents, in addition to their chemical properties,
linkers. Selectivity, pore shape and size, capacity, kinetics have a large surface area in relation to their mass. Further-
and adsorbing surfaces can be easily adjusted. (Yaumi et al. more, the adsorbent should have availability, C ­ O2 selectiv-
2017) ity, high stability, easy regeneration, low cost and sufficient
With functional groups the organic linkers can be modi- adsorption capacity (González et al. 2013). (Fischedick et al.
fied to adjust the electric potential of the surface. Func- 2015)
tional groups, organic linkers and inorganic nudes can be
combined to obtain the desired properties. For carbon cap- Chemical adsorption
ture and separation by adsorption MOFs are seen as some
promising possibilities. To develop efficient MOFs different In chemical adsorption, chemical bonds such as ionogenic or
strategies have been suggested. For example, the integration covalent bonds are formed between the adsorbed substance
of amines, the addition of functional groups, the control of and the surface of the solid. (Schwister and Leven 2020)

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8096 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:8087–8104

Amine‑based adsorbents Zeolites

Amines are used to functionalize solid porous materials. Zeolites can be produced synthetically or naturally and are
A high density of amine groups on the carrier material is microporous and crystalline silicate framework materials.
desired. Solid adsorbents functionalized with polymeric They have a uniform pore size (0.5–1.2 nm) and are con-
amines can be used for this purpose. Examples of poly- nected by a channel network. Alkali and alkaline earth cati-
meric amines being investigated are polyaniline, polyeth- ons have been incorporated into chabazite zeolites studied
yleneimine, polyallylamine, polypropyleneimine, amino- for carbon dioxide capture. Chabazite zeolites with sodium
dendrimers or hyperbranched polyamines. (Varghese and and calcium had advantages in high temperature separations
Karanikolos 2020) and the NaX zeolite showed good results in low tempera-
ture separation (Zhang et al. 2008). ­CO2 adsorption with
Metal oxides zeolites depends on their structure, framework composition,
shape, size, purity, polarity and cationic states. The under-
For the adsorption of ­CO2 with metal oxides activated alu- lying mechanism of C ­ O2 adsorption is a linear orientation
minium oxide modified with sodium hydroxide can be used. through an ion–dipole reaction (Montanari and Busca 2008).
The use in a fixed bed column adsorption system was inves- Another mechanism is the selective adsorption of molecules
tigated at different temperatures, time periods and sodium with large energetic dipole and quadrupole moment. ­CO2
hydroxide concentrations (Auta et al. 2013). has a high quadrupole moment that can interact with the
Also, ­CO2 capture can be performed with a mesoporous electron field generated by the structural cations of zeolites
alumina produced by a sol–gel process. The mesoporous (Coriani et al. 2000). ­CO2 absorption is influenced by pres-
alumina has a large surface area and large pore volumes. The sure and temperature. A pressure of over 2 bar is used. With
pores are also closely distributed. There are both chemical increasing temperature, the adsorption capacity of the zeo-
and physical adsorption sites for C
­ O2 on the surface (Chen lites decreases, as does moisture in the gas to be captured
and Ahn 2011). (Yaumi et al. 2017).

Physical adsorption Carbon based

Physical adsorption occurs when the substances to be Carbon-based substances can also be used as adsorption
adsorbed are bound to the surface of the solid by van der agents. For example, sustainable carbon adsorption agents
Waals forces (Schwister and Leven 2020). were produced from biomass residues. The activation was
Pressure vacuum swing adsorption (VSA) is a physical carried out in a single step with ­CO2 and was optimized
adsorption process for separating gas compounds. For this to create narrow micropores, which increases the adsorp-
method the use of zeolite (Campo et al. 2016) or activated tion capacity. Dynamic initial experiments in a fixed-bed
carbon (Shen et al. 2011; Xu et al. 2013) were investigated. adsorption system demonstrated rapid adsorption and
When using a single VSA stage, a significantly lower vac- desorption kinetics and high C ­ O2 selectivity. The tested
uum is necessary to achieve the specific carbon dioxide adsorption agents can separate a mixture of 14% C ­ O2 with
product purity required for acceptable carbon dioxide recov- residual ­N2 at 50 °C and are easily regenerated. (González
ery (Bui et al. 2018). et al. 2013)
Temperature swing adsorption (TSA) is a physical Graphene is the two-dimensional form of carbon, it
adsorption process for separating gas components using has a planar hexagonal arrangement and is stable under
thermal energy (Bui et al. 2018). Improved cycles for ambient conditions (Katsnelson 2007). The adsorption
TSA operation have been developed with regeneration capacity of graphene also decreases at higher tempera-
energies comparable to those of solvent-based processes. tures. By using graphene-based nanocomposites, this
Furthermore, additional cleaning and recycling steps and problem can be circumvented. Iron oxide ­( Fe 3O4) parti-
reheat were used to produce ­CO 2 with very high purity cles can be dispersed on the graphene surface, ensuring
and high recovery. The adsorbent chosen was 13 × -zeo- adsorption capacity even at high temperatures. (Mishra
lite. This zeolite strongly adsorbs water, which reduces and Ramaprabhu 2014) Graphene can also be used to
its ­CO 2 capacity. Therefore, the flue gas stream had to produce very thin filters with specific pore sizes for ­CO2
be dried before the TSA. This additional drying step molecules for application as membrane technology for
increases the energy demand of the TSA and is therefore ­CO2 capture (Huang et al. 2021).
not well suited for large-scale ­CO 2 capture. Adsorbents
that do not adsorb water should therefore be used (Joss
et al. 2017).

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MOPS energy input required for cooling. They are compatible with
pre-combustion or oxygen-fired combustion processes. Due
Microporous organically pillared layered silicates (MOPS) to the high cooling costs, processes must be developed to
are besides MOFs another class of microporous hybrid reduce these costs. (Sanni et al. 2021)
materials. The synthesis of MOPS is done by a one-pot ion For example, the cryogenic process for C
­ O2 capture from
exchange of (metal) organic cations with layered silicates a flue gas has been investigated. The flue gas is generated
(clays). The resulting pores are slot-shaped and non-spher- from a liquefied natural gas (LNG)-fired power plant, which
ical. The slot height and pore width are independently allowed the cold energy of LNG to be used. The process did
adjustable. Only carbon dioxide molecules can enter the not require an excessive amount of LNG to be gassed and
pore system, all other flue gas components remaining in 90% ­CO2 could be recovered at temperatures of−140 °C.
the flue gas flow. The separation performance of the tested (Xu and Lin 2017)
a MOPS-7 (pillared with 1, 4-diammoniumbutane dicta-
tion) is based solely on physisorption, allowing regen-
eration with helium flushing. MOPS-7 has an increased Membrane processes
carbon dioxide affinity under dynamic process conditions
because of optimal pore properties such as size and polar- Membrane processes separate atoms and molecules accord-
ity. Methane and nitrogen are excluded by the low pore ing to their size. The large particles cannot pass through the
height of MOPS-7. This material can be used for mem- membrane and are retained. The separation characteristics of
brane systems. (Rieß et al. 2020) the membrane are determined by permeability and selectiv-
ity. Only the concentration gradient is the driving force of
this separation. Therefore, these methods are energetically
Cryogenic processes favourable because they do not require any additional energy
(Madejski et al. 2022).
In the cryogenic process, the carbon dioxide is physically Membranes are often mentioned as possible methods in
separated from the flue gas or exhaust gas. This can be done post-combustion separation. The low carbon dioxide con-
by condensation, sublimation or distillation. The precondi- centration and the low pressure in the flue gas is a major
tion for a cryogenic process is that the sublimation tempera- problem in the use of membranes. A high selectivity of the
ture of the ­CO2 is lower than the sublimation temperature of membrane is necessary (Brunetti et al. 2010).
the other gas component. (Madejski et al. 2022) Membranes should have the following characteristics to
The higher the carbon dioxide concentration (above capture carbon dioxide. The membranes should be resistant
about 70%) in the gas, the more cost-effective this method to ageing and plasticization. They should have a high car-
becomes. To produce liquid C ­ O2, the cryogenic C
­ O2 capture bon dioxide/nitrogen selectivity and a high carbon dioxide
systems are also attractive because the transport by pumping permeability. Furthermore, the membranes should be cost-
of liquid ­CO2 requires less energy. A hybrid process consist- efficient and also be able to be used for different membrane
ing of an adsorption process followed by a cryogenic process components (Powell and Qiao 2006).
is therefore an ideal solution. (Bui et al. 2018) The use of this method is efficient for selective mem-
The CryoCell® technology is used to remove carbon branes and a sufficient large concentration gradient. A low
dioxide from natural gas in a liquid form. Another compo- carbon dioxide partial pressure leads to a loss of energy
nent of natural gas is methane. This method uses the dif- efficiency. New materials for membranes with optimized
ferent sublimation point of carbon dioxide and methane. A separation characteristics and an improved process design
solid phase with pure carbon dioxide is generated at specific are important. Also a combination of membrane separation
temperature and pressure conditions. A dense phase with a with other carbon capture methods is useful (Mat and Lip-
high percentage of carbon dioxide and a light phase with a scomb 2017).
low percentage are created. In a separator vessel the phases Some membranes are naturally hydrophobic and therefore
are subjected to physical separation. In the bottom of the cannot be used for carbon dioxide capture without modifica-
vessel the solid carbon dioxide is collected and is melted tions. The performance can be increased by modifications in
there. This process can be adapted for different carbon diox- chemical and thermal stability, material selection, thickness,
ide concentrations in the natural gas. (Hart and Gnanendran durability, permeability and surface area (Sanni et al. 2021).
2009)
Commercially, separation using the cryogenic process Polymeric membrane
takes place for waste gas streams with more than 90% ­CO2,
because the process is only economically efficient above Block polymer system copolymers are made of hard and
this concentration. This process is also limited by the high soft blocks. The hard block forms glassy segments and the

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8098 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:8087–8104

soft block rubbery segments. Good separation with no loss Membrane contactors
of permeability is ensured by a good ratio between these
two components of the copolymers. The rubbery segments In an extended sense, membrane contactors can also be
ensure a higher free volume which leads to a better gas per- counted among the membrane processes. Contactors in gen-
meation. One advantage of copolymers is that an effective eral are used to achieve a direct mass transfer between non-
and costly polymer can be combined with a cheaper mono- miscible phases. The contactor increases the phase interface.
mer to reduce costs. Polymers like polycarbonates, poly- Membrane contactors allow diffuse mass transfer through a
imides and polysulfones are used for membranes. They are porous membrane and stabilize the phase interface. In con-
characterized by a good performance and offer a big range ventional membrane processes, membrane selectivities, for
for structural variability. Polyimides are the most researched example, are responsible for the separation process. (Raut-
polymer class, because of their gas transport characteris- enbach 2007)
tics, good physical characteristics, simple production and Advantages of membrane contactors are that they can
potential structural variabilities. Besides synthetic strategies be combined with other methods, such as extraction,
the polymer packing can affect permeabilities in a variety desorption, absorption and distillation, and they are also
of manners. If the polymer chains are densely packed, the efficient and cost-effective (Mansourizadeh et al. 2022).
selectivity gets greater but the permeability less (Powell and When using amine solutions as absorbents, hollow fibre
Qiao 2006). membrane contactors (HFMC) can be used, for example.
Their use in the carbon dioxide capture process reduces
Ceramic membrane the size of the absorber or stripper after combustion. The
materials used should be solvent and adhesive compat-
Ceramic-carbonate double-phase membranes consist of a ible, have high gas permeability and be cost effective.
two-layer structure composed of a thick large-pore base and (Porcheron et al. 2011)
a thin small-pore ceramic top layer. The ceramic top layer An HFMC can also be used for carbon dioxide separa-
is infiltrated with carbonate, making it gas tight. This thin tion from a C­ O2/N2 mixed gas. A 10% aqueous solution of
and non-porous layer ensures the selectivity of C
­ O2 permea- glycerol was used as the absorbent. Raising the gas–liquid
tion. The permeability at high temperatures of two-phase flow rate led to a decrease in the residence time of carbon
membranes consisting of ionic or mixed conductive ceramic dioxide and thus to a lower separation efficiency. The separa-
phase and molten carbonate phase is only given for ­CO2. tion efficiency could be improved by lowering the absorp-
The ­CO2 permeability can be maximized by configuring the tion temperature. It was also observed that high wetting has
microstructure of pores and solids of the ceramic support a disadvantageous effect on the separation efficiency as a
material (Lu and Lin 2013; Ortiz-Landeros et al. 2013). result of the increasing mass transfer resistance. (Moham-
madi Saadat et al. 2022)
Hybrid membrane

Mixed matrix membranes (MMMs) are produced from Natural inclusion

hybrid materials and can improve the separation perfor-
mance of polymer membranes while maintaining their Plants
advantages such as low cost and ease of processing. The
addition of porous nanofillers can improve the selectivity, In photosynthesis, green plants bind the carbon dioxide in
permeability and stability of polymer membranes, and they the air and convert it into glucose and water with the energy
offer great variety due to their adjustability of pore size of sunlight. (Brandt et al. 2020)
and distribution. Porous nanofillers can be MOFs, zeolites,
porous organic frameworks (POFs) and also porous carbon- 6 CO2 + 6 H2 O + light energy → C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2 (16)
silicon nanocomposite fillers (CMS). As an example, CMS Carbon dioxide fixation in the chloroplasts of the plant
can be combined with Metrimid® membranes. The CMS cells is catalyzed by the enzyme ribulose-1, 5-bisphosphate
can be manufactured in a way that its surface chemistry and carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco). (Brandt et al. 2020)
porosity are adjustable. The carbon phase provides better In the publication by Morikawa et al. (2022), solar-driven
separation efficiency with higher ­CO2 affinity and additional ­CO2 reduction is carried out using an artificial monolithic
porosity. (Ahmadi et al. 2018; Waqas Anjum et al. 2015) leaf. (Morikawa et al. 2022)
Similar to photosynthesis in plants, C­ O2 molecules are
reduced from electrons and protons obtained from water

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:8087–8104 8099

Spirulina platensis (318.61 mg/L/day), Botryococcus

braunii (496.98 mg /L/day), and Chlorococcum littorale
(1,000 mg/L/day). (Sydney et al. 2010)
Microalgae have the potential to form biomass and
sequester carbon dioxide 5 to 10 times faster compared to
fast-growing terrestrial plants (given the same footprint
and solar radiation). However, there are fluctuations in the
growth of microalgae depending on the season. Thus, there
can be no continuous year-round operation. (Fischedick et al.
2015)
New approaches and technologies are being developed for
using microalgae for ­CO2 capturing. For use in the energy
industry, the algae plant must be located directly at a power
plant. The flue gases from the power plant are fed into reac-
tors. The algae suspension uses the C­ O2 from the flue gases
to form biomass. The algae biomass is then separated from
the suspension. (Fischedick et al. 2015)

Fig. 12  Semiconductor hybrid photosystem for C

­ O2 reduction. (Mori- Bacteria
kawa et al. 2022)
Different types of bacteria can be utilized for the conversion
molecules to produce oxygen. This requires sunlight as an of carbon dioxide into other substances.
energy source. (Morikawa et al. 2022)
Bacillus mucilaginosus
H2 O → O2 + 2 H + + 2e− (17)

In artificial photosynthesis technology (Fig. 12), a metal In the publication by Zhang et al. (2008), Bacillus mucilagi-
complex catalyst and a semiconductor capable of absorbing nosus was used to capture atmospheric ­CO2. This bacterium
visible light are combined. The semiconductor-molecule can excrete carbonic anhydrase. This reversibly catalyzes the
hybrid system uses the low overpotential of an aqueous ­CO2 hydration of carbon dioxide. Zhicai Z et al. 2011
reduction reaction. (Morikawa et al. 2022) CO2 + H2 O ⇌ HCO−3 + H + (19)
CO2 + H + + 2 e− → HCOO− (18) When cultivated in a calcareous medium, the concentra-
­ a2+ increased with the amount of limestone. This
tion of C
In a single-chamber reaction, formate can be produced led to a decrease in carbonic anhydrase activity in the bac-
from ­CO2 and ­H2O with the help of sunlight. The efficiency terial growth kinetics. The authors therefore suggested that
of 4.6% is higher than that of green plants. (Morikawa et al. Bacillus mucilaginosus first captures ­CO2 by the enzyme
2022) carbonic anhydrase and only then fixation is carried out with
bacterial metabolism. Zhicai Z et al. 2011
Algae
Acetogenic bacteria
Microalgae are another way to bind C ­ O2 from the air. These
are plant microorganisms that grow in aqueous suspensions Acetogenic bacteria represent another possibility for bind-
with sunlight. In the process of photosynthesis, carbon diox- ing ­CO2 from the air. These catalyze the reaction in which
ide is converted into glucose and oxygen with water and the carbon dioxide reacts with hydrogen to formic acid and
solar energy. (Fischedick et al. 2015) water. (Schwarz et al. 2021)
Different types of algae can be used for the cultivation 4 H2 + 2 CO2 ⇌ CH3 COOH + 2 H2 O (20)
of algae. The performance depends on the algae species,
light source, nutrients, pH, temperature and mass transfer. Biocatalysis was tested in a batch process in stirred tank
(Alami et al. 2021) The evaluation of the different micro- bioreactors. The conversion proceeded with an efficiency of
algae species in the publication by Sydney et al. (2010) 100% and achieved a specific rate of 48.3 mmol ­g−1 ­h−1. The
showed considerable differences: Dunaliella tertiolecta advantage of this process is that no undesired side reactions
(272.4 mg/L/day), Chlorella vulgaris (251.64 mg /L/day), took place. (Schwarz et al. 2021)

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8100 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:8087–8104

Fig. 13  Hydrogen-dependent
carbon dioxide reduction by
Escherichia coli. (Roger et al.
2018)

Escherichia coli (calcium oxide and magnesium oxide) to form carbonates.

(Meng et al. 2021)
In the publication by Roger et al. (2018) an efficient hydro-
gen-dependent carbon dioxide reduction by Escherichia coli
CaSiO3 (s) + CO2 (g) → CaCO3 (s) + SiO2 (s) (22)
was carried out. (Roger et al. 2018)
During mixed acid fermentation in Escherichia coli, for- MgSiO3 (s) + CO2 (g) → MgCO3 (s) + SiO2 (s) (23)
mic acid is normally split into carbon dioxide and hydrogen
The resulting chemical reaction is exothermic, thermo-
by the enzyme formate hydrogen lyase (FHL). (Beyer 2014)
dynamically favourable and the carbonates formed during
HCOO− ⇌ CO2 + H2 (21) carbonation are stable, which offers advantages for the sub-
sequent storage of ­CO2. (Meng et al. 2021)
If the gaseous C
­ O2 and the H­ 2 are pressurized (10 bar), Various natural minerals such as serpentine, olivine,
the enzyme can also catalyze the reverse reaction (Fig. 13). wollastonite and basalt can also be used for mineralization.
When intact cells were used, the complete conversion of the (Meng et al. 2021)
carbon dioxide could proceed. Escherichia coli can thus be Solid industrial wastes that have a high CaO or MgO con-
used for carbon capture and as a cell factory for formic acid tent are also additional sources of alkalinity. Fly ash, steel
production. (Roger et al. 2018) slag, phosphogypsum and ore tailings can be used. These
industrial wastes offer advantages over natural minerals
Kitasatospora setae because they are cheaper, have higher alkali content and
have a much higher reaction rate due to the smaller particles.
Carboxylases are biocatalysts that can bind ­CO2 under (Meng et al. 2021)
mild conditions and atmospheric concentrations. The fast- In the publication by Xie et al. (2015), mineralization
est and most efficient class is the enoyl-CoA carboxylases/ with industrial solid waste was presented by the Sinopec
reductases (ECR) found in the bacteria Kitasatospora setae. Group and Sichuan University in China. In a pilot plant,
These enzymes contain the three amino acids asparagine, phosphogypsum was used as a raw material and the ammo-
glutamine and histidine, which anchor the carbon dioxide nia was absorbed directly by C­ O2 from the waste gas. (Meng
from two sides. In addition, the amino acid phenylalanine et al. 2021; Xie et al. 2015)
shields the bound carbon dioxide like a protective shield
against water, which would otherwise inhibit the reaction.
( )
CaSO4 ⋅ 2 H2 O + 2 NH3 + CO2 → CaCO3 + NH4 2 SO4 + H2 O
(Stoffel et al. 2019) (24)

Mineralization

The mineralization of carbon dioxide mimics the natural

process of weathering of silicate minerals, i.e. the carbon
dioxide reacts with oxides of alkali or alkaline earth metals

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:8087–8104 8101

What to do with the captured ­CO2? high permeability. Components of these rocks get dissolved
in the water too and react with the carbon dioxide to carbon-
After the successful capture of CO2, the question arises what ates (Snæbjörnsdóttir et al. 2020).
can be done with it. There are currently two basic concepts Another project is the Northern Lights project in Norway.
for this. One deals with the storage of C ­ O2, for example The aim of the project is a permanent underground storage
underground. The other concept is looking for solutions to under the sea. Onshore captured carbon dioxide is trans-
make ­CO2 usable again as a resource. ported by ships to the pipelines. From 2024 onwards, the
­CO2 will be pumped out to sea via pipelines and pressed into
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) a layer of sand at a depth of over 2500 m. This sand layer
is covered by a layer of shale, which prevents the ­CO2 from
The aim of CCS is the removal of carbon dioxide from the escaping (Stratmann 2022).
atmosphere. Different project and studies have been done
to get closer to this aim. The first step is the separation of Carbon capture and utilization (CCU)
carbon dioxide from flue gas to lead carbon dioxide-free
flue gas into the atmosphere. The separated carbon dioxide In carbon capture and utilization, carbon dioxide is re-
can be transported by pipelines, ships, trucks, or railway to introduced into the value chain and used physically, bio-
the storage location, which can be on- or off-shore. During logically or chemically. For physical utilization, the carbon
transport, the carbon dioxide is liquified by high pressure dioxide can be used for the beverage and food industries
above 100 bar. (Fischedick et al. 2015) (high purity requirements). In addition, the ­CO2 can be
CarbFix in Iceland started as a project in 2006 and is now recycled as an inert gas, insulation material, impregnating
a separate entity. Their mission is to store one billion tons of agent and to increase the methane yield in coal deposits. If
carbon dioxide permanently. The method of choice for this the carbon dioxide is utilized for plant growth, the produc-
is based on mineral carbonation. The carbon dioxide is dis- tion of humus or bound by microorganisms or algae, it is a
solved in water and is then fed into the underground, which biological use. Chemically, the carbon dioxide can be used
consists of basaltic rocks. These rocks are porous and have a

Fig. 14  Target products of C

­ O2-based synthesis. (Bazzanella Krämer 2017)

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8102 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:8087–8104

to synthesize different kinds of chemicals. (Fischedick Data availability The datasets generated during and/or analysed dur-
et al. 2015) ing the current study are available from the corresponding author on
reasonable request.
Figure 14 shows an overview of which target chemicals
are produced in ­CO2-based syntheses. One example would Code availability Code availability is not applicable.
be urea synthesis. In this process, the carbon dioxide reacts
with the ammonia to form urea. This can be used as a nitro- Declarations
gen fertilizer or in the chemical industry as a starting mate-
Conflicts of interest All authors certify that they have no affiliations
rial for further chemical syntheses. (Bazzanella Krämer with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial
2017) (25) interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials dis-
cussed in this manuscript. All authors declare that they have no conflict
of interest.
(25)
Consent to participate Participate consent not applicable.
Kolbe–Schmitt synthesis is also a well-known example of
Consent for publication Publication consent not applicable.
the chemical use of carbon dioxide. In this process sodium
­ O2 to form salicylic acid. This
phenolate is reacted with C Ethical approval This article does not contain any studies with human
can be used to produce acetyl salicylic acid (aspirin) or to participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
make dyes and perfumes. (Bazzanella Krämer 2017) (26)
Informed consent Informed consent not applicable.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri-

(26) bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta-
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are
included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated
Outlook and conclusion otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will
As is so often the case, there is no ultimate and all-encom- need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a
passing solution to the ­CO2 problem. It would be decadent to copy of this licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/.
think that you can find a simple solution to such a complex
problem. Individual solutions must be found for the various
areas in which too much anthropogenic ­CO2 is produced. References
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