Science Grade 7 notes

Unit 1: Respiration
1.1 The human respiratory system
 All living things require respiration. Respiration is a series of chemical reactions inside the cell.
The kind of respiration that happens inside our cells is aerobic respiration.
 Organs that help take O2 out of the air and get rid of CO2 make up the respiratory system.
In order: Nose/Mouth, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchus, Bronchiole, Alveoli (Air Sacs)
1.2. Gas exchange
 Very tiny blood vessels called capillaries wrap around the Alveoli to diffuse O2 from the air into
the capillaries and CO2 in the blood diffuses into the air. AKA gas exchange
 When oxygen gets into the blood it combines with haemoglobin and it turns a bright red
 When you breathe in it is called inspired air and when you breathe out it is called expired air.
1.3. Breathing
 When you breathe in, the intercostal muscles contract and pull upwards and outwards the
diaphragm contracts and move downwards. Decreases pressure allowing air to flow in freely.
 When you breathe out, the intercoastal muscles relax and allow the ribs to go back to the
natural position, the diaphragm relaxes and returns to its original domed shape. The air
pressure increases, and air is pushed out.
1.4. Respiration
 Glucose is required so that the cells can get energy. Aerobic respiration occurs inside the cell in
the mitochondria. Equation: Glucose + Oxygen => Carbon Dioxide + Water (+ ATP [energy])
1.5. Blood
 Blood is made of multiple parts such as:
- Plasma: The liquid part of blood. It transports RBCs (Red Blood Cells), WBCs (White Blood
Cells), (and Platelets). It also transports nutrients and CO2.
- Red Blood Cell (RBC): They do not contain a nucleus or mitochondria. They are full of a red
pigment called haemoglobin. The shape of the RBC is made to deliver oxygen efficiently.
When haemoglobin is in contact with oxygen, it becomes oxyhaemoglobin
- White Blood Cell (WBC): They help us fight against pathogens (bacteria, viruses, etc....)
Some WBCs absorb the pathogen and injects chemicals to kill them, others produce
antibodies to kill them or to assist in killing them.
Unit 2: Properties of materials
2.1. Dissolving
 The solute dissolves in the solvent to create a solution, solutions are a mixture. All solutions are
transparent. Opaque mixtures are not solutions.
2.2. Solutions and solubility
 More particles of the solutes are dissolved in a concentrated solution than in a diluted
solution.
 Solids that will not dissolve in water are insoluble. If you keep adding soluble solids into a
solution, eventually it will become a saturated solution and it will no longer dissolve solutes.
 Solubility is how much of a solute will dissolve in a certain amount of solvent

2.3. Planning a solubility investigation

 The things that could affect the result of the experiment is called variables
- The variable that you change is called the Independent variable
 - The variable that you measure is called the Dependent variable
- The variables that you keep the same is called the Control variables
2.4. Paper chromatography
 Inks can be split into the parts that they are made of via paper chromatography. The resulting
image on the paper is called a chromatogram.
 The ink is carried up by water, the more soluble the part is, the higher the water will carry it up
 Some inks are not soluble in water, so you must use a different solvent such as alcohol
Unit 3: Forces and energy
3.1. Forces and motion
 If an object is not moving, you might think that there are no forces acting on it. But it has
balanced forces acting on it. The forces are equal in size and opposite in direction
 Unbalanced forces can cause a change in speed or direction
3.2. Speed
 The standard unit for speed is meters per second. (m/s)
 To calculate speed, we use the formula: Distance/Time = Speed
 To calculate time, we use the formula: Distance/Speed = Time
 To calculate distance, we use the formula: Speed x Time = Distance
 Average speed is not always constant, it is the speed of the object during a journey
3.3. Describing movement
 A distance/time graph can be used to show movement. A straight horizontal line indicates the
object is stationary. If it is a line going down, it means the object is moving towards the starting
point. If it is a line going up, it means the object is moving away from the starting point.
 For sketch graphs you do not have to put numbers on the graph axes
3.4. Turning forces
 The object that turns is called a lever, and the point which it turns around is called the pivot.
 The turning effect of a force is called a moment. Equation: Force x Distance = Moment (Nm)
3.5. Pressure between solids
 Sharp objects such as knives can cut easily because they have a lower surface area in contact
with the object. As the area decreases, the pressure increases.
 Pressure on the object can be calculated by an equation. Equation: Force/Area = Pressure
(N/area)
3.6. Pressure in liquids and gases
 Pressure in liquid increases with depth because there is more liquid above pushing down.
 Particles in gases move randomly and collide with the walls of the container. Each time the gas
particles collide with the wall of the container, the particle exerts a small force on the wall. The
more particles there are, the more collisions happen, and the pressure increases.
 We live where the atmospheric pressure is the highest, at sea level. As the altitude increases,
the number of particles in a m3 of air decreases and the weight of the air above decreases.
 As a gas's temperature increases, the speed of its particles increases. Therefore, they exert more
energy, and it will increase the pressure of the gas.

3.7. Particles on the move

 Gases move randomly and when they are mixed, they diffuse to have an equal concentration.
Liquids also diffuse similarly to gases moving from high to low concentration
 The speed of diffusion can be affected by the difference in concentration and the temperature.
The bigger the difference in concentration, the faster the diffusion. The higher the
temperature, the particles can spread out faster
Unit 4: Ecosystems
4.1. The Sonoran Desert
 Deserts do not get much rainfall, so organisms must adapt so they can survive with little water.
When it does rain, the desert transforms and many plants quickly produce flowers. Insects feed
on the nectar and pollen in flowers, helping the plants to reproduce by pollinating them.
 Organisms interact with one another to stay alive. There are also interactions between living
and non-living parts of their environment, such as:
- Light: Helps the plants photosynthesise, producing food so other organisms can eat.
- Temperature: Very hot during the day but cold at night. Some organisms are nocturnal
which helps them from overheating or drying out. It is cooler underneath the soil, so some
organisms dig burrows for shelter.
- Soil: Rocks and soil provide material for plants to grow and building material for ground-
nesting birds.
- Water: Organisms need water for cells to be alive. When rain comes, it allows them to
become more active and to reproduce.
- Air: Provides CO2 for plants to use in photosynthesis, and oxygen for all the organisms to
use in respiration.
 All the interactions make up an ecosystem. Some of the interactions involve food webs
(Producers, Primary Consumers, Secondary Comsumers,…, Apex Predators, Decomposers). The
study of ecosystems is called ecology.
 The place where an organism naturally lives is called a habitat
4.2. Different ecosystems
 Most ecosystems have the same structure of producers, consumers, apex predators and
decomposers.
4.3. Intruders in an ecosystem
 Native species are species that are originally from that area/region.
 Species who do not belong to the region are an invasive species. They could mess up the whole
ecosystem and eradicate (make them extinct) all native species.
4.4. Bioaccumulation
 Insecticides are chemicals which kill insects e.g., DDT
 Some chemicals such as DDT are non-biodegradable (do not break down), are persistent and
stay in the environment for many years, is very toxic to animals.
 As DDT cannot be broken down, they can be in substances that organisms eat, and they
accumulate in the organism’s body. The longer it lives and more DDT it takes in, the more DDT
is in the body. This process is called bioaccumulation
 As you go up the food chain, the higher concentration of DDT. This is called biomagnification

Unit 5: Materials and cycles on Earth

5.1. The structure of an atom
 Atoms are made of sub-atomic particles. (Protons (positive charge), Neutrons (no charge),
Electrons (negative charge))
 Protons and neutrons (they have mass) form a nucleus, Electrons (little to no mass) move
around the nucleus. This is called electrostatic attraction.
 J.J Thompson discovered the electron (late 1890s) and created the “plum pudding model”
 Rutherford discovered the proton (1909) and nucleus (1911), created a famous experiment
(gold foil experiment)
5.2. Purity
  Pure – made of only one element
 Purity – calculated by parts of element over the total parts of material
 Reactions which have one product is pure, otherwise it is not
5.3. Weather and climate
 Weather (key factors: temperature, humidity, cloudiness, precipitation, visibility, and wind) –
the state of the atmosphere in a short period of time. (Meteorology)
 Climate (key factors: temperature and precipitation) – the state of the atmosphere over a long
period of time. (Climatology)
5.4. Climate and ice ages
 Glacial periods – “frozen period” ice spreads further from the north and south poles
 Interglacial periods – “between glacial period” permanent ice close to the north and south
poles
 There were not always interglacial and glacial cycles. It was too warm sometimes that there was
no permanent ice. Between these warm periods there were cold periods called ice ages.
 Peat bog – area of frozen dirt that decays very slowly, the different layers represent different
periods in history
5.5. Atmosphere and climate
 Early atmosphere contained: 95% CO2, 4% water vapor, traces of N2, ammonia, methane.
Average surface temperature: > 400 degrees celcius
 The atmosphere today contains: 78% N2, 21% O2, traces of CO2, water vapor, ammonia,
methane. Average surface temperature: 20 degrees celcius
 Photosynthesis: CO2 + H2O => C6H12O6 + O2
 When organisms die and rot, they turn into carbon. Some organisms do not rot and are turned
into fossil fuels, the carbon is locked inside until it is burned (released)
 Carbon in the air combines with O2 to make CO2
 Layers of gases produce the greenhouse effect, trapping heat and causing global warming.
 Renewable resources – are resources that do not run out. (Wind, tidal, solar, geothermal, etc...)
 Bioplastics – biodegradable material that comes from renewable sources

Unit 6: Light
6.1. Reflection
 Plane mirror – flat mirror
 Light travels in straight lines ‘rays’
 Light arriving at a surface is called an incident ray, going away from the surface is a reflected ray
 The line perpendicular from the surface of a mirror is called the normal
 Law of reflection: Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection
6.2. Refraction
 Things appear distorted due to refraction. (the background behind a glass of water)
 Medium – the material which light passes through. (air, glass, water)
 The change in speed changes the direction of light
 Current speed -> Faster speed = bend away from the normal
 Current speed -> Slower speed = bend towards the normal
6.3. Making rainbows
  Newton showed that white light contains many different colours with a triangular prism of
glass
 The spectrum – the range of colours that can be seen in white light. (ROY G BIV, red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet)
 Dispersion – splitting light into different colours. It happens because it refracts light. Red being
shortest distance (smallest angle) and violet being the longest distance (largest angle)
6.4. Colours of light
 Primary colours – colours which cannot be made by other colours. (Red, green, blue)
 Adding colours:
- Red + green = yellow
- Red + blue = magenta
- Blue + green = cyan
- Red + green + blue = white
 Coloured filters allow only one colour of light to pass through (transmit) and all the other
colours will be absorbed.
 Non-luminous objects reflect light so you can see it is colours
6.5. Galaxies
 Types of galaxies:
- Spiral (Milky Way)
- Elliptical (Canis Major)
- Irregular (Small & Large Magellanic clouds)
 Galaxies are made from stellar dust, planets, stars, solar systems (maybe black holes) and are
held together by gravity.
6.6. Rocks in space
 Asteroids are made of rock that is from the formation of the solar system.
 Most asteroids are in the Asteroid belt, between Mars and Jupiter.
 The largest asteroid, Ceres, is 975 km (about 605.84 mi) across. Looks like a small planet. Has a
core, mantle, and crust

Unit 7: Diet and growth

7.1. Nutrients
 Humans need many different nutrients to survive such as:
- Water: needed for chemical reactions inside the cell, you are almost 60% of water in weight
- Carbohydrates: broken down into glucose for energy (Sources: potatoes, whole grains, etc...)
- Protein: important for making and repairing cells, making haemoglobin and antibodies
(Sources: meats, fish, eggs, beans, etc...)
- Fats & oils: energy source and are needed to make cell membranes (Sources: butter, lard,
vegetable oils, etc...)
- Vitamins:
o Vitamin A: Helps with your vision, WBC to fight pathogens. (Sources: green
vegetables, fruits, some kinds of fish, etc. Having a lack of vitamin a in their diet may
not be able to see anything at night)
o Vitamin C: Helps the skin stay strong and heal quickly. Keeps blood vessels and
bones healthy. (Sources: fresh fruits, vegetables and potatoes are good sources. If
you do not consume enough vitamin c, you can get scurvy)
o Vitamin D: Helps absorb calcium, is needed for strong bones and teeth. (Sources:
Oily fish, sunlight. If you do not get enough vitamin d, you can get rickets)
 - Minerals:
o Calcium: Keeps bones and teeth strong. (Sources: foods made from milk, seeds, and
some nuts [almonds])
o Iron: Is needed to make haemoglobin. (Sources: meat [red meat], dark green
vegetables, many kinds of fish, etc...)
 Energy stores are made from excess carbohydrates and fats. They are stored under skin and
around some organs as long-term energy stores. A small amount of carbohydrates is stored in
the liver and muscles as short-term energy stores. They are also used to keep heat inside the
body.
7.2. A balanced diet
 A balanced diet includes all the different kinds of nutrients and the right amount of energy.
 As well as the other nutrients, you also need to eat plenty of fibre. It helps prevents
constipation
 There are things that you should not eat too much of such as:
- Too much sugar: Can make your teeth decay and increases the risk of diabetes
- Too much fat, oil, or carbohydrates: Puts strains on your joints, heart, and other organs
- Too much fat from animals: Increases the risk of developing heart diseases

7.3. Growth, development, and health

 Everyone started life with one singular cell. It starts with one cell then divides into 2 and so on.
 They produced a little ball of cells called an embryo
 Exercising helps us use some energy that we eat daily and keeps our mood good.
 Smoking damages the user’s health and the people around them.
 Tobacco contains many harmful chemicals such as:
- Nicotine: In tobacco smoke. It can help someone to stay alert but is addictive. Side effects:
damages blood vessels, increases risk of heart diseases
- Tar: Is in tobacco smoke, a mixture of dark and sticky substances. Some chemicals in tar
increase the risk of cancer including lung cancer.
- Carbon Monoxide (CO): A poisonous gas, prevents haemoglobin from transporting oxygen.
- Particulates: In tobacco smoke, tiny pieces of carbon and other materials break down the
walls of alveoli.
7.4. Moving the body
 Animals’ bodies are supported by a skeleton. Insects and other arthropods have an exoskeleton.
 Bones cannot bend so they can only move where the two bones meet, the joints.
 Types of joints:
- Hinge joints: They move back and forth like hinges on a door.
- Ball-and-socket joints: They move in a circular motion. One has fun, and another has a cup
 Muscles move bones at joints. Muscles only contract and work in pairs (Antagonistic [Ex. Biceps
and Triceps work together to move the forearm]. They are attached to the bone via tendons.
Unit 8: Chemical reactions
8.1. Exothermic reactions
  Fire triangle:
- Heat source
- Oxygen
- Fuel source
 Burning (combustion) changes a fuel (chemical energy) into heat (thermal energy), light (radiant
energy) and sound energy (auditory energy)
 A chemical reaction that gives out heat is called an exothermic reaction e.g., magnesium +
oxygen => magnesium oxide (oxidation reaction)
8.2. Endothermic reactions
 Reactions which absorb energy from their surroundings are called endothermic reactions e.g.,
Sodium Hydrogencarbonate + Citric sodium hydrogen carbonate + citric acid => Sodium Citrate +
Water + Carbon Dioxide
 Endothermic reactions like ice melting absorb heat from their surroundings. The difference
between endothermic reactions and endothermic processes are that one is a chemical reaction
(reactions) while the other could be a physical or biological reaction (process)

8.3. Reactions of metals with oxygen

 Metals which react more quickly are more reactive while ones who do not react are inert. Some
metals are too reactive that you must store them under oil to prevent them from reacting with
oxygen in the air. Equation: Metal + Oxygen => Metal Oxide (Iron + Oxygen => Iron Oxide)
 Iron when left in wet air, rusts. It reacts with oxygen to form an orange-brown solid called Iron
Oxide, changing iron properties.
8.4. Reactions of metals with water
 Some metals are too reactive for you to test in water such as sodium and potassium. They must
be stored underwater to prevent them from reacting to the water vapour in the air.
 Metals reacts with water to form metal hydroxide and hydrogen
Equation: Metal + Water => Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen
(Calcium + Water => Calcium Hydroxide + Hydrogen)
 Some metals that do not react with water may react with steam. Some may react more rapidly
e.g., Magnesium
8.5. Reactions of metals with dilute acids
 Metals react more violently when reacting with acid. The products are always salt and hydrogen
Equation: Metal + Acid => Salt + Hydrogen
(Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid => Magnesium Chloride + Hydrogen)
Unit 9: Magnetism
9.1. Magnetic fields
 A magnet is something that will attract magnetic material (objects that can be attracted by
magnets such as iron, steel, nickel, and cobalt)
 The magnetic field starts from the north pole (N) of the magnet to the south pole (S), like poles
repel each other
 Magnetic field lines are drawn to represent the magnetic field. They begin at one pole and end
at another, they must have arrows pointing from north to south.
9.2. The Earth as a giant magnet
 Around 4000 years ago, Greek shepherd called Magnes discovered a magnetic rock called
Magnetite which was naturally occurring.
  Compasses do not point exactly to the geographical North but the magnetic North. They slowly
move and are now in the Arctic Ocean north of Alaska.
 Compasses were important as they allowed people to navigate with less chance of getting lost.
Even today modern equipment (GPS) uses electric compasses.
9.3. Electromagnets
 Magnetic materials can be magnetised (an electromagnet) and can be turned on and off.
Permanent magnets cannot be turned off and on again.
 Parts required for an electromagnet:
- Coil(s) (copper)
- A core (iron)
- Cell(s) (battery)

9.4. Investigating electromagnets

 There are a few factors that affect the strength of the electromagnet, such as:
- The number of turns in the coil
- The material of the core
- The current in the coil
 Soft iron is not soft but is a term for iron that is easily magnetised and demagnetised