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English Language 3

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

54 views189 pages

English Language 3

Uploaded by

mahmoudtarekali136

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 189

Assiut University

Faculty of Arts
Dept. of English

Compiled and Edited by

The Dept. of English

-2-
CONTENTS

Page

1. GRAMMAR …………….......………………….….…… 7

2. READING COMPREHENSION PASSAGES ….…… 101

3. TIPS FOR WRITING A PARAGRAPH .…....………. 158

4. PASSAGES FOR TRANSLATION ..………..…..……. 176

REFERENCES ………………………………………… 188

-3-
-4-
GRAMMAR

-5-
-6-
GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES

Both gerunds and infinitives can be nouns, which means they

can do just about anything that a noun can do. Although they name
things, like other nouns, they normally name activities rather than
people or objects. Here are five noun-uses of gerunds and infinitives
(and one additional non-noun use, the adjective complement, that we
throw in here, free of charge).

A gerund is a verb that functions as noun. It is formed by adding

-ing to the end of the bare infinitive, e.g.:

o I enjoy playing tennis.

o We practice speaking English every day.
o Stop talking, please.
o I gave up smoking five years ago.

In English the infinitive is made of to and the verb, e.g.:

o I want to learn a new language.

o You forgot to close the door.
o I didn't mean to hurt you.
o He stopped to help me carry the bag.

Verbs are often followed by infinitives or gerunds and choosing

which to use has few fixed rules; it depends mainly on the individual
verb.

-7-
First- The Gerund:
The gerund (and not the infinitive) should be used:

1. After certain verbs such as:

acknowledge admit adore

anticipate appreciate avoid
celebrate confess contemplate
delay describe detest
discuss dislike dread
endure enjoy fancy
finish imagine involve
keep justify mention
mind miss omit
postpone practice quit
recall recommend regret
report resent resume
risk suggest tolerate
tolerate

Examples:
o I adore reading your books.
o They anticipated winning the election.
o I detest going to discos.
o I imagine being a waitress is a difficult job.

-8-
o I don't mind waiting; we've got time.
o We postponed making any decision in the meeting.
o Jeff's always late. He risks losing his job.
o I quit smoking.
o I suggest having lunch first.

2. After prepositions, such as against, after, before, by, on, instead of,
without.
Examples:
o I am against smoking in public places.
o I went home after leaving the party.
o You can improve your English by using the Internet.
o You can't learn English without making mistakes.

3. After some after adjectives and verbs which regularly take a

preposition, such as fond of, good at, keen on, tired of, interested in,
insist on, succeed in, keep on, give up.
Examples:
o I am tired of doing the work again.
o She’s good at using her hands.
o He’s keen on learning English.
o If keep on doing the same thing, you'll get the same results.
o She wants to give up drinking coffee.
o He succeeded in killing the tiger.

-9-
4. After the adjectives busy and worth.
Examples:
o He was busy writing a book.
o This book is worth reading.

5. After certain phrases, such as feel like, be accustomed to, be used

to, it’s no use, it’s no good, would you mind, look forward to.
Examples:
o I feel like sleeping.
o I think it’s no use trying again.
o I can’t help feeling angry about it.

Second- The Infinitive:

The infinitive (and not the gerund) should be used after some
common verbs, such as:

afford agree aim

appear arrange ask
attempt care choose
claim come consent
dare decide demand
deserve determine elect
endeavor expect fail
get guarantee hate
help hesitate hope

- 10 -
hurry incline intend
learn long manage
mean need offer
plan prepare pretend
promise refuse resolve
say seem tend
threaten want wish

Examples:
o I can't afford to buy new clothes.
o I'm aiming to finish this book by the end of March.
o My boss agreed to give me a reference.
o We decided to have a baby.
o You deserve to have a better score.
o I hope to go to Harvard Business School.
o You should learn to express yourself.
o They managed to fix the problem.
o I'm sorry, I didn't mean to make you angry.
o He offered to help me carry these bags.
o He's pretending to be sick.
o They plan to go abroad next year.
o She promised to be here on time.
o Why do they always refuse to listen?
o She seems to be really intelligent.

- 11 -
Gerunds and Infinitives: Verb + Gerund or Infinitive
Some verbs can be followed by an infinitive or a gerund. These
verbs in turn can be subdivided into two groups, verbs with little
difference in meaning, and verbs with a distinct change in meaning.

Verb + Gerund or Infinitive: Little difference in meaning.

Here are some common verbs that can be followed by gerunds or
infinitives with little change in meaning. A change of meaning may
still exist however, as there are almost limitless combinations of verbs
and gerunds/infinitives.

begin:
o He began to learn English when he was eight.
o He began learning English when he was eight.

bother:
o Don't bother to wash the dishes. I'll do it.
o Don't bother washing the dishes. I'll do it.

continue:
o You can continue to live here for 6 months.
o You can continue living here for 6 months.

start:
o I started to learn the clarinet when I was 8.
o I started learning the clarinet when I was 8.

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love / like / hate /prefer
These four verbs use the gerund for situations or actions in
progress. The infinitive is used for factual information.

hate
o I hate working at my new job (I'm working there now.)
o I hate to work on Sundays. (specific time and situation)
like
o I like playing the piano. (I like the process and feeling of playing
the piano.)
o I like to play the piano. (It's a fact I like to play the piano.)

love
o I love living in the country. (I'm probably living there now.)
o I love to live in the country. (Generally speaking I like the
country, maybe I'm not living there now.)

prefer
o I prefer to study by myself. (Sounds factual)
o I prefer studying by myself. (Sounds more personal, perhaps I'm
studying now.)

These verbs are also often used with would and the infinitive,
and refer to specific situations. For example:
o I would love to go to China.
o We would prefer to meet at 7.00.

- 13 -
Allow / permit
Allow and permit have one pattern for gerunds and another for
infinitives.

allow + gerund:
o My teacher doesn't allow eating in class.

allow + object + infinitive:

o My teacher doesn't allow us to eat in class.

permit + gerund
o My teacher doesn't permit eating in class.

permit + object + infinitive:

o My teacher doesn't permit us to eat in class.

Verb + Gerund or Infinitive: Little difference in meaning.

The following verbs can be followed by gerunds or infinitives
but with a change in meaning:

forget / regret / remember

When these verbs are used with a gerund they refer to something
that happened before a certain time. When they are used with an
infinitive they refer to something that happens at or after a certain
time.

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forget
Forget with the gerund is often used with never for a memorable
previous action.
o I'll never forget going to Japan.

Forget with the infinitive means something happens at or after a

certain time.
o Don't forget to meet me at 5.00.

regret
Regret with the gerund refers to a previous action.
o I don't regret leaving my job.
Regret with the infinitive is used to give bad news in a formal,
polite way. It's often used with the verbs to say, to announce, to tell
you and to inform you.
o We regret to inform you the interview is cancelled.

remember
Remember with the gerund refers to a previous action.
o I remember meeting you last year. (I met you before now).

Remember with the infinitive is used for something that happens

at or after a certain time.
o Please remember to close the door. (in the future please close the
door.)

- 15 -
go on
Go on with the gerund means to continue an action in progress.
For example:
o I want to go on studying here.

Go on with the infinitive means to do something new. For

example:
o After university, he went on to study law.

mean
Mean with the gerund shows negative consequence. For
example:
o You can buy a new car, but it means spending a lot of money.

Mean with the infinitive shows intention.

o He means to leave his job next month.
o I didn't mean to make you angry.

try
Try with the gerund is used for suggestions.
o "I need to lose weight." "Try exercising and eating healthy
food".
o "I'm really hot." "Try sitting here, it's much cooler."

Try with the infinitive means to attempt something.

o I tried to lift it but I can't.
o I'll try to finish this by tomorrow morning.

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stop
Stop with the gerund means to end an action.
o I stopped eating fast food last year.
o I can't stop loving you.
o Stop being so annoying!

Stop with the infinitive means to interrupt an action.

o I was walking to the subway station, and I stopped to say "Hi" to
my friends.
o I was working at home, and I stopped to answer the phone.

come
Come with the gerund means movement with a sense of surprise
or excitement.
o The ball came flying toward me - it almost hit me on the head!
o Don't come running to me! (this means don't expect sympathy)

Come with the infinitive means a change in perception.

o I thought he wasn't smart, but I came to realize he's very
talented.
o I didn't like teaching, but I came to like it.

Come with the infinitive can also mean just reason.

o Why did you come? - I came to watch a movie.

- 17 -
help
Help is often used with an infinitive.
o I helped to make dinner.

Help is also used without to, especially in American

conversational English.
o I helped make the dinner.

Help is also used with the preposition with and the gerund.
o I helped with making the dinner.

These three usages have similar meanings. Help with the gerund
is also used with can't to mean a reaction beyond the subject's control.
o I can't help laughing.
o Those kids are noisy, but I can't help liking them.

- 18 -
EXERCISES

I. Choose the correct answer:

1. Do all of us need ……….?

a) to go b) going

2. Beth promised ………. to me.

a) to write b) writing

3. Joe doesn't mind ………. by himself.

a) to work b) working

4. Carol and her husband seem ………. the perfect life.

a) to have b) having

5. Do you really enjoy ………. to work on Monday morning?

a) to go b) going

6. After eating its fill, the monkey decided ………. home some
food.
a) to carry b) carrying

7. The higher return you hope to achieve, the more you must
risk ……….
a) to lose b) losing

8. When Nick lived in Asia, he missed ………. Christmas with his

family.
a) to celebrate b) celebrating

- 19 -
9. I vehemently dislike ………. with morons, screw-ups, deadbeats,
crooks, and liars.
a) to deal b) deal

10. Although Susan has a good job, she can't afford ………. out of
her parents' house.
a) to move b) moving

11. Group work allows students ………. about their

understandings and discoveries with peers.
a) to talk b) talking

12. Our teacher doesn't allow ………. in the study hall.

a) to talk b) talking

13. Stop ………. mean to your sister!

a) to be b) being

14. On my way home, I stopped ………. some gas.

a) to get b) getting

15. After high school, Sally went on ………. medicine.

a) to study b) studying

16. Before you go to sleep, don't forget ………. the door.

a) to lock b) locking

17. As soon as John turns 18, he means ………. to Hollywood.

a) to move b) moving

- 20 -
18. Jason remembered ………. in to me at a party two years ago.
a) to move b) moving
19. We regret ………. you that we have suspended all business
activity.
a) to inform b) informing

20. I don't regret ………. up tennis and settling down with my wife
and children.
a) to give b) giving

II. Put the verb into the gerund or the infinitive:

1. It appears (be) raining.

2. We intend (go) to the countryside this weekend.
3. Do you recall (meet) her at the party last week?
4. She completed (paint) her flat.
5. I expect (be) there about seven.
6. We arranged (meet) at four but at four thirty she still hadn't
arrived.
7. The teenager refused (go) on holiday with his parents.
8. He denies (steal) the money.
9. He claims (be) a millionaire but I don't believe him.
10. A wedding involves (negotiate) with everyone in the family.
11. Can you imagine (live) without TV?
12. Julia reported (see) the boys to the police.

- 21 -
13. She waited (buy) a drink.
14. I couldn't help (laugh).
15. Unfortunately, we can't afford (buy) a new car this year.
16. I'd love (come) with you.
17. I really can't stand (wait) for the bus.
18. My friends encouraged me (apply) for this job.
19. He refused (betray) his friends.
20. I am looking forward to (see) you again soon.

III. In each gap, type either the gerund or the infinitive form of the
verb in parentheses:

Yuri was in his first year at university, studying History. He was

rather a lazy student, and he tended to avoid (work) -------------
whenever he could. In the middle of the semester, his history
professor gave out an assignment, due in two weeks. Yuri intended
(do) ------------- the assignment, but he postponed (write) ------------- it
for a week. The following week, he forgot (do) ------------- it. The
night before the assignment was due, he suddenly remembered it, and
rushed to the library. He tried (read) ------------- as much as possible
on the topic, but there wasn't enough time. Yuri considered (ask) ------
------- for more time to do his paper, but the History professor was
known to be very tough on students, so finally he decided (cheat) -----
-------- and copy his paper from somewhere else. He found an old

- 22 -
article on the same topic, and quickly typed it out. The next day, he
submitted the paper.

The following week, he was alarmed (see) ------------- the

professor approaching him, looking angry. "Is this your own work, or
did you copy it?" asked the professor. Yuri denied (copy) -------------
the paper.

"If you expect me (believe) ------------- that, you must think I am

very stupid," said the professor. "Every word is taken from an article I
wrote myself five years ago. Did you really think I would forget (write)
------------- it?"

IV. Show the difference in meaning between the two sentences in

each of the following pairs:

1. a) I stopped to buy a newspaper.

b) I stopped buying newspapers.
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

2. a) He forgot to mail the letter.

b) He forgot mailing the letter.
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

3. a) I remembered to post the letter.

b) I remembered posting the letter.

- 23 -
……………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………

4. a) I regret to tell you the truth.

b) I regretted telling you the truth.
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

5. a) Try to use a hammer.

b) Try using a hammer.
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

6. a) After university, he went on to study law.

b) After university, he went on studying law.
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

- 24 -
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

Passive voice verbs are used in writing much more often than in
speech, and they are used in some types of writing much more often
than in others. Passives are used more in journalism (newspapers,
magazines) than in fiction (novels, stories), but most journalists and
fiction writers use far more active than passive sentences.

However, passives are very common in all types of scientific and

technical writing. Scientific articles often contain more passive than
active sentences. You should not use passive voice verbs unless you
have a good reason.

A. Relationship between active and passive:

1. The object of the active verb is the subject of the passive verb
("English" in the example sentences below). Therefore, verbs
which cannot be followed by objects (intransitive verbs) cannot
be used in passive voice.

These are some common intransitive verbs: appear, arrive,

come, cry, die, go, happen, occur, rain, sleep, stay, walk. These
verbs cannot be used in passive voice.

2. The passive verb always contains a form of the auxiliary verb be.
The form of be in the passive verb phrase corresponds to the form

- 25 -
of the main verb in the active verb phrase (see the underlined
words in the example sentences below). That is, if the active main
verb is simple present tense, then a simple present tense form of be
is used in the passive verb phrase; if the active main verb is -ING,
then the -ING form of be is used in the passive verb phrase; and so
on.

3. The main verb in a passive predicate verb phrase is always the

participle form of the verb.

4. Some examples of active and passive sentences:

ACTIVE: They speak English
PASSIVE: English is spoken.

ACTIVE: They spoke English.

PASSIVE: English was spoken.

ACTIVE: They will speak English.

PASSIVE: English will be spoken.

ACTIVE: They are going to speak English.

PASSIVE: English is going to be spoken.

ACTIVE: They are speaking English.

PASSIVE: English is being spoken.

- 26 -
ACTIVE: They were speaking English.
PASSIVE: English was being spoken.

ACTIVE: They have spoken English.

PASSIVE: English has been spoken.

ACTIVE: They had spoken English.

PASSIVE: English had been spoken.

ACTIVE: They will have spoken English.

PASSIVE: English will have been spoken.

5. Perfect progressive verb forms are generally used in active voice

only. That is, these are good English sentences:

ACTIVE: They have been speaking English.

ACTIVE: They had been speaking English.
ACTIVE: They will have been speaking English.

But sentences like these are rarely used:

PASSIVE: English has been being spoken.

PASSIVE: English had been being spoken.
PASSIVE: English will have been being spoken.

B. Most passive sentences do not contain an agent; all active

sentences contain an agent.

- 27 -
1. An agent is the subject of the active verb. In the example sentences
above, the agent is "they" in all the active sentences; the passive
sentences do not contain an agent.

2. When a passive sentence contains an agent, it is in a prepositional

phrase following the verb. For example:
English is spoken by them.

In the following sentences, the noun "teachers" is the agent in

both sentences. "Teachers" is also the subject of the active verb, but
"exams" is the subject of the passive verb.

ACTIVE: Teachers prepare exams.

PASSIVE: Exams are prepared by teachers.

C. You should not use passive voice unless you have a good reason.
Here are some good reasons for using passive voice:

1. Passive voice is often used when the agent (the doer of an action;
the subject of an active verb) is obvious, unknown, or
unnecessary:
Oranges are grown in California.
Toyotas are made in Japan.
Her purse was stolen.

2. Passive voice is often used when the agent is known, but the
speaker/writer doesn’t want to mention it:

- 28 -
She was given bad advice.
A mistake has been made.

3. Passive voice is often used when the agent is very general such as
people or somebody.
English is spoken here.
The door should be locked.

4. Passive voice is often used when the speaker/writer wants to

emphasize a result:
Several thousand people were killed by the earthquake.

5. Passive voice is often used when the speaker/writer wants to keep

the same subject for two or more verbs but this would not be
possible if both verbs were the same voice (active or passive).

For example, in a conversation about George, a speaker would

probably use sentence a below rather than sentence b (both sentences
are correct).
a. George had several interviews before he was hired by a
software company.
b. George had several interviews before a software company hired
him.

- 29 -
EXERCISES

I. Choose the correct answer:

1. This house ————— in 1970 by my grandfather.

(a) built
(b) was built
(c) was build
(d) has built

2. The robbers ————— by the police.

(a) have arrested
(b) have been arrested
(c) was arrested
(d) had arrested

3. We ————— for the examination.

(a) have preparing
(b) are preparing
(c) had preparing
(d) have been prepared

4. It ————— since yesterday.

(a) is raining
(b) has been raining
(c) have been raining
(d) was raining

- 30 -
5. I ————— for five hours.
(a) have been working
(b) has been working
(c) was working
(d) am working

6. This rumor ————— by our competitors.

(a) started
(b) has started
(c) must start
(d) must have been started

7. The students ————— to submit their reports by the end of this

week.
(a) have asked
(b) are asked
(c) has asked
(d) are asking

8. The teacher ————— the student for lying.

(a) has been punished
(b) punished
(c) is punished
(d) was punished

9. All the halls ————— at the moment.

(a) paint

- 31 -
(b) are painting
(c) are painted
(d) are being painted

10. I ————— to become a successful writer.

(a) have always wanted
(b) am always wanted
(c) was always wanted
(d) am always wanting

11. As the patient could not walk he ————— home in a wheel

chair.
(a) has carried
(b) has been carrying
(c) was carried
(d) was carrying

12. Letters ————— by the postman at 8:00 a.m. every day.

(a) deliver
(b) delivered
(c) are delivered
(d) were delivered

II. Change the following sentences from active to passive voice. Be

sure to keep the same tense with each change:

1. The teacher punished the child severely.

………………………………………………………………………

1. An award-winning novel was written by her.

………………………………………………………………………

2. The entire city was destroyed by a hurricane.

………………………………………………………………………

3. The town will be captured by our army in a few days.

………………………………………………………………………

4. When the manager arrived, the problem had already been solved.
………………………………………………………………………

5. You’ll be punished if you don’t do your homework.

………………………………………………………………………

6. You’ll be given two hours to make your decision.

………………………………………………………………………

7. Have you been shown the new magazine?

………………………………………………………………………

Because conditional sentences are quite complex in both form

and meaning, they are a problem for most learners of English. If you
have a good understanding of the English tense system and of the
modal auxiliaries, you will find it easier to understand and use
conditional sentences. (The sentence you just read is a predictive
conditional sentence.)

All conditional sentences contain a dependent clause and an

independent clause. The dependent clause usually begins with if; it
expresses a condition. The independent clause expresses a result of
the condition. The if-clause is usually first, but the order of the clauses
is usually not important. Thus, these two sentences have basically the
same meaning:

- If she goes to the store, she will buy ice cream.

- She will buy ice cream if she goes to the store.

You have probably noticed that different teachers, textbooks,

and Web sites sometimes explain the same thing in different ways.
This seems to be especially true of conditional sentences. However,
two different explanations can both be correct, especially if the
difference is due to the fact that complicated material has been
organized in different ways. This is often true of explanations of
conditionals that you find in your textbooks. Here conditional

- 36 -
sentences are divided into three types based on their meanings: real,
predictive, and imaginative conditional sentences.

A. Real conditional sentences can express generalizations and

inferences.

1. Generalizations include facts that are always true and never

change, and they include present or past habitual activities that are
or were usually true.

Real conditionals expressing generalizations usually have the

same tense (usually simple present or simple past) in both clauses.
However, if the simple present tense is used in the if-clause, will +
verb can be used in the main clause without changing the meaning.

Examples of real conditional sentences expressing facts:

- If water boils, it turns to steam.

- If water boils, it will turn to steam.

Examples of real conditional sentences expressing habitual activities:

- If he eats breakfast, he feels better all day.

- If he eats breakfast, he will feel better all day.
- If he ate breakfast, he felt better all day.

These generalizations can also be expressed by using when or

whenever instead of if:

- 37 -
- When water boils, it turns to steam.
- When he eats breakfast, he feels better all day.
- When he ate breakfast, he felt better all day.

2. Inferences are often expressed in real conditional sentences. Real

conditionals expressing inferences usually have parallel verb
phrases in both clauses. However, if a modal which explicitly
expresses an inference (must or should, for example) is used in the
main clause, parallel verb phrases are not used.

Examples of real conditional sentences expressing inferences:

- If today is Wednesday, it is George’s birthday.

- If I can do it, anyone can do it.
- If it is raining, the streets are getting wet.
- If today is Wednesday, it must be George’s birthday.
- If I can do it, anyone must be able to do it.
- If it is raining, the streets must be getting wet.
- If he was at school, he must have seen the accident.

B. Predictive conditional sentences can express predictions and

plans.

1. Predictive conditional sentences usually contain simple present

tense in the if-clause and will or be going to in the result clause.
However, a weaker modal of prediction (may or should, for
example) can be used in the result clause to express less certainty.

- 38 -
2. Examples of predictive conditional sentences:
- If the exam is hard, many students are going to fail.
- If Mary does well on the final exam, she will get an A in the class.
- If George does well on the final exam, he may get an A in the
class.
- If Fred studies, he should pass the exam.

C. Imaginative conditional sentences are the most difficult for

many learners of English because of the unusual relationship
between form (the tenses used) and meaning.

In this type of conditional sentence, past tense refers to present

or future time; past perfect tense refers to past time. Another
problem for many learners of English is that were (not was) is used
with singular subjects. Be is the only English verb with two past tense
forms, but only one of them (were) is used in imaginative conditional
sentences.

Imaginative conditional sentences can express hypothetical or

contrary-to-fact events or states.

1. Hypothetical events or states are unlikely but possible in the

present or future.

Imaginative conditional sentences expressing hypothetical

events or states have a past tense verb in the if-clause and would +
verb (or might or could + verb) in the result clause.

- 39 -
Examples of hypothetical conditional sentences (present and/or
future time):

- If George had enough money, he would buy a new car.

- If I won the lottery, I would buy you a present.
- If she knew the answer, she would tell us.
(George probably does not have enough money; I probably will
not win the lottery; she probably does not know the answer.)

2. Contrary-to-fact events or states are either impossible in the

present time or did not happen in the past.

Imaginative conditional sentences expressing present contrary-to-

fact events or states have a past verb in the if-clause and would + verb
(or might or could + verb) in the result clause. Some examples:

- If I were you, I would not do that.

- If she studied for exams, she would get better grades.
- If it were raining, the streets would be wet.
(I am not you; she doesn’t study for exams; it isn’t raining.)

Imaginative conditional sentences expressing past contrary-to-

fact events or states have a past perfect verb in the if-clause and
would + have + verb (or might or could + have + verb) in the result
clause. Some examples are:

- 40 -
- If George had had enough money, he would have bought a new
car.
- If I had won the lottery, I would have bought you a present.
(George did not have enough money; I did not win the lottery; she
did not know the answer.)

EXERCISES

I. Choose the correct answer:

1. What would you do if it ----------- on your wedding day?

(a) rains
(b) rained
(c) will rain
(d) would rain

2. If she comes, I ----------- you.

(a) call
(b) will call
(c) Would call
(d) would have called

3. If I eat peanut butter, I ----------- sick.

(a) get
(b) will get
(c) would get
(d) would have gotten

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4. What will you do if you ----------- the history exam?
(a) fail
(b) will fail
(c) failed
(d) had failed

5. If they ----------- the car, I would have driven you.

(a) do not take
(b) did not take
(c) have not taken
(d) had not taken

6. If it snows, ----------- still drive to the coast?

(a) do you
(b) will you
(c) would you
(d) would you have

7. He ----------- with you if you had asked him.

(a) goes
(b) will go
(c) would go
(d) would have gone

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8. If I won a million dollars, I ----------- my own airplane.
(a) buy
(b) will buy
(c) would buy
(d) would have bought

9. If they ----------- new batteries, their camera would have worked

correctly.
(a) use
(b) used
(c) have used
(d) had used

10. If I forget her birthday, Jane ----------- upset.

(a) gets
(b) will get
(c) would get
(d) would have gotten

11. John will pick you up at school if it ----------- hard.

(a) rains
(b) rained
(c) has rained
(d) had rained

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12. Would you go out more often if you ----------- so much in the
house?
(a) don't have to do
(b) didn't have to do
(c) wouldn't have to do
(d) hadn't had to do

II. Complete the following sentences:

1. If I have time, ........................

2. If there are any tickets left, ........................

3. If he passed his exams, ........................

4. If it stops raining, ........................

5. He would study more if ........................

6. If she were here, ........................

7. If I were you, ........................

8. If he ............... (know) that, he would have waited for you.

9. Unless I had had enough money, ........................

10. If I had seen him, I ........................ your message.

III. Put the verbs between brackets into their correct forms:

1. They’re expecting us. They would be disappointed if (not/come).

……………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………

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MODAL VERBS

An aspect of English that troubles many learners is the correct

use of the modal verbs - must, may, can, should, ought to, might etc.
The difficulties are of two kinds - firstly, there is the difficulty of
learning which forms of the modal verbs are possible in the various
tenses, and secondly, there is the more subtle difficulty of choosing
the correct modal to express the meaning that you want to convey.

What are "modal verbs"?

They are verbs which help other verbs to express a meaning: it is
important to realize that "modal verbs" have no meaning by
themselves. A modal verb such as would has several varying
functions; it can be used, for example, to help verbs express ideas
about the past, the present and the future. Therefore, it is wrong to
simply believe that "would is the past of will": it is many other things.

A few basic grammatical rules applying to modal verbs

 Unlike other verbs, modals are NEVER used with other auxiliary
verbs such as do, does, did etc. The negative is formed simply by
adding "not" after the verb; questions are formed by inversion of
the verb and subject:
o She can't come.
o You should not do that.
o Can you swim?
o Could you pick me up when I've finished?

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 Modals never inflect, i.e.: they have no –ing or –ed forms, and do
not take –s in the third person singular present.

 Modals are always followed by the base form of the verb. They are
NEVER followed by to, with the exception of ought to.
Sometimes a modal is followed by the base form of auxiliaries have
or be, followed by a participle, e.g.:
o I might be playing tennis tomorrow.
o You ought to have told her.
o You shouldn't have left the windows open.

In passive structures, a modal is followed by be or have been

and a past participle, e.g.:
o She ought to be disqualified.
o The door might have been locked.

What sort of meanings do modals give to other verbs?

The meaning are usually connected with ideas of doubt,
certainty, possibility and probability, obligation and permission (or
lack of these). You will see that they are not used to talk about things
that definitely exist, or events that definitely happened. these
meanings are sometimes divided into two groups:

Degrees of Certainty: certainty; probability; possibility; impossibility

Obligation/Freedom to Act: permission, lack of permission; ability;
obligation.

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Let's look at each modal verb separately, and the functions they
help to express:

USES OF WILL:
1. Making personal predictions
o I think it will rain tonight.
o I don't think the Queen will ever abdicate.
o I doubt if I'll stay here much longer.

2. Talking about the present with certainty (making deductions)

o I'm sure you will understand that there is nothing the
Department can do
o There's a letter for you. It'll be from the bank: they said they'd be
writing.

3. Talking about the future with certainty

o I won't be in the office until 11; I've got a meeting.
o Don't bother ringing: they'll have left for their 10 o'clock lecture.

4. Talking about the past with certainty

o I'm sure you will have noticed that attendance has fallen
sharply.

5. Reassuring someone
o Don't worry! You'll settle down quickly, I'm sure.
o It'll be all right! You won't have to speak by yourself.

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6. Making a decision
o For the main course I'll have grilled tuna.
o I'm very tired. I think I'll stay at home tonight.

7. Making a semi-formal request

o Will you open the window, please? It's very hot in here.
o Sign this, will you?

8. Offering to do something
o You stay there! I'll fetch the drinks.

9. Insistence; habitual behaviour

o I'm not surprised you don't know what to do! You will keep
talking in class.
o Damn! My car won't start. I'll have to call the garage.

10. Making a promise or a threat

o You can count on me! I'll be there at 8 o'clock sharp.
o If you don't finish your dinner off, you'll go straight to bed!

USES OF SHALL:
Shall is a form of will, used mostly in the first person. Its use,
however, is decreasing, and in any case in spoken English it would be
contracted to "'ll" and be indistinguishable from will. The only time
you do need to use it is in questions is when:

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1. Making offers
o Shall I fetch you another glass of wine?
o Shall I open the window for you?

2. Making suggestions
o Shall we go to the cinema tonight?

MAY & MIGHT:

May & might sometimes have virtually the same meaning; they
are used to talk about possibilities in the past, present or future.
("Could" is also sometimes used).

May is sometimes a little bit "more sure" (50% chance); whereas

might expresses more doubt (maybe only a 30% chance).

May & might are used, then, for:

1. Talking about the present or future with uncertainty

o She may be back in her office: the lecture finished ten minutes
ago.
o I may go shopping tonight, I haven't decided yet.
o England might win the World Cup, you never know.

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2. Talking about the past with uncertainty
o I'm surprised he failed. I suppose he might have been ill on the
day of the exam.
They can also sometimes be used for talking about permission,
but usually only in formal situations. Instead of saying May I open a
window? we would say Is it all right/OK if I open a window? or Can I
open a window? for example. You might, however, see:
o Students may not borrow equipment without written permission.

USES OF MAY:
1. Talking about things that can happen in certain situations
o If the monitors are used in poorly lit places, some users may
experience headaches.
o Each nurse may be responsible for up to twenty patients.

2. With a similar meaning to although

o The experiment may have been a success, but there is still a lot
of work to be done. (= Although it was a success, there is
still ...)

USES OF MIGHT:
1. Saying that something was possible, but did not actually
happen
o You saw me standing at the bus stop! You might have stopped
and given me a lift!

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USES OF WOULD:
1. As the past of will, for example in indirect speech
o "The next meeting will be in a month's time."
becomes
o He said the next meeting would be in a month's time.

2. Polite requests and offers (a 'softer' form of will)

o Would you like another cup of tea?
o Would you give me a ring after lunch?
o I'd like the roast duck, please.

3. In conditionals, to indicate 'distance from reality': imagined,

unreal, impossible situations
o If I ruled the world, every day would be the first day of Spring.
o It would have been better if you'd word processed your
assignment.

4. After 'wish', to show regret or irritation over someone (or

something's) refusal or insistence on doing something (present
or future)
o I wish you wouldn't keep interrupting me.
o I wish it would snow.

5. Talking about past habits (similar meaning to used to)

o When I was small, we would always visit relatives on Christmas
Day.

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6. Future in the past
o The assassination would become one of the key events of the
century.

CAN & COULD

1. Talking about ability

o Can you speak Mandarin? (present)
o She could play the piano when she was five. (past)

2. Making requests
o Can you give me a ring at about 10?
o Could you speak up a bit please? (slightly more formal, polite or
'softer')

3. Asking permission
o Can I use your pen?
o Can I ask you a question?
o Could I ask you a personal question? (more formal, polite or
indirect)

4. Reported speech
In reported speech, could is used as the past of can.
o "Can you pick me up after work?"
becomes
o He asked me if I could pick him up after work.

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5. General possibility
o You can drive when you're 17. (present)
o Women couldn't vote until just after the First World War.

6. Choice and opportunities

o If you want some help with your writing, you can come to
classes, or you can get some 1:1 help.
o We could go to Stratford tomorrow, but the forecast's not
brilliant. (less definite)

7. Future probability
Could (NOT can) is sometimes used in the same way as might or
may, often indicating something less definite.
o When I leave university, I might travel around a bit, I might do
an MA or I suppose I could even get a job.

8. Present possibility
o I think you could be right you know. (NOT can)
o That can't be the right answer, it just doesn't make sense.

9. Past possibility
o If I'd known the lecture had been cancelled, I could have stayed
in bed longer.

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USES OF MUST:
Examples here refer to British English; there is some variation in
American English.

1. Necessity and obligation

Must is often used to indicate 'personal' obligation; what you
think you yourself or other people/things must do. If the obligation
comes from outside (e.g., a rule or law), then have to is often (but not
always) preferred:
o I really must get some exercise.
o People must try to be more tolerant of one another.
o If you own a car, you have to pay an annual road tax.

We use must not to say that something is not permitted or

allowed, for example:
o Passengers must not talk to the driver.
o Policemen must not drink on duty.

2. Strong advice and invitations

o I think you really must make more of an effort.
o You must go and see the film - it's brilliant.
o You must come and see me next time you're in town.

11. Saying you think something is certain

o This must be the place - there's a white car parked outside.
o You must be mad.
o What a suntan! You must have had great weather.

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The negative is expressed by can't:

o You're going to sell your guitar! You can't be serious!

o She didn't wave - she can't have seen me.

USES OF SHOULD:
1. Giving advice
o I think you should go for the Alfa rather than the Audi.
o You shouldn't be drinking if you're on antibiotics.
o You shouldn't have ordered that chocolate dessert - you're not
going to finish it.

2. Obligation: weak form of must

o The university should provide more sports facilities.
o The equipment should be inspected regularly.
o Children should look up to their parents.

3. Deduction
o The letter should get to you tomorrow - I posted it first class.

4. Things which didn't or may/may not have happened

o I should have renewed my driving license last month, but I
forgot.
o You shouldn't have spent so much time on that first question.

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USES OF OUGHT TO:
Ought to usually has the same meaning as should, particularly in
affirmative statements in the present:
o You should/ought to get your hair cut.

Should is much more common (and easier to say!), so if you're

not sure, use should.

EXERCISES

I. Choose the correct answer:

1. They ………. be away for the weekend but I'm not sure.
a) can b) might.

2. You ………. leave now if you wish.

a) may b) might

3. ………. you open the window a bit, please?

a) May b) Could

4. He ………. be from Sheffield, judging by his accent.

a) can b) could

5. ………. you play the piano?

a) May b) Can

6. Listen, please. You ………. speak during this exam.

a) may not b) might not

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7. They ………. still be out!
a) can't b) might not

8. Take an umbrella. It ………. rain later.

a) might b) should

9. With luck, tomorrow ………. be a cooler day.

a) can b) could

10. You ………. be right but I'm going back to check the times.
a) can b) might

11. It's a hospital. You ………. smoke.

a) may not b) mustn't

12. Drivers . ………. stop when the traffic lights are red.
a) may b) must

13. ………. I go to the bathroom, please?

a) May b) Shall

14. Entrance to the museum was free. We ………. pay to get in.
a) mustn't b) needn't

15. Phone her now. She ………. be home by now.

a) may b) must

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II. Complete the sentences using the correct form of 'can', 'could' or
'be able to'.

1. When they came back form Paris, they ………. speak perfect
French.
2. They didn't come to the restaurant, they ………. not afford it.
3. ………. I see you next Monday at ten.
4. After I had tried for a few hours, I ………. open the door and get
out.
5. He ………. not work after being ill.
6. I ………. write that letter tomorrow, I'm afraid I'm too busy.
7. I tried to see her but I……….
8. I generally leave work at 6 but I ………. leave earlier on Friday.
9. Good bye! I think I ………. see you tomorrow.
10. What? She's seven and she ………. tie her shoelaces!
11. I'd like to ………. speak a little bit of every language.
12. I went to the library, Mrs. Price, but I ………. find the book
you wanted.
13. After trying for many hours, they ………. rescue the boy.
14. I ………. swim until I was fifteen.
15. If we're lucky we ………. see the whole match.

III. Use one of these modals in each blank:

may might can could be able to

1. She ------------ play the piano since she was ten years old.

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2. When he was younger, he ------------ play baseball all day long, but
now he ------------ play only a few hours.

3. John said to his history professor, “------------ I turn in my term

paper the day after tomorrow?”

4. ------------ you tell me the time?

5. ------------ I have a look at your new watch?
6. You ------------ leave now if you wish.
7. Take an umbrella. It ------------ rain later.
8. ------------ you play the piano?
9. ------------ I go to the bathroom, please?
10. With luck, tomorrow ------------ be a cooler day.

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DETERMINERS USED TO REFER TO GROUPS OF
TWO PERSONS OR THINGS

In Old English, there were singular forms, plural forms and dual
forms. Dual forms are used to refer to two persons or things. In
modern English, a few words still remain which refer to two persons
or things. For example, the determiners both, either and neither are
used when referring to groups of two. Both refers to two things of a
group of two, either refers to one thing of a group of two, and neither
refers to zero things of a group of two.

e.g. I have two brothers. Both of them are engineers.

I had two maps of the city, but I cannot find either of them.
There are two textbooks for the course. Neither of them is
expensive.

In contrast, the determiners all, any and none may be used when
referring to groups with more than two members. All may refer to
every member of a group of three or more, any may refer to one
member of a group of three or more, and none may refer to zero
members of a group of three or more.

e.g. I have three brothers. All of them are engineers.

I had four maps of the city, but I cannot find any of them.
There are six textbooks for the course. None of them is expensive.

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The following rules for the use of either and neither should be
noted.

If it is desired to change a clause beginning with either so as to

express a negative meaning, either must be changed to neither.

e.g. Affirmative Meaning: Either of the alternatives is

acceptable.
Negative Meaning: Neither of the alternatives is acceptable.
Affirmative Meaning: Either hotel will offer you its best room.
Negative Meaning: Neither hotel will offer you its best room.

A sentence which contains the word either, in which either does

not occur at the beginning of a clause, can be changed to express a
negative meaning either by using the word not, or by changing either
to neither.

e.g. Affirmative Meaning: You may borrow either of the books.

Negative Meaning: You may not borrow either of the books.
Negative Meaning: You may borrow neither of the books.
Affirmative Meaning: I might give the message to either boy.
Negative Meaning: I might not give the message to either boy.
Negative Meaning: I might give the message to neither boy.

It should be noted that in modern English, the determiner

neither is most often used only at the beginning of a clause.

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Otherwise, the meaning of neither is usually expressed by the
combination not ... either.

In addition to being used as determiners, the words both, either

and neither can also be used as conjunctions.

DETERMINERS USED AS SINGULAR OR PLURAL

PRONOUNS

In formal English, the pronouns another, each, either, neither

and one always take singular verbs.

e.g. Each of the children wants to win the prize.

Either of the alternatives is acceptable.
Neither of the books has good illustrations.
Every one of the students was ready on time.

In these examples, the singular verbs wants, is, has, and was are used
with the pronouns each, either, neither and one.

In informal English, plural verbs are sometimes used with

pronouns such as each, either and neither.

e.g. Neither of the books have good illustrations.

However, this use of the plural verb is considered to be

grammatically incorrect in formal English.

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It should also be noted that in formal English, when the words
another, each, every, either, neither and one are used in
combination with personal pronouns or possessive adjectives, singular
forms are always used. As mentioned previously, in formal English,
the adjective his or the phrase his or her may be used when referring
to a group containing both male and female members.

e.g. Each of the children waited impatiently for his turn.

Every student raised his or her hand.
Neither of the girls has finished her homework.
Either of the hotels will offer you its best room.

In these examples, each, every, neither and either are used in

combination with the singular forms his, his or her, her and its.

In informal English, plural possessive adjectives are often used

in this type of sentence.

e.g. Neither of the girls finished their homework.

However, this use of the plural possessive adjective is

considered to be grammatically incorrect in formal English.

It should be noted that in both formal and informal English,

none is used sometimes with singular, and sometimes with plural
verbs.

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e.g. None of them is here. Or
None of them are here.

In contrast, the pronouns both, few, many and several are

always plural. They take plural verbs, and are used in combination
with plural personal pronouns and possessive adjectives. In addition,
the pronoun all is always plural when used with countable nouns.

e.g. Both of the boys have completed their essays.

Several of the musicians are giving their first performances
tonight.
All of the girls have finished their homework.

In these examples, the pronouns both, several and all take the
plural verbs have completed, are giving and have finished, and are
used in combination with the plural possessive adjective their.

EXERCISES

I. For each of the following sentences fill in the blank with the
correct word chosen from the pair given in brackets:

1. I have three winter coats, but ________ of them are new.

(neither, none)
2. There are two umbrellas here, but _________ of them is mine.
(neither, none)

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3. He owns twelve cows. _______ of them are Jerseys. (All,
Both)
4. She has painted dozens of pictures. Have you seen ________ of
them? (any, either)
5. Amy and Beth are twins. They _______ play the guitar. (all,
both)
6. Two people said "Hello" to me, but I did not recognize
________ of them. (any, either)
7. My wife and I _______ enjoy classical music. (all, both)
8. I found all of the questions difficult. Did you answer ________
of them correctly? (any, either)
9. I asked six different people, but ________ of them knew where
Walnut Street was. (neither, none)
10. My friends and I would like to thank you for your hospitality.
We _______ enjoyed ourselves very much. (all, both)
11. There are two public libraries in the city, but ________ of
them is located close to where I live. (neither, none)
12. Two wrist watches were left here. Is _________ of them
yours? (any, either)
13. He has three nephews. ________ of them have graduated
from university. (All, Both)
14. I have two violins. You are welcome to use ________ of
them. (any, either)
15. My aunt and uncle are _______ coming for a visit. (all, both)

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16. George and Tom like playing chess together, but _________
of them likes to lose a game. (neither, none)
17. The bush is covered with blueberries. Are ________ of them
ripe yet? (any, either)
18. I have read five books on the subject, but ________ of them
were very helpful. (neither, none)

II. Fill in the blanks with the correct words chosen from the pairs
given in brackets:

1. Each of her friends ________ a university degree. (has, have)

2. Many of the birds in this park _________ here throughout the
year. (live, lives)
3. Both of the children wanted to finish _________ work early.
(his, their)
4. Every writer should learn from _________ own experiences.
(his or her, their)
5. Either of my daughters can lend you _________ skis. (her,
their)
6. Few of her ideas ________ as intriguing as this one. (are, is)
7. All of the visitors expressed _________ thanks. (his or her,
their)
8. Each of our customers ________ important. (are, is)
9. One of the canaries ate only half _________ food. (its, their)
10. Either of the routes ________ a good choice. (are, is)

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11. Neither of the boys forgot _________ books. (his, their)
12. Both of the drawings _______ beautiful. (are, is)
13. Neither of my uncles _________ to us often. (write, writes)
14. Every girl clapped _________ hands. (her, their).

THE USE OF ALL, BOTH AND EACH

In addition to being used as attributive adjectives and as

pronouns followed by of, the words all, both and each can also be
used in apposition. A word used in apposition immediately follows
the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition, and refers
to the same thing as the subject or object. In the following examples,
the words in apposition are printed in bold type.

e.g. - We both wondered what would happen next.

- The boys all looked forward to seeing the circus.
- I sent them each an invitation.

In the first two examples, both and all are used in apposition to
the subjects we and the boys. In the third example, each is used in
apposition to the object them.

Words used in apposition can be referred to as appositives. Like

relative clauses, appositives can be defining or non-defining. Non-
defining appositives must be preceded and followed by commas.

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e.g. - Our leader, Tom Smith, was prepared for any emergency.
In this example Tom Smith is a non-defining appositive, in apposition
to our leader.

Defining appositives such as all, both and each are not preceded
and followed by commas.

e.g. - We each have our own ideas.

In this example, the defining appositive each is in apposition to we. It

should be noted that although each is singular, the verb have must be
plural to agree with the subject we.

When used in clauses with auxiliary verbs or with the Simple

Present or Simple Past of the verb to be, all, both and each generally
follow the first auxiliary or the verb to be, rather than being used in
apposition to the subject of the verb.

e.g. - The boys had all been looking forward to seeing the circus.
- We are both very happy to see you.

In the first example, all follows the first auxiliary had. In the second
example, both follows the Simple Present of the verb to be.

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THE USE OF NO, NONE AND NOT

The words no, none and not have similar meanings, but
different grammatical functions.

The determiner no can be used as an adjective, but not as a

pronoun; whereas none can be used as a pronoun, but not as an
adjective.

e.g. - He has no books.

- None of the books are his.

In the first example, no is used as an adjective modifying the noun

books. In the second example, none functions as a pronoun.

As has already been pointed out, the adverb not may be placed
after the Simple Present or Simple Past of the verb to be, or after the
first auxiliary of other verbs, in order to form a negative sentence or
clause.

e.g. - You are not late.

- I have not forgotten what you said.

Just as neither can be said to be equivalent to the combination

not ... either, none can be said to be equivalent to not ... any. For
instance, the following sentence:

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- He will have no difficulty.
could also be written:
- He will not have any difficulty.

EXERCISE

Complete the following sentences by filling in the blanks with no,

none or not, as appropriate:

1. There is ________ wind this morning.

2. I have ________ finished reading the book.
3. _______ of the children were late for school.
4. We did ________ tell anyone the secret.
5. I have ________ idea what time it is.
6. ________ of the streets have been plowed.
7. ________ bicycles are allowed on the grass.
8. He is ________ ready.
9. ________ harm was done.
10. There is ________ time to lose.
11. She is ________ expected to arrive until tomorrow.
12. ________ of the stores are open.

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THE USE OF SOME AND ANY

The determiners some and any have slightly different meanings.

The use of the word some generally implies a belief in the existence
of the object or objects under consideration, whereas the use of the
word any may imply a doubt about the existence of the object or
objects under consideration.

The words some, somebody, someone, something and

somewhere are used in affirmative statements, as well as in polite
questions and questions expecting an affirmative reply.

e.g. Affirmative Statement: I saw some birds in the park.

Polite Question: Would you like some tea?
Affirmative Reply Expected: You seem worried. Is something
wrong?

In contrast, the words any, anybody, anyone, anything and

anywhere are used in questions and negative statements, as well as in
affirmative statements referring in an indefinite way to a type of
object, without specifying a particular object.

e.g. Question: Did you see any birds in the park?

Negative Statement: I do not know anyone here.
Indefinite Reference: Any drug store can supply you with aspirin.

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The words some, somebody, someone, something and
somewhere usually cannot be used in a negative statement. If it is
desired to change a clause beginning with the word some so that it
expresses a negative meaning, some may be changed to no or none,
depending on whether an adjective or pronoun is required.

In the following example, some is used as an adjective

modifying the noun books. In order to change the sentence to express
a negative meaning, some is replaced by the adjective no.

e.g. Affirmative Meaning: Some books were left on the shelf.

Negative Meaning: No books were left on the shelf.

In the following example, some is used as a pronoun. In order to

change the sentence to express a negative meaning, some is replaced
by the pronoun none.
e.g. Affirmative Meaning: Some of the visitors arrived late.
Negative Meaning: None of the visitors arrived late.

Similarly, if it is desired to change a clause beginning with

somebody, someone, something or somewhere so that it expresses a
negative meaning, these words may be replaced by nobody, no one,
nothing and nowhere, respectively.

e.g. Affirmative Meaning: Someone left a message.

Negative Meaning: No one left a message.

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Affirmative Meaning: Something has happened.
Negative Meaning: Nothing has happened.

A sentence containing the word some, in which some does not

occur at the beginning of a clause, can be changed to express a
negative meaning by changing the sentence to a negative statement
using not, and by changing some to any.

e.g. Affirmative Meaning: I bought some potatoes.

Negative Meaning: I did not buy any potatoes.

Affirmative Meaning: We will copy some of the recipes.

Negative Meaning: We will not copy any of the recipes.

It is possible to use no or none in such sentences instead of the

construction with not ... any.

e.g. I bought no potatoes.

We will copy none of the recipes.

However, in modern English, the construction with not ... any is

more often used than the construction with no or none.

Similarly, a sentence containing the word somebody, someone,

something or somewhere, in which the word beginning with some
does not occur at the beginning of a clause, can be changed to express
a negative meaning by changing the sentence to a negative statement

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using not, and by changing the word beginning with some to the
corresponding word beginning with any.

e.g. Affirmative Meaning: I met someone I used to know.

Negative Meaning: I did not meet anyone I used to know.

Affirmative Meaning: We will buy something.

Negative Meaning: We will not buy anything.

In such sentences, nobody, no one, nothing or nowhere may be

used instead of a negative statement with not and the word anybody,
anyone, anything or anywhere.

e.g. I met no one I used to know.

We will buy nothing.

However, the construction with not is more often used.

EXERCISES

I. Fill in the spaces with some or any:

1. John gave me ………. money.

2. Is there ………. cheese in the fridge?
3. I'm going to buy ………. eggs.
4. I can't pay. I haven't got ………. money.
5. There aren't ………. shops in this part of the town.

In these examples, other modifies the singular countable noun door,

the plural countable noun streets, and the uncountable noun luggage.

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Another usually cannot be immediately preceded by a
determiner. In contrast, when used before a singular countable noun,
other usually must be preceded by a determiner.

e.g. Please pass me the other cup.

I do not know any other way to do it.
There must be some other explanation.

In these examples, other is used with the singular countable

nouns cup, way and explanation, and is preceded by the determiners
the, any and some.

When other modifies a singular countable noun, the noun is

sometimes omitted, particularly in the expression one ... the other.

e.g. I have two pens. One is green and the other is blue.
One of my parents is a teacher; the other is a doctor.

In these examples, the nouns following the word other are

understood, rather than expressed. In the following sentences, the
nouns which are understood are enclosed in square brackets.

e.g. I have two pens. One is green and the other [pen] is blue.
One of my parents is a teacher; the other [parent] is a doctor.

Others is a pronoun. Others can be used to take the place of the

word other, followed by a plural countable noun.

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e.g. Those trees are hemlocks; the others are pines.
Ten people belong to the group, and five others are planning to
join.

In the first example, others takes the place of the words other trees.
In the second example, others takes the place of the words other
people.

Others is often used in the expression some ... others.

e.g. Some books are easy to read, but others are quite difficult.
Some people like classical music, while others prefer jazz.

The word else has a meaning similar to other. However, rather

than being used as an adjective preceding a noun, else usually follows
interrogative pronouns such as who and what, and indefinite pronouns
such as anyone and someone.

e.g. Who else was at the meeting?

What else is on the agenda?
Has anyone else solved the problem?
Someone else may be able to help you.

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EXERCISES

I. Choose the correct answer:

1. There's no ………. way to do it.

a) another
b) other
c) others

2. Some people like to rest in their free time. ………. like to travel.
a) Another
b) Other
c) Others

3. This cake is delicious! Can I have ………. slice, please?

a) another
b) other
c) others

4. The supermarket is on the ………. side of the street.

a) another
b) other
c) others

5. There were three books on my table. One is here. Where are

the ……….?
a) another
b) other
c) others

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6. Give me ………. chance?
a) another
b) other
c) others

7. Some of the speakers went straight to the conference room.

The ………. speakers are still hanging around.
a) another
b) other
c) others

8. This is not the only answer to the question. There are ……….
a) another
b) other
c) others

a) another
b) other
c) others

II. Complete each of the following sentences by filling in the blank

with another, other, others or else, as appropriate:

1. I want to borrow ___________ book from the library.

2. Three people moved out, and two ____________ moved in.
3. Who ___________ knows the secret?
4. There are several ____________ possibilities.

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5. Where ____________ should I look?
6. Some students enjoyed the film, but ____________ did not.
7. He lives on the ____________ side of the lake.
8. I have _____________ idea.
9. ____________ people soon followed her example.
10. Do you know anyone ____________ here?
11. We are going to move to ___________ city.
12. Some birds feed on insects, while ____________ eat berries.
13. Somebody ____________ should have a turn now.
14. Few ____________ people attended the ceremony.
15. You may borrow this eraser. I have several ____________
16. What ____________ have you decided?
17. I have two pencils. One is black, and the ____________ is
blue.
18. She never thinks about ____________ people.
19. She never thinks of ____________ .
20. This decision is not binding on anyone ____________ .

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THE USE OF ONLY

In addition to being used as a determiner, the word only can be

used to modify almost any part of a sentence. In general, the word
only immediately precedes the part of the sentence which it modifies.

The following examples illustrate how changing the position of

the word only can change the meaning of a sentence.

e.g. Only the trees were somewhat damaged by last year's storm.
Meaning: Nothing except the trees was somewhat damaged by
last year's storm.

The only trees were somewhat damaged by last year's storm.

Meaning: The few trees which existed were somewhat damaged
by last year's storm.

The trees were only somewhat damaged by last year's storm.

Meaning: The trees were not completely damaged by last year's
storm.

The trees were somewhat damaged only by last year's storm.

Meaning: The trees were somewhat damaged by nothing except
last year's storm.

The trees were somewhat damaged by last year's only storm.

Meaning: The trees were somewhat damaged by the one storm
which occurred last year.

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EXERCISE

The following five sentences, labeled A to E, are identical except for

the position of the word only:
A. My only friend drew the picture of the child yesterday.
B. My friend drew only the picture of the child yesterday.
C. My friend drew the only picture of the child yesterday.
D. My friend drew the picture of the only child yesterday.
E. My friend drew the picture of the child only yesterday.

The meanings of the preceding five sentences are given in the five
sentences below. For each sentence, fill in the blank with the letter
(A to E) which corresponds to the sentence above which has the
same meaning:
___ My friend drew the one existing picture of the child
yesterday.
___ My friend drew nothing except the picture of the child
yesterday.
___ My friend drew the picture of the child as short a time ago as
yesterday.
___ The one friend that I have drew the picture of the child
yesterday.
___ My friend drew the picture of the one child in the family
yesterday.

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THE USE OF FEW, LITTLE AND SEVERAL

The use of the word a with the determiners few and little
somewhat changes the meaning which is expressed.

The expressions a few and a little merely refer to a small

quantity of something.

e.g. A few of his friends came to the party.

Meaning: Some of his friends came to the party.

I had a little time to consider the situation.

Meaning: I had a small amount of time to consider the situation.

In contrast, few and little not only refer to a small quantity of

something, but also imply that the quantity is remarkably, or
undesirably small.

e.g. Few of his friends came to the party.

Meaning: Only a very small number of his friends came to the
party.

I had little time to consider the situation.

Meaning: I had almost no time to consider the situation.

The expressions a few and several can both be used to refer to

three or more things. However, there is a slight difference in meaning.

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The expression a few generally emphasizes that the quantity referred
to is relatively small, while the expression several generally
emphasizes that the quantity referred to is relatively large.

For instance, the following sentences could both refer to an

event which occurred four or five times.

e.g. I saw him a few times.

Meaning: I saw him, but I did not see him often.
I saw him several times.
Meaning: I saw him more than once or twice.

EXERCISES

I. Fill in the spaces with few, a few, little, or a little:

1. They live in a very small flat because they have ………. money.
2. I really need to see him. I've got ………. questions to ask him.
3. Can we have ………. champagne, please?.
4. "Were you surprised?" "………."
5. They've already been to Spain ………. times.
6. These plants require ………. water and it's very handy.
7. At home, the kitchen was a pleasant place. There were
always ………. flowers in a vase.
8. "How is your father?" "………. better, thanks."

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9. "Sandra is fluent in Italian, French and Spanish?" "It's quite
rare, ………. people can speak several foreign languages."
10. This boy isn't very popular at school. He's got very ……….
friends.

II. Explain the differences in meaning of the sentences in the

following pairs:

(a) There is little butter left.

(b) There is a little butter left.
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………

(a) We encountered few difficulties.

(b) We encountered a few difficulties.
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………

(a) He has few friends.

(b) He has a few friends.
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………

(a) I have little money.

(b) I have a little money.
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………

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THE USES OF THE EXPRESSIONS
SUCH ... THAT, SO ... THAT, AND TOO

A) Such ... That

The determiner such is often used in combination with a clause
beginning with that, in order to indicate a cause and effect
relationship.

e.g. There was such a strong wind that we decided to stay indoors.
He has such high marks that he has applied for a scholarship.

In the first example, a strong wind refers to the cause, and we

decided to stay indoors refers to the effect. In the second example,
high marks refers to the cause, and he has applied for a scholarship
refers to the effect.

It should be noted that when such is used as an adjective

modifying a singular countable noun, the word a or an usually follows
the word such.

e.g. such a strong wind

such an unusual event

The construction usually used with the expression such ... that is
summarized below, followed by examples.

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such a that clause stating the
such an + adjective + noun + effect of the situation
or such described in the main clause

She is such a hard worker that she is sure to succeed.

That is such an interesting book that I read it three times.
He has such good ideas that he may be promoted.

B) So ... That
The word so combined with a clause beginning with that can
also be used in order to indicate a cause and effect relationship.

Whereas such usually modifies a noun, in this construction so is

used as an intensifier modifying an adjective or adverb. Intensifiers
will be discussed in a later chapter.

e.g. The wind was so strong that we decided to stay indoors.

His marks are so high that he has applied for a scholarship.
The wind blew so fiercely that we decided to stay indoors.

In the first two examples, so modifies the adjectives strong and

high. In the last example, so modifies the adverb fiercely.

This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

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adverb or that clause stating the
subject + verb + so + adjective + effect of the situation
described in the main clause

She sang so well that she had to sing an encore.

The moon was so bright that we could see for miles.

In informal English, the word that in the expressions such ...

that and so ... that is often omitted.

e.g. There was such a strong wind, we decided to stay indoors.

The moon was so bright, we could see for miles.

So can also be followed by many, much, few or little, followed

by a noun, followed by a clause beginning with that. This
construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

many that clause stating the

so + much, + noun + effect of the situation
few or described in the main clause
little

that there was standing room

There were so many spectators
only.
I did so much swimming that I became very strong.

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He knew so few people that he often felt lonely.
There was so little snow that we could not go skiing.

C) Too
The intensifier too used in combination with an infinitive can
also be used to indicate a cause and effect relationship. In the
following examples, the word too is printed in bold type, and the
infinitives are underlined.

e.g. It is too windy for us to go outside.

He is too poor to continue studying without a scholarship.
It was raining too hard for us to leave the house.

In the first two examples, too modifies the adjectives windy and poor.
In the last example, too modifies the adverb hard.

The construction usually used with too in combination with an

infinitive is summarized below, followed by examples.

phrase containing an
Adv. or
infinitive,
subject + verb + too + Adj. + indicating the effect of the
situation described using too

They walked too quickly for me to overtake them.

The writing was too difficult to read.

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EXERCISE

For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with such, so or
too, as appropriate. In some of the sentences, the word that has been
omitted.

1. She sang ________ soothing lullabies that the baby was soon
asleep.
2. He owned ________ many books that his walls were lined with
bookcases.
3. The boys were _______ excited to sit still.

4. He has ________ varied interests, one never knows what he will do

next.
5. They have ________ few enemies, they are accepted wherever they
go.
6. The snow was ________ deep for us to walk across the field.

7. Yesterday I walked ________ far that I fell asleep immediately

after supper.
8. I had ________ a good time at the party, I did not want to leave.

9. I see her ________ often that I feel I know her quite well.

10. The visibility was ________ poor for the mountains to be seen.

11. This is ________ an interesting book, I stayed up all night to read

it.
12. This puzzle is ________ easy that a child could do it.

13. There was ________ much traffic, I could not cross the street.

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14. She was ________ tired to watch the video.

15. They have _______ little furniture, it will be easy for them to
move.
16. Would you be _______ kind as to tell me the time?

17. The coffee is _______ hot for me to drink.

18. This shirt is _______ expensive. It costs $30 and I have only $25.

19. You're _______ good artist. Can I buy one of your paintings?

20. Some people think I'm arrogant, but I'm _______ amazing in
other ways that it doesn't matter.

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READING COMPREHENSION
PASSAGES

- 99 -
- 100 -
(1)

There was once a man and his wife who loved each other very
much. They were very poor. While her husband went out to find work
as a farmhand, she would go from house to house to wash clothes.
Their earnings were not much. The wife had lovely long hair which
she was proud of. He had a watch which was very precious to him. It
used to be his father's.

Once, the rain fell so hard for a few days that they had no work.
Their money was running out. Both of them were worried that the
other would go hungry. So, when the sun came out, they immediately
left without saying a word to each other. When they came back a few
hours later, they were each carrying bags full of food. the wife asked
her husband where he got the money from. He had sold his precious
watch to buy food for his wife. When her husband asked her the same
question, she took off the shawl covering her head. The man gasped!
Her hair was very short. She did it to get money for her husband's
food. they hugged each other and laughed. They had both sacrificed
something they loved for their beloved.

1. Although they both worked, they were poor because ______.

(A) their jobs did not pay well
(B) they spent too much on food
(C) they spent on each other
(D) they did not work hard enough

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2. The watch once belonged to ______.
(A) the man
(B) the wife
(C) the man's father
(D) the wife's father

3. Their money was running out because ______.

(A) they couldn't find any work when it rained
(B) they spent a lot on food during the rain
(C) they had no savings
(D) they overspent

4. When the rain stopped, they went out to ______.

(A) buy food
(B) find work
(C) sell things
(D) look for food

5. What do you think the wife did to her hair ?

(A) She cut it off herself.
(B) She sold her hair to a wigmaker.
(C) She cut her hair at the hairdresser.
(D) She sold her hair to the hairdresser.

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(2)

When most people are ill with a non-life threatening condition,

they will most often see a General Practitioner, a GP, also called a
Family Doctor. These doctors generally work in the local community
in surgeries rather than in hospitals, so they are convenient for people
to see for a consultation. However, other GPs can work in a very wide
range of areas, such as in hospitals, in education and for insurance
companies.

As the name suggests, GPs are doctors that do not have a

specialty, such as a brain surgeon or cancer specialist: they are able to
diagnose and treat all the possible diseases and problem that one of
their patients might have. They can treat and manage most illnesses
and perform some minor surgeries in their practice. Then for more
serious cases they will refer the patient to a specialist that will work in
a hospital.

If you are ill and need to see a GP you will normally need to
make an appointment. Sometimes you can just walk into the surgery
and see a doctor, but that is not very likely as GPs are normally very
busy and all their appointment times will be fully booked. Often you
have to wait several hours if not at least one of two days before you
can get an appointment with a GP. If you are too ill to wait you have
to go to a hospital and visit the accident and emergency department.

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GPs also make house-calls. These are when the GP comes to your
house to treat you or see a patient. Most often a GP has to make
house-calls to see elderly people who cannot get to the surgery easily.
They might be ill and need to doctor to give them medicine or it could
be that the GP just want to check on them and make sure that they are
ok.

If you are ill, the doctor will normally prescribe you some
medicine and tell you to go away for a few days before you go back
and visit them again if you have not started to get better. The GP will
also explain how you can have a better lifestyle that could prevent you
from becoming ill in the first place. They will normally recommend
that you stop smoking cigarettes (if you do), not to drink too much
alcohol and to get exercise. Once you have your prescription you will
need to visit a pharmacy to get the medicine the doctor prescribed
you.

1. What is the difference between a specialist and a GP?

(A) There is no difference, they are both doctors.
(B) The GP normally works in a hospital and the specialist works
in a surgery.
(C) A GP can treat patients with many different illnesses, while the
specialist focuses on one area only.
(D) You need to be referred to a GP but not to a specialist.
2. Where do GP normally work?

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(A) In a hospital.
(B) In a school.
(C) In a surgery.
(D) In a mobile vehicle.
3. Why will you often have to wait to see a GP?
(A) They are very busy, so all their appointment times get full.
(B) To make sure you are really ill.
(C) So that the GP will have enough work to do each day.
(D) You will need to travel a long way to see them and the journey
will take a few days.

4. What sort of person will most likely be visited by a GP in their own

home?
(A) A new born baby.
(B) An old person.
(C) Someone with a serious illness.
(D) GPs do not visit patients in their houses.

5. What do GPs do as well as making ill people better?

(A) They give advice about how to not become ill in the first place.
(B) They help the families of people who have died.
(C) They are participate in local community activities.
(D) They work with the people who make the medicine to sell more
of it.
(3)

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At first glance it might seem that a true artist is a solitary toiler in
possession of a unique talent that differentiates him from the rest of
society. But after further reflection it is quite apparent that the artist is
a product of the society in which he toils rather than an entity removed
from that society. The genius of an artist is really a measure of the
artist’s ability to work within the framework imposed by society, to
make use of the resources provided by society and, most important, to
mirror a society’s values. It is society that imposes a structure on the
artist, and the successful artist must work within this framework.

Societies have found various methods to support and train their

artists, be it the Renaissance system of royal support of the sculptors
and painters of the period or the Japanese tradition of passing artistic
knowledge from father to son. The artist is also greatly affected by the
physical resources of his society. The medium chosen by the artist is a
reflection not only of the artist’s perception of aesthetic beauty but of
resources that society has to supply. After all, wood carvings come
from societies with forests, woven woolen rugs come from societies of
shepherds, shell jewelry comes from societies near oceans.

Finally, the artist must reflect the values, both aesthetic and moral,
of the society in which he toils. The idea of beauty changes from
society to society, as seen in the oft cited example of Rubens’ rounded
women versus today’s gamin-like sylphs, and the artist must serve as a

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mirror of his society’s measure of perfection. And society’s moral
values must equally be reflected in art if it is to be universally
accepted.

1. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) The effect of the artist on society
(B) The role of an artist in improving society
(C) The relation between an artist and society
(D) The structure of society

2. The author thinks that an artist is

(A) separate from society
(B) a part of society
(C) differentiated from society
(D) an entity removed from society

3. According to the passage, which of the following is NOT a way that

society imposes its structure on an artist?
(A) Society has found ways to train and support its artists.
(B) Society provides physical resources to an artist.
(C) Society imposes its values on the artist.
(D) Society allows the artist to use his unique talent to lead a
solitary life.

4. Which of the following physical resources of art is NOT mentioned

in the passage?

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(A) Stone
(B) Wood
(C) Wool
(D) Shell

5. The example of Rubens’ women is used to show that the artist

(A) has been supplied by society
(B) makes use of society’s physical resources
(C) reflects society’s aesthetic values
(D) reflects society’s moral values

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(4)

Computers are machines that can help us in many ways, but they
cannot think or do things on their own. Humans have to feed them
with information and tell them what to do with it. They cannot come
up with any new information. But they can save much time and work.
For example, all the information and the office files can be stored in a
computer's "memory". If a clerk were to trace any information from a
particular file, the computer would only take seconds to find it. It
would take a clerk days or even weeks to go through every file if no
computers were used.

The first computers were huge and costly. They filled up almost
the whole floor of large offices. Later, because of the usefulness and
demand for computers in business, scientists soon found ways to
produce cheaper and smaller computers. They invented chips which
made it possible to store more information in less space.

Today, computers are not only cheaper, but also more compact.
They can just be placed on top of an ordinary writing table. They can
even be carried from place to place easily. Computers are not only
used in offices by companies, but they are also used at home, by
families who can afford them.

- 109 -
Robots, on the other hand, are not mechanical people. They are
only moving parts controlled by a computer. A robot can do the same
work for twenty four hours, and yet, it does not complain or get tired.
In the United States robots are computers that tell them where to guard
and what to do. These robots are programmed to listen for certain
noises and signals for help in case of trouble or danger. In Japan and
in some places in America, robots are used in factories to assemble
cars. As computers become more common businesses and factories,
people fear that one day computers and computer controlled robots
will put human workers out of work.

1. Why do humans have to feed the computers with information and

tell them what to do?
(A) Because computers can save time and work.
(B) Because computers cannot think or do things on their own.
(C) Because computers can store office information in their
memory.
(D) Because computers can help us in many ways.

2. Why did the first computers fill up almost the whole floor ?
(A) Because they were costly.
(B) Because of the usefulness and demand for computers in
businesses.
(C) Because the office floor was small.
(D) Because they were huge.

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3. Find a word in the passage that has the same meaning as more
compact.
(A) Huge.
(B) Cheaper.
(C) Smaller.
(D) Costly.

4. Which of the following statements in NOT TRUE ?

(A) Robots are controlled by a computer.
(B) Robots are mechanical people.
(C) Robots do not get tired of working.
(D) Robots guard factories and museums in the United States.

5. Humans fear that one day computers and robots ________.

(A) are busier than humans
(B) are cleverer than humans
(C) will make humans jobless
(D) will make humans listen to certain noise

6. The BEST title for this passage would be ________.

(A) Computers and Robots
(B) Old and New Computers
(C) Robots are Security Guards
(D) Electronic Inventions

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(5)

It began as a game: high school and college students studying

computer technology figured out they could use personal computers to
break into telephone company computers and make free, long-distance
telephone calls. These young computer wizards soon gained the
nickname "hackers".

Police put the collar on a few hackers, but many went on to even
more complex hacking. One hacker was arrested for making illegal
telephone calls and later used a jailhouse phone to alter a police
officer's credit records to get back at the officer for arresting him. The
hacker also used a computer to alter his college records to give
himself better grades.

As hackers gained experience, they began invading computers at

banks, airlines and other businesses. In one scheme, a hacker
instructed an airline's computer to give him free airplane tickets.

The U.S. government is worried hackers may break into its

sophisticated networks of defense computers. The government's
classified secrets are vulnerable because thousands of government
computers are connected by telephone lines that hackers can tap into.

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In November 1988, a college student tapped into a non-classified
U.S. Defense Department computer network called Arpanet. The
hacker injected a computer program that left copies of itself
throughout Arpanet. Some hackers use each "viruses" to destroy all
the data in a computer. But in this case, government officials shut
down the network before the program reached every computer in the
system. Shutting down the system angered many researchers who
were using the computers. The hacker turned himself in to police and
told them how to get his program out of the computer system. He was
charged with a crime.

The incident put the spotlight on computer hacking in the United

States. Many companies have hired experts to protect their computers
from hackers, and many computer experts now advise companies on
how to protect their computers.

The U.S. government believes foreign governments have hired

hackers to try to break into top-secret defense computers. It fears a
hacker could inject a virus into military computers that would erase all
the data during a war.

Experts disagree over whether a computer network can ever be

safe from hacking. But in the future, some of the most brilliant minds
in the U.S. will be working to frustrate the efforts of computer hackers
and spies.

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1. The main idea of the article is _____.
(A) computer hackers only want to make free long-distance phone
calls
(B) the government wants to hire computer hackers to spy on the
Russians
(C) computer hackers are a threat to private companies and
government secrets
(D) many companies have hired experts to protect their computers
from hackers who carry viruses

2. A computer "virus" is like a human virus because it _____.

(A) makes a computer cough and throw up
(B) spreads from one computer to other computers
(C) can erase a person's doctor bills
(D) requires regular visits to a doctor

3. A hacker can be dangerous because _____.

(A) he knows how to make free long-distance telephone calls
(B) vital information is stored in computers, and a hacker knows
how to change or erase the information
(C) once in jail, he can use a telephone to operate his computer
(D) a hacker who steals a free airplane ticket might deprive a
doctor of that seat on the airplane

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4. U.S. government computers are vulnerable to a hacker because
_____.
(A) the government always pays its telephone bills on time
(B) the Russians know what's in the U.S. computers
(C) viruses attack only government computers
(D) many government computers are connected by telephone lines

5. In the future _____.

(A) Some of the most brilliant minds in America will be working to
try to stop computer hackers and spies
(B) hackers will begin invading computers at banks, airlines and
other businesses
(C) many computer hackers will be arrested for making free
telephone calls
(D) some computer hackers will turn themselves in to the police

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(6)

Many people like to keep pets. Some just have one pet while
other people keep many different pets. This often depends on if they
live in a big or small house. If a person lives in a small house, or even
a flat or apartment, they cannot keep a lot of pets as there is not
enough room. If people live in a big house that has a garden then they
will be able to keep more pets and bigger ones.

For a person who lives in a small house a small pet is often good.
They could keep a bird or two as these are very interesting pets. They
have brightly colored feathers and make nice chirping sounds. If you
have a parrot it can even learn to talk, but it takes a long time to teach
it to say some words. If a bird is too noisy then they could keep some
cute animals like mice, gerbils or hamsters. These are all nice and
fluffy so you can take them out of their cages and play with them. Fish
are also a type of pet for people without much space or time. They just
need some food and their bowl or tank cleaning sometimes.

People that have more space and time to look after a pet could
keep something bigger that needs more care, such as a dog or cat. Cats
do not need to be looked after as much as a dog, but they get lonely if
there is no one there with them. They often like to have someone to sit
with and who strokes them. This makes them happy and they start to
purr. If someone has a dog they need to take it out for walks so that it

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can get exercise. It is good to take a dog out twice a day. Dogs need
exercise so they cannot be kept in the house all the time.

There are then pets that need a very large amount of space. These
would be animals such as horses or donkeys, it could even be a
domestic pig. For these animals a person needs more than a big
garden, they need a field so the animal has space to move and run
around, as well as grass to eat. These are types of animals that would
generally not come into the house and the owners would only spend
part of the day with them.

1. Why can a person in a small house not have a lot of pets?

(A) S/he can have a lot of pets.
(B) S/he cannot grow enough food for them.
(C) S/he do not have enough space.
(D) Other people might not like too many pets.

2. Why are birds good pets?

(A) They do not eat much.
(B) They are brightly colored and make nice sounds.
(C) They can be trained to play fetch.
(D) They are not good pets.

3. According to the passage which of the following is a cute animal?

(E) A mouse.
(F) A fish.

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(G) A horse.
(H) A cat.

4. According to the passage, why do cats start to purr?

(A) Because they are stroked.
(B) Because they are fed.
(C) Because they are left alone all day.
(D) Cats do not purr.

5. Which of the following is an animal that would not normally come

into a house?
(A) A cat.
(B) A dog.
(C) A gerbil.
(D) A donkey.

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(7)

William Henry Gates III (Bill) was born on October 28, 1955, in
Seattle, Washington. Bill was the second of three children in an upper-
middle class family. He enjoyed playing games with the family and
was very competitive. He also loved to read. Bill became bored in
public school so his family sent him to Lakeside School, a private
school, where he excelled in math and science and did well in drama
and English.

Gates became interested in computer programming when he was

13, during the era of giant mainframe computers. His school held a
fund-raiser to purchase a teletype terminal so students could use
computer time that was donated by General Electric. Using this time,
Gates wrote a tic-tac-toe program using BASIC, one of the first
computer languages. Later he created a computer version of Risk, a
board game he liked in which the goal is world domination. At
Lakeside, Bill met Paul Allen, who shared his interest in computers.
Gates and Allen and two other students hacked into a computer
belonging to Computer Center Corporation (CCC) to get free
computer time but were caught. After a period of probation, they were
allowed back in the computer lab when they offered to fix glitches in
CCC’s software. At age 17, Gates and Allen were paid $20,000 for a
program called Traf-O-Data that was used to count traffic.

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In early 1973, Bill Gates served as a congressional page in the
U.S. House of Representatives. He scored 1590 out of 1600 on the
SAT and was accepted by Harvard University. Steve Ballmer, who
became CEO of Microsoft after Bill retired, was also a Harvard
student. Meanwhile, Paul Allen dropped out of Washington College to
work on computers at Honeywell Corporation and convinced Gates to
drop out of Harvard and join him in starting a new software company
in Albuquerque, New Mexico. They called it Micro-Soft. This was
soon changed to Microsoft, and they moved their company to
Bellevue, Washington.

In 1980, IBM, one of the largest technology companies of the

era, asked Microsoft to write software to run their new personal
computer, the IBM PC. Microsoft kept the licensing rights for the
operating system (MS-DOS) so that they earned money for every
computer sold first by IBM, and later by all the other companies that
made PC computers. Microsoft grew quickly from 25 employees in
1978 to over 90,000 today. Over the years, Microsoft developed many
new technologies and some of the world’s most popular software and
products such as Word and Power Point. Although some have
criticized Gates for using questionable business practices, he built
Microsoft into one of the largest companies in the world. He has been
described as brilliant but childlike, driven, competitive, intense, fun,
but lacking in empathy.

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Bill Gates is one of the richest men in the world. In 2012, his $61
billion dollars in assets made him the world's second richest man
according to Forbes Magazine. In 2006, Gates announced that he
would cut back his involvement at Microsoft to spend more time on
philanthropy and his foundation. The Bill and Melinda Gates
Foundation supports many causes including the quest to eradicate
Polio, fighting AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis; providing vaccinations
for children; and even reinventing the toilet among many other things.

1. Which of the following was the EFFECT of Bill hacking into the
CCC computer?
(A) He lost computer privileges.
(B) They were allowed back on the computer eventually.
(C) He wrote a TIC-TAC-TOE program.
(D) He met Paul Allen.

2. Where was Steve Ballmer a student?

(A) Albuquerque, New Mexico
(B) Harvard University
(C) Washington College
(D) The passage doesn't say

3. The second to last paragraph describes …….....

(A) how Microsoft became a bigger company than IBM
(B) the technical details of MS-DOS
(C) how Bill Gates became a billionaire
(D) how Microsoft rose to a major

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4. What question is answered in the second to last paragraph?
(A) What does empathy mean?
(B) How many people work for Microsoft today?
(C) What new technologies, besides MS-DOS, did Microsfot
develop?
(D) How rich is Bill Gates?

5. In which of the following ways were Bill Gates and Paul Allen
NOT alike?
(A) They both went to the same college.
(B) They went to the same school.
(C) They both liked computers.
(D) They both dropped out of college.

6. Where was Steve Ballmer a student?

(A) The passage doesn't say
(B) Washington College
(C) Harvard University
(D) Albuquerque, New Mexico

7. Which is NOT true about Bill Gates in the first paragraph?

(A) He was competitive
(B) He was born in Seattle, Washington
(C) He enjoyed public school
(D) He was involved in drama

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8. Microsoft earned money every time ………....
(A) CCC used its software
(B) IBM sold a computer running MS-DOS
(C) Traf-O-data was used
(D) IBM built a computer

9. What does the word "philanthropy" mean in the last paragraph?

(A) Charity
(B) Computer technology
(C) Wealth
(D) Business

10. Which of the following was the EFFECT of Bill hacking into the
CCC computer?
(A) They were allowed back on the computer eventually
(B) He met Paul Allen
(C) He lost computer privileges
(D) He wrote a TIC-TAC-TOE program

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(8)

The modern age is an age of electricity. People are so used to

electric lights, radio, televisions, and telephones that it is hard to
imagine what life would be like without them. When there is a power
failure, people grope about in flickering candlelight. Cars hesitate in
the streets because there are no traffic lights to guide them, and food
spoils in silent refrigerators.

Yet, people began to understand how electricity works only a

little more than two centuries ago. Nature has apparently been
experimenting in this field for millions of years. Scientists are
discovering more and more that the living world may hold many
interesting secrets of electricity that could benefit humanity.

All living cells sent out tiny pulses of electricity. As the heart
beats. it send out pulses of recorded electricity; they form an
electrocardiogram, which a doctor can study to determine how well
the heart is working. The brain, too, sends out brain waves of
electricity, which can be recorded in an electroencephalogram. The
electric currents generated by most living cells are extremely small-of-
ten so small that sensitive instruments are needed to record them. But
in some animals, certain muscle cells have become so specialized as
electrical generators that they do not work as muscle cells at all. When

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large numbers of these cells are linked together, the effects can be
astonishing.

The electric eel is an amazing storage battery. It can send a jolt

of as much as eight hundred volts of electricity through the water in
which it lives. An electric house current is only one hundred twenty
volts.) As many as four fifths of all the cells in the electric eel’s body
are specialized for generating electricity, and the strength of the shock
it can deliver corresponds roughly to the length of its body.

1. What is the main idea of the passage?

(A) Electric eels are potentially dangerous
(B) Biology and electricity appear to be closely related
(C) People would be at a loss without electricity
(D) Scientists still have much to discover about electricity

2. The author mentions all of the following as results of a blackout

EXCEPT ________.
(A) refrigerated food items may go bad
(B) traffic lights do not work
(C) people must rely on candlelight
(D) elevators and escalators do not function

3. Why does the author mention electric eels?

(A) To warn the reader to stay away from them
(B) To compare their voltage to that used in houses

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(C) To give an example of a living electrical generator
(D) To describe a new source of electrical power

4. How many volts of electricity can an electric eel emit?

(A) 1,000
(B) 800
(C) 200
(D) 120

5. It can be inferred from the passage that the longer an eel is the
________.
(A) more beneficial it will be to science
(B) more powerful will be its electrical charge
(C) easier it will be to find
(D) tougher it will be to eat

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(9)

Having no language, infants cannot be told what they need to

learn. Yet by the age of three they will have mastered the basic
structure of their native language and will be well on their way to
communicative competence. Acquiring their language is a most
impressive intellectual feat. Students of how children learn language
generally agree that the most remarkable aspect of this feat is the rapid
acquisition of grammar. Nevertheless, the ability of children to
conform to grammatical rules is only slightly more wonderful than
their ability to learn words.

It has been reckoned that the average high school graduate in the
United States has a reading vocabulary of 80,000 words, which
includes idiomatic expressions and proper names of people and places.
This vocabulary must have been learned over a period of 16 years.
From the figures, it can be calculated that the average child learns at a
rate of about 13 new words per day. Clearly a learning process of great
complexity goes on at a rapid rate in children.

1. What is the main subject of the passage?

(A) Language acquisition in children
(B) Teaching languages to children
(C) How to memorize words
(D) Communicating with infants

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2. The word "feat" in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to ________.
(A) experiment
(B) idea
(C) activity
(D) accomplishment

3. The word "reckoned' in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to

________.
(A) suspected
(B) estimated
(C) proved
(D) said

4. The word "which" in paragraph 2 refers to ________.

(A) their ability
(B) reading vocabulary
(C) idiomatic expression
(D) learning process

5. According to the passage, what is impressive about the way

children learn vocabulary?
(A) They learn words before they learn grammar
(B) They learn even very long words.
(C) They learn words very quickly.
(D) They learn the most words in high school.

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(10)

Mental and physical health professionals may consider referring

clients and patients to a music therapist for a number of reasons. It
seems a particularly good choice for the social worker who is
coordinating a client’s case. Music therapists use music to establish a
relationship with the patient and to improve the patient’s health, using
highly structured musical interactions. Patients and therapists may
sing, play instruments, dance, compose, or simply listen to music.

The course of training for music therapists is comprehensive. In

addition to formal musical and therapy training, music therapists are
taught to discern what kinds of interventions will be most beneficial
for each individual patient. Because each patient is different and has
different goals, the music therapist must be able to understand the
patient’s situation and choose the music and activities that will do the
most toward helping the patient achieve his or her goals. The
referring social worker can help this process by clearly
communicating each client’s history.

Although patients may develop their musical skills, that is not

the main goal of music therapy. Any client who needs particular work
on communication or on academic, emotional, and social skills, and
who is not responding to traditional therapy, is an excellent candidate
for music therapy.

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1. Which of the following would be the most appropriate title for this
passage?
(A) How to Use Music to Combat Depression.
(B) What Social Workers Need to Know about Music Therapy.
(C) Training for a Career in Music Therapy.
(D) The Social Worker as a Music Therapist.

2. The word "consider" in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to

________.
(A) think about
(B) find out
(C) talk about
(D) discuss

3. Music therapy may involve all of the following activities EXCEPT

________.
(A) singing
(B) dancing
(C) listening to music
(D) playing cards

4. According to the information presented in the passage, music

therapy can be prescribed for social work clients who ________.
(A) need to develop coping skills
(B) were orphaned as children
(C) need to resolve family issues
(D) need to improve social skills

- 130 -
5. Which of the following inferences can be drawn from the passage?
(A) Music therapy can succeed where traditional therapies have
failed.
(B) Music therapy is a relatively new field.
(C) Music therapy is particularly beneficial for young children.
(D) Music therapy is only appropriate in a limited number of
circumstances.

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(11)

Two of the most widely discussed moral issues which confront

Americans today are abortion and the death penalty. There is hardly
an election year when either or both of these two issues are debated
and become part of the platform for a political election campaign.
With the advent of the women's movement came the issue of women's
rights. Many women felt that they had the right to terminate a
pregnancy if they did not want to have a child. Often humanitarian
reasons are cited, such as the deformity of a fetus, or a woman having
been the victim of a rape. In the U.S. according to a 1973 Supreme
Court ruling abortions are permitted during the first six months of
pregnancy. Abortion remains a controversial issue in the United
States, however, and in 1977 Congress barred the use of Medicaid
funds for abortion except for therapeutic reasons and in certain other
specified instances.

The debate has also centered on the question of human life. Over
the years it has led to a heated moral debate concerning the point at
which a fetus in a woman's womb becomes a person. Most church
groups have taken a staunch opposition to abortion while some
sociologists have been more tolerant of the practice. They are more
concerned over the effects unwanted pregnancies may have upon
society. In recent years the numbers of abortions have increased
alarmingly and its practice is being met each year with more
indifference.

- 132 -
The question of the death penalty as a punishment for
incorrigible criminals and as a deterrent for heinous crimes remains
equally controversial. Those who favor the death penalty feel that it
will discourage crime. Many, however, feel it is barbaric and not
worthy of a moral society. Furthermore, most studies have proven that
the death penalty has done little to reduce criminal behavior.

In the United States the death penalty was applied with

decreasing frequency after World War II and in 1972 the U.S. voided
all federal and state laws calling for the death penalty on the grounds
that it was "cruel and unusual punishment." Since then, some states
have passed new measures imposing the death penalty in specific
kinds of murder cases.

Certainly of all developed societies, America is one of the few

which not only has the death penalty but has brought many to justice
over the years in this way. The method of execution may vary from
state to state. Some are put to death by lethal injection, others are
hanged and others are sent to the electric chair. It is also the power of
the governor of each state to grant pardon from the death penalty. He
has invested within the powers of his office to save a life from such a
punishment. The weeks preceding an execution may be filled with
heated appeals to spare a life. While at the same time others may
actively demonstrate to support the execution.

- 133 -
Ironically, those who seem to be the most in favor of the death
penalty are the same ones who are most opposed to abortion. Behind
both positions there is a conservative way of thinking which is still
found in many sections of the country. In both these issues can be seen
the awesome power to determine the life and death of a person. This is
a right which some believe belongs only to God.

1. Which moral issue became an important cause for the women's

liberation movement?
(A) Divorce and the settlement of the estate.
(B) Job preferences and equal pay for equal work.
(C) Dress codes at work.
(D) The question of a woman's right to have an abortion.

2. To what kind of reasons do advocates of abortion usually appeal to

justify their position?
(A) Logical reasons.
(B) Anti-social reasons.
(C) Humanitarian reasons.
(D) Debatable reasons.

3. Which kind of funds were barred by the U.S. Congress in 1977?

(A) Funds for federal taxes.
(B) Medicaid funds for abortions.
(C) Funds for state taxes.
(D) Funds for private donations.

- 134 -
4. What position have most church groups taken on the question of
abortion?
(A) They favor abortions.
(B) They are indifferent to abortions.
(C) They accept abortions.
(D) They are opposed to abortions.

5. Why are sociologists more tolerant over the practice of abortion?

(A) They have other things to worry about which are more
important.
(B) They are concerned over the effects that unwanted pregnancies
might have on society.
(C) They are concerned about society and not the notion of sin.
(D) Sociologists are not concerned with moral issues.

6. What reason is often given by people who support the death

penalty?
(A) The death penalty discourages crime.
(B) It is ultimately cheaper than life imprisonment.
(C) They believe in "an eye for an eye."
(D) Society must protect itself against criminals.

7. What happened in the United States concerning the death penalty

immediately after World War II?
(A) It was abolished.
(B) The number of people put to death greatly increased.

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(C) It was limited to the gas chamber.
(D) There was a decrease in the number of people receiving the
death penalty.

8. In each state who has the power to grant pardon from the death
penalty?
(A) The Governor.
(B) The voters.
(C) The mayor of the largest city.
(D) The State Representatives.

9. What can be said of the method of executions from state to state?

(A) All now use lethal injections.
(B) All now use the gas chamber.
(C) The way may vary from state to state.
(D) All now use the electric chair.

10. What is the supreme irony concerning those who may favor the
death penalty?
(A) They are all usually Christians.
(B) They are often deeply opposed to Abortions because life is
sacred.
(C) They are revengeful.
(D) They are opposed to the power of pardon by the governor.

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(12)

There is a famous expression in English: "Stop the world, I want

to get off!" This expression refers to a feeling of panic, or stress, that
makes a person want to stop whatever they are doing, try to relax, and
become calm again. 'Stress' means pressure or tension. It is one of the
most common causes of health problems in modern life. Too much
stress results in physical, emotional, and mental health problems.

There are numerous physical effects of stress. Stress can affect

the heart. It can increase the pulse rate, make the heart miss beats, and
can cause high blood pressure. Stress can affect the respiratory
system. It can lead to asthma. It can cause a person to breathe too fast,
resulting in a loss of important carbon dioxide. Stress can affect the
stomach. It can cause stomach aches and problems digesting food.
These are only a few examples of the wide range of illnesses and
symptoms resulting from stress.

Emotions are also easily affected by stress. People suffering

from stress often feel anxious. They may have panic attacks. They
may feel tired all the time. When people are under stress, they often
overreact to little problems. For example, a normally gentle parent
under a lot of stress at work may yell at a child for dropping a glass of
juice. Stress can make people angry, moody, or nervous.

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Long-term stress can lead to a variety of serious mental illnesses.
Depression, an extreme feeling of sadness and hopelessness, can be
the result of continued and increasing stress. Alcoholism and other
addictions often develop as a result of overuse of alcohol or drugs to
try to relieve stress. Eating disorders, such as anorexia, are sometimes
caused by stress and are often made worse by stress. If stress is
allowed to continue, then one's mental health is put at risk.

It is obvious that stress is a serious problem. It attacks the body.

It affects the emotions. Untreated, it may eventually result in mental
illness. Stress has a great influence on the health and well-being of our
bodies, our feelings, and our minds. So, reduce stress: stop the world
and rest for a while.

1. Which of the following is not a common problem caused by stress?

(A) Physical problems
(B) Anecdotal problems
(C) Mental problems
(D) Emotional problems

2. According to the essay, which of the following parts of the body

does not have physical problems caused by stress?
(A) The arms
(B) The stomach
(C) The lungs
(D) The heart

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3. Which of the following show how stress can affect the emotions?
(A) It can make people feel nervous.
(B) It can cause panic attacks.
(C) It can make people feel angry.
(D) All of the above.

4. An extreme feeling of sadness and hopelessness is called

________.
(A) anorexia
(B) alcoholism
(C) addiction
(D) depression

5. The word "aches" in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to

__________.
(A) changes
(B) pains
(C) symptoms
(D) problems

6. Which of the following is not caused by long-term stress?

(A) Bloating
(B) Alcoholism
(C) Addiction
(D) Anorexia

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7. Stress can affect the respiratory system by __________.
(A) causing asthma
(B) a loss of carbon dioxide
(C) causing breathing problems
(D) all of the above

8. Symptoms of emotional stress include __________.

(A) feeling joyous
(B) feeling hungry
(C) feeling thirsty
(D) feeling tired

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(13)

The Moon has been worshipped by primitive peoples and has

inspired humans to create everything from lunar calendars to love
sonnets, but what do we really know about it? The most accepted
theory about the origin of the Moon is that it was formed of the debris
from a massive collision with the young Earth about 4.6 billion years
ago. A huge body, perhaps the size of Mars, struck the Earth, throwing
out an immense amount of debris that coalesced and cooled in orbit
around the Earth.

The development of Earth is inextricably linked to the moon; the

Moon’s gravitational influence upon the Earth is the primary cause of
ocean tides. In fact, the Moon has more than twice the effect upon the
tides than does the Sun. The Moon makes one rotation and completes
a revolution around the Earth every 27 days, 7 hours, and 43 minutes.
This synchronous rotation is caused by an uneven distribution of mass
in the Moon (essentially, it is heavier on one side than the other) and
has allowed the Earth’s gravity to keep one side of the Moon
permanently facing Earth. It is an average distance from Earth of
384,403 km.

The Moon has no atmosphere; without an atmosphere, the Moon

has nothing to protect it from meteorite impacts, and thus the surface
of the Moon is covered with impact craters, both large and small. The

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Moon also has no active tectonic or volcanic activity, so the erosive
effects of atmospheric weathering, tectonic shifts, and volcanic
upheavals that tend to erase and reform the Earth’s surface features
are not at work on the Moon. In fact, even tiny surface features such
as the footprint left by an astronaut in the lunar soil are likely to last
for millions of years, unless obliterated by a chance meteorite strike.
The surface gravity of the Moon is about one-sixth that of the Earth’s.
Therefore, a man weighing 82 kilograms on Earth would only weigh
14 kilograms on the Moon. The geographical features of the Earth
most like that of the Moon are, in fact, places such as the Hawaiian
volcanic craters and the huge meteor crater in Arizona. The climate of
the Moon is very unlike either Hawaii or Arizona, however; in fact the
temperature on the Moon ranges between 123 degrees C. to –233
degrees C.

1. What is the passage primarily about?

(A) The Moon’s effect upon the Earth.
(B) The origin of the Moon.
(C) What we know about the Moon and its differences to Earth.
(D) A comparison of the Moon and the Earth.

2. The word “massive” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to

_______.
(A) unavoidable
(B) dense

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(C) huge
(D) impressive

3. The word “debris” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to _______.

(A) rubbish
(B) satellites
(C) moons
(D) earth

4. According to the passage, the Moon is _______.

(A) older than the Earth
(B) protected by a dense atmosphere
(C) composed of a few active volcanoes
(D) the primary cause of Earth’s ocean tides

5. Why does the author mention “impact craters” in paragraph 3?

(A) To show the result of the Moon not having an atmosphere.
(B) To show the result of the Moon not having active tectonic or
volcanic activity.
(C) To explain why the Moon has no plant life because of
meteorites.
(D) To explain the corrosive effects of atmospheric weathering.

6. The word “uneven” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to

_______.
(A) heavier
(B) equally distributed

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(C) orderly
(D) not uniform

7. The word “erase” in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to _______.

(A) change
(B) impact
(C) obliterate
(D) erupt

8. A person on the Moon would weigh less than on the Earth because
_______.
(A) of the composition of lunar soil
(B) the surface gravity of the Moon is less
(C) the Moon has no atmosphere
(D) the Moon has no active tectonic or volcanic activity

9. All of the following are true about the Moon EXCEPT _______.
(A) it has a wide range of temperatures
(B) it is heavier on one side than the other
(C) it is unable to protect itself from meteorite attacks
(D) it has less effect upon the tides than the Sun

10. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage?

(A) The Moon is not able to support human life.
(B) If the Moon had no gravitational influence, the Earth would
not have tides.

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(C) People living in Hawaii and Arizona would feel at home on
the Moon.
(D) Mars could have been formed in a similar way to the Moon.

11. What incentive is offered by insurance companies to get smokers

to quit smoking?
(A) They give increased life insurance.
(B) They give a reduction of their insurance premiums.
(C) They give a free vacation to a resort.
(D) They provide increased medical insurance.

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(14)

Long before they can actually speak, babies pay special attention
to the speech they hear around them. Within the first month of their
lives, babies' responses to the sound of the human voice will be
different from their responses to other sorts of auditory stimuli. They
will stop crying when they hear a person talking, but not if they hear a
bell or the sound of a rattle. At first, the sounds that an infant notices
might be only those words that receive the heaviest emphasis and that
often occur at the ends of utterances. By the time they are six or seven
weeks old, babies can detect the difference between syllables
pronounced with rising and falling inflections. Very soon, these
differences in adult stress and intonation can influence babies'
emotional states and behavior. Long before they develop actual
language comprehension, babies can sense when an adult is playful or
angry, attempting to initiate or terminate new behavior, and so on,
merely on the basis of cues such as the rate, volume, and melody of
adult speech.

Adults make it as easy as they can for babies to pick up a

language by exaggerating such cues. One researcher observed babies
and their mothers in six diverse cultures and found that, in all six
languages, the mothers used simplified syntax, short utterances and
nonsense sounds, and transformed certain sounds into baby talk. Other
investigators have noted that when mothers talk to babies who are

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only a few months old, they exaggerate the pitch, loudness, and
intensity of their words. They also exaggerate their facial expressions,
hold vowels longer, and emphasize certain words.

More significant for language development than their response

to general intonation is observation that tiny babies can make
relatively fine distinctions between speech sounds. In other words,
babies enter the world with the ability to make precisely those
perceptual discriminations that are necessary if they are to acquire
aural language.

Babies obviously derive pleasure from sound input, too: even as

young as nine months they will listen to songs or stories, although the
words themselves are beyond their understanding. For babies,
language is a sensory-motor delight rather than the route to prosaic
meaning that it often is for adults.

1. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) How babies differentiate between the sound of the human voice
and other sounds.
(B) The differences between a baby's and an adult's ability to
comprehend language.
(C) How babies perceive and respond to the human voice in their
earliest stages of language development.
(D) The response of babies to sounds other than the human voice.

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2. Why does the author mention a bell and a rattle in the first
paragraph?
(A) To contrast the reactions of babies to human and nonhuman
sounds.
(B) To give examples of sounds that will cause a baby to cry.
(C) To explain how babies distinguish between different nonhuman
sounds.
(D) To give examples of typical toys that babies do not like.

3. Why does the author mention syllables pronounced with rising and
falling inflections in the first paragraph?
(A) To demonstrate how difficult it is for babies to interpret
emotions.
(B) To illustrate that a six-week-old baby can already distinguish
some language differences.
(C) To provide an example of ways adults speak to babies.
(D) To give a reason for babies' difficulty in distinguishing one
adult from another.

4. The word "diverse" in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to

________.
(A) surrounding
(B) divided
(C) different
(D) stimulating

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5. The word "noted" in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to
________.
(A) theorized
(B) requested
(C) disagreed
(D) observed

6. The passage mentions all of the following as ways adults modify

their speech when talking to babies EXCEPT ________.
(A) giving all words equal emphasis
(B) speaking with shorter sentences
(C) speaking more loudly than normal
(D) using meaningless sounds

7. The word "emphasize" in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to

________.
(A) stress
(B) repeat
(C) explain
(D) leave out

8. Which of the following can be inferred about the findings described

in the 2nd paragraph?
(A) Babies who are exposed to more than one language can speak
earlier than babies exposed to a single language.

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(B) Mothers from different cultures speak to their babies in similar
ways.
(C) Babies ignore facial expressions in comprehending aural
language.
(D) The mothers observed by the researchers were consciously
teaching their babies to speak.

9. What point does the author make to illustrate that babies are born
with the ability to acquire language?
(A) Babies begin to understand words in songs.
(B) Babies exaggerate their own sounds and expressions.
(C) Babies are more sensitive to sounds than are adults.
(D) Babies notice even minor differences between speech sounds.

10. According to the author, why do babies listen to songs and stories,
even though they cannot understand them?
(A) They understand the rhythm.
(B) They enjoy the sound.
(C) They can remember them easily.
(D) They focus on the meaning of their parents' words.

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(15)

Most Americans are very conscious of their health and try to

maintain a nutritious diet and daily routines to sustain good health.
Yet, for many years the tobacco and liquor industries had tried to
project the image of style, fashion and sophistication for those who
use their products. Most have learned, however, that the dangers
imposed to health by tobacco and alcohol can no longer be denied or
ignored. It is no longer considered macho or fashionable to smoke a
cigarette or take a shot of whiskey straight up to impress others.

The campaigns to alert the public to the evils of these two social
drugs have been intense and effective. However, most people, young
or old, dislike being warned that they shouldn't do something. It is a
kind of psychological resistance.

Yet, all tobacco and liquor products must now contain a warning
on the package or label. The warning is simple, but the message is
clear; smoking and drinking are hazardous to the health. The wording
may vary, but it is phrased in such a way as to draw the attention of
the consumer to the danger. There are currently about nine warnings
which are printed on labels. Some of them are; "Cigarettes are
addictive", "Cigarettes cause fatal lung disease", "Smoking during
pregnancy can harm you baby", "Tobacco smoke can harm your
children," and " Cigarettes cause strokes and fatal heart disease." All

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of these and others appear regularly on the side of a pack of cigarettes
and are preceded by the word "WARNING!"

Some people have suggested that the word 'warning' should be

eliminated since it might increase an interest in smoking among young
people. Labels that contain information and do not give orders have
proven effective in deterring behavior. On American TV all tobacco
advertising is legally banned, and every ad in a magazine must display
the warning. There are many public notices on trains and buses giving
out the warning that smoking is linked to lung cancer and other lung
and heart diseases.

The admonition against alcohol consumption is of a different

kind. The warning goes out especially to women who are pregnant and
anyone operating a car or electrical machinery. A woman who is
carrying a child in her womb can cause damage to the fetus by
drinking alcohol. Also anyone operating a machine runs the risk of an
accident which could be fatal. Such warnings appear on all wine and
whiskey bottles and even an apparently harmless can of beer.

For those who are deeply entrenched in their habit, group help is
provided in the form of "Smoke-Enders" and "Alcoholics
Anonymous." Also known as AA 'Alcoholics Anonymous' is a
worldwide organization dedicated to the curing of alcoholics. This
organization helps the addict to control, curb and eventually eliminate
the habit. The organization was established in 1935 by two former

- 152 -
alcoholics. The organization, which functions through local groups, is
based on a philosophy of life that has enabled countless numbers of
people to recover from alcoholism. In 1988 there were one million
members worldwide. For spouses, relatives and friends of alcoholics
there is even the support group known as Al-Anon. To further
encourage the smoker to quit, life insurance premiums may be
reduced for those who have quit smoking. The benefits, therefore, can
be seen not only in terms of health and safety, but also with regard to
finance.

1. What image have the tobacco and liquor industries tried to project
to the public?
(A) The image of sickness.
(B) The image of wealth.
(C) The image of intelligence.
(D) The image of style and fashion.

2. What can be said of the dangers imposed to health by tobacco and

alcohol?
(A) They can no longer be ignored.
(B) They face a difficult future.
(C) They are not true.
(D) Medical science is divided on the issue.

- 153 -
3. How do young people react to the health warnings against tobacco
and alcohol?
(A) They don't read them.
(B) They ignore them.
(C) They offer psychological resistance.
(D) They are too young to take them seriously.

4. What is the essence of the warning on cigarettes and alcohol?

(A) They products cause death.
(B) Be sure you are in good health before you try them.
(C) These warnings are required by law but not necessarily true.
(D) Alcohol and smoking are dangerous to the health.

5. Which of the following warnings does not appear on a package of

cigarettes?
(A) Cigarette smoking can harm your health.
(B) Cigarette smoking is dangerous for your health.
(C) Smoke but don't inhale too deeply.
(D) Cigarette smoking causes respiratory illness.

6. What is banned from American TV advertising?

(A) Advertising for tobacco products.
(B) Movies which show people smoking.
(C) The scientific findings of doctors concerning the harmful
effects of cigarettes.
(D) The names of film stars who have died from smoking.

- 154 -
7. Besides TV where else are notices found warning about the dangers
of smoking?
(A) Casinos and theaters.
(B) Trains and buses.
(C) Restaurants.
(D) Billboards and posters around the country.
8. To whom is the warning against alcohol abuse often addressed?
(A) Pregnant women and people using machines.
(B) Minority groups.
(C) Religious groups.
(D) Senior citizens.

9. To which group can smokers and drinkers conveniently go for free

help?
(A) To a community counselor.
(B) To the family physician.
(C) To Smoke-Enders and Alcoholics Anonymous.
(D) To specialized doctors who treat such illnesses.

10. What incentive is offered by insurance companies to get smokers

- 155 -
TIPS FOR WRITING
A PARAGRAPH

- 156 -
- 157 -
Tips for Writing a Paragraph

A paragraph is a series of sentences that are organized and

coherent, and are all related to a single topic. Almost every piece of
writing you do that is longer than a few sentences should be organized
into paragraphs. This is because paragraphs show a reader where the
subdivisions of an essay begin and end, and thus help the reader see
the organization of the essay and grasp its main points.

Paragraphs can contain many different kinds of information. A

paragraph could contain a series of brief examples or a single long
illustration of a general point. It might describe a place, character, or
process; narrate a series of events; compare or contrast two or more
things; classify items into categories; or describe causes and effects.
Regardless of the kind of information they contain, all paragraphs
share certain characteristics. One of the most important of these is a
topic sentence.

Characteristics of a Good Paragraph:

 Topic sentence, which includes the topic and a controlling idea.

 Supporting ideas (usually 3 - 6), which support the topic sentence.

 RENNS (reasons, examples, names, numbers, senses), which

develop the supporting ideas by giving details and explanation.

- 158 -
 Optional concluding sentence, which expresses the importance of
the information in the paragraph, may summarize the supporting
ideas if the paragraph is long, or provides a transition to the next
paragraph of the essay.

 Unity, which means that all sentences in the paragraph directly

support the topic sentence.

 Coherence, which means that all the information of the paragraph is

well-organized, logically ordered and easy to follow. This is
accomplished by:

o Repetition of key words and phrases (often from the topic

sentence)

o Parallel grammatical structure

o Transition words and phrases.

Some Useful Transition Words and Phrases:

To show addition:
again, and, also, besides, equally important, first (second, etc.),
further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, moreover,
next, too

To give examples:
for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is, to illustrate

- 159 -
To compare:
also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly

To contrast:
although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even though,
however, in contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on the contrary,
on the other hand, still, though, yet

To summarize or conclude:
all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in summary, on
the whole, that is, therefore, to sum up

To show time:
after, afterward, as, as long as, as soon as, at last, before, during,
earlier, finally, formerly, immediately, later, meanwhile, next,
since, shortly, subsequently, then, thereafter, until, when, while

To show place or direction:

above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby,
opposite, to the left (north, etc.)

To indicate logical relationship:

accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this reason,
hence, if, otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thus

- 160 -
Process of Writing a Paragraph:
1. Compose your topic sentence. Think of a topic and a controlling
idea that will narrow the topic enough to support it well in one
paragraph.
2. Brainstorm supporting ideas. Choose 2 - 6 supporting ideas that do
a good job supporting your topic sentence.
3. Write your paragraph in topic outline form as follows. Don't
actually write sentences in the outline, except for the topic
sentence.

Topic sentence:
A. Supporting idea 1.
1.
2.
3.

B. Supporting idea 2.
1.
2.
3.
C. Supporting idea 3.
1.
2.
3.
Concluding sentence:

- 161 -
4. Put your supporting ideas in a logical order.
5. For each supporting idea, think of RENNS that further explain the
idea. For balance, each supporting idea should have about the same
number of RENNS.
6. Think of a concluding sentence.
7. Write your paragraph using sentences. Use the coherence strategies
to make your paragraph easy to follow.

Here is an example that can be done in class. The students

brainstorm and come up with a good topic sentence and supporting
ideas:

Topic sentence: Choosing a college or university can be

difficult.
Supporting ideas: 1. Good Location, 2. Affordability, 3.
Good preparation for major

They then decide to order these supporting ideas according to

importance, as shown in the outline below. Next, they put this
information into outline form and add some RENNS for each
supporting idea.

Topic sentence: Choosing a college or university can be

difficult for high school graduates.

- 162 -
A. Good preparation for your major
1. Thorough, solid curriculum
2. Qualified professors

B. Affordability
1. Ability to pay tuition and living expenses
2. Possibility of scholarships

C. Good Location
1. Study environment
2. Possibilities of part time job in major

Concluding sentence: Students should consider these points

carefully so they can choose the most appropriate college or
university for them.

Finally, the class write the paragraph using sentences and try to
make the paragraph coherent using different coherence strategies.

Choosing a college or university can be difficult for high school

graduates. The most difficult part is finding a university that prepares
them well for their future career. In order to get a good job, the
curriculum that is taught must be thorough and up-to-date. In
addition, the professors must be highly qualified and respected in
their fields. Another difficulty in choosing a university or college is

- 163 -
affordability. Students need to be able to pay not only the tuition fees
but also the living expenses. Fortunately, some institutions might be
able to offer scholarships if students cannot afford the fees. Of course,
a good location is also very important when choosing a school. The
environment should be safe and quiet to facilitate studying. Moreover,
there should be possibilities near the school for part time or summer
jobs related to major to provide some practical work experience. High
school graduates should consider all of these points carefully so they
can choose the most appropriate college or university for them.

- 164 -
Write paragraphs on the following topics:

1. Friendship

…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………

2. Dangers of Smoking

- 165 -
3. Things You'd Like to Change

4. A Balanced Diet

- 166 -
5. A Place You'd Like to Visit

6. How to Keep Physically Fit

- 167 -
7. The Importance of Sports in Man's Life

8. Learning Foreign Languages

- 168 -
9. The Advantages and Disadvantages of a Vegetarian Diet

10. The Importance of Traveling Abroad

- 169 -
11. Modern Technology: Its Pros and Cons

12. Your Future Dreams

- 170 -
13. Television: Its Pros and Cons

14. Facebook: Its Pros and Cons

- 171 -
15. The Importance of Music in Our Life

16. How to Be a Good Citizen

- 172 -
17. The Importance of Reading

18. Co-operation

- 173 -
PASSAGES
FOR
TRANSLATION

- 174 -
- 175 -
Translate the following passages into Arabic:

1. Food is essential for all living beings. Without food man cannot
live long. Every man has to eat a certain quantity of food. If he eats
less than that quantity, his health will fail and he will fall ill. So
every man has to eat enough food to live.

2. Television is one of the wonders of modern science. Many useful

programs on education, health and agriculture are telecasted.
Interesting plays and films are shown at regular intervals. It is used
for commercial advertisement. It was invented by John Baird.

3. A Policeman has to protect the public from thieves and wicked men.
He has to give help to all those who need it, especially to strangers,
foreigners and old people. He must be brave and strong so that he
can prevent violent people behaving rudely. In a difficulty the
policeman has the right to call upon anybody for help. To refuse to
help the policeman is an offence against good citizenship.

4. Physical activity or exercise is defined as any movement that makes

your muscles work and requires your body to burn calories. There
are many types of physical activity, including swimming, running,
jogging, walking and dancing, to name a few. Exercise can improve
your health and reduce the risk of developing several diseases like
type 2 diabetes, cancer and cardiovascular disease. Physical activity

- 176 -
and exercise can have immediate and long-term health benefits.
Most importantly, regular activity can improve your quality of life.
Moreover, exercise has been shown to improve your mood and
decrease feelings of depression, anxiety and stress. It may block
negative thoughts or distract you from daily worries. Exercising
with others provides an opportunity for increased social contact.
Increased fitness may lift your mood and improve your sleep
patterns.

5. A computer is a programmable machine designed to automatically

carry out a sequence of arithmetic or logical operations. The first
use of the word "computer" was recorded in 1613, referring to a
person who carried out calculations, or computations, and the word
continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th
century. From the end of the 19th century the word began to take on
its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations.

6. Computers are machines that can help us in many ways, but they
cannot think or do things on their own. Humans have to feed them
with information and tell them what to do with it. They cannot
come up with any new information. But they can save much time
and work. For example, all the information and the office files can
be stored in a computer's "memory". If a clerk were to trace any
information from a particular file, the computer would only take

- 177 -
seconds to find it. It would take a clerk days or even weeks to go
through every file if no computers were used.

7. The modern age is an age of electricity. People are so used to

electric lights, radio, televisions, and telephones that it is hard to
imagine what life would be like without them. When there is a
power failure, people grope about in flickering candlelight. Cars
hesitate in the streets because there are no traffic lights to guide
them, and food spoils in silent refrigerators.

8. Public health is the study and practice of managing threats to the

health of a community. The field pays special attention to the social
context of disease and health, and focuses on improving health
through society-wide measures like vaccinations, the fluoridation of
drinking water, or through policies like seatbelt and non-smoking
laws. The goal of public health is to improve lives through the
prevention and treatment of disease.

9. Florence Nightingale is well-known as the mother of modern

nursing. During the Crimean War of the mid-1800s, she cared for
wounded soldiers and helped to bring clean conditions to the
makeshift hospitals. Her care for these soldiers ushered in the
modern era of nursing. After the war, Nightingale went on to found
nursing schools, teaching other women what she had learned, and

- 178 -
ensuring that there would be adequate care for the ill and wounded
of her time.

10. Mental and physical health professionals may consider referring

clients and patients to a music therapist for a number of reasons. It
seems a particularly good choice for the social worker who is
coordinating a client’s case. Music therapists use music to
establish a relationship with the patient and to improve the
patient’s health, using highly structured musical interactions.
Patients and therapists may sing, play instruments, dance,
compose, or simply listen to music.

11. In 1912 an American shipping company launched a new ship

called the Titanic. It was the largest and most luxurious ocean
linear of its time. It weighed 46,000 tons and could carry 2,200
passengers. Experts said that nothing could sink it. It was
definitely unsinkable. On April 15, just before midnight, the ship
struck an iceberg. The iceberg tore a great hole in the ship’s side,
and the unsinkable Titanic began to sink.

12. Cooperation means that all people should help each other in
everything around them in order to build good society. There are
many situations where groups of people need to cooperate to
succeed. For example, football or basketball players must
cooperate with each other within the team to score goals or points.

- 179 -
To be a successful team member, you may need to cooperate with
people who are very different from you and who you may not like.
To succeed, you will have to show tolerance and work with these
people. Imagine what would happen if a nurse refused to help a
doctor!

13. Sport is an important part of today's society and plays a great role
in people's lives. Now, more than ever, sport events dominate
headlines and athletes have become national heroes. From a social
standpoint, sport plays a positive role in omitting people from
different social backgrounds in support for their favorite team.
Sport is also an important part of every child's schooling, as it
plays a big role in their physical and mental development. It
teaches children how to work as a part of a team and cooperate
with others. It is considered the main outlet for every person's
energy. By practicing sport, every will be able to have good health.
From an economic point of view, sport can be profitable as it
attracts a lot of advertising. Therefore, this creates profit for the
sporting industry which allows for improvement and expansion.

14. Man and all other living things like animals, insects, birds, and
plants need water to stay alive. No one can live without water that
makes our bodies work .People use water for drinking, cooking
and growing crops. For good health, you need about 2 liters of

- 180 -
water every day. You can live without food for a few days, but not
without water.

15. It is never a bad thing, never a thing to be feared, I believe, to be

different in geographical position, in religion, in language or in
customs and traditions. Indeed, such a difference is required and
may be hoped for, as it works for the achievement of
complementarity, for identifying that which we lack but which the
others have. This is the way to development, to the
complementarity of knowledge. It is hardly beneficial or worth
our while to have all people adopt our mode of thinking or go our
own way. What is really useful is for each to respect the ‘other’
and give him his due. What we have in common is more universal,
more comprehensive and more viable: the areas of our differences
are too limited to preclude understanding, communion, dialogue,
sympathy or fraternity.

16. Traveling abroad is a great way to explore other cultures and

experience life in exciting new ways. People who travel a lot in
life seem more ready to embrace change and have a wider
perspective on just about anything. Traveling abroad helps you
disconnect from your regular life and recharge your “batteries”. It
gives you a chance to create unique memories to last a lifetime. It
develops a greater self-confidence, independence, and self-
reliance. It provides an international dimension to your

- 181 -
intellectual and career development. Moreover, traveling abroad
deepens your awareness of the values and way of life of your own
country, your own place in that country, and its place in the world.
17. Smoking is very bad for health. It causes a lot of diseases, the
most dangerous of which are cancer and lung and heart diseases.
It is said that smoking is responsible for about 30% of all the
death resulting from the various types of cancer. Many countries
of the world have prohibited smoking in public places because
non-smokers are also exposed to its dangers.

18. Television is the leading cause of violence in today's society.

Nowadays so many TV shows and so many TV channels are
showing violence and crime reports over TV. All our youths and
kids are getting spoiled. We see our kids glued to TV serials and
others. They have stopped playing out door games as well. All
these will have bad effects on kids as well as on youths. TV
almost certainly has contributed to antisocial behavior as it seeks
to entertain by pushing the boundaries. While the media has
promoted many positive social behaviors, it can also have a
negative effect.

19. There is a proverb that says, "Health is wealth." Every one likes to
be healthy and physically fit. So there are some tips that can help
you keep fit and healthy. You mustn't eat too many sweets and
you must eat a lot of fruits and vegetables. Also, you should drink

- 182 -
a lot of water and you shouldn't lie in the sun. In addition, you
have to do some sports. If you follow these tips, you will be
physically fit and healthy.

20. The press plays an important role in forming effective public

opinion and awareness in our country. Newspapers help us know
what is going on in the world. In them we can read the ideas and
thoughts of distinguished thinkers. They also contain literature,
science, stories and all sorts of culture.

21. Anyone who watches Egyptian television, or hears an Egyptian

radio broadcast, will observe the prominent role women play in
the information media. As one views a charming announcer, the
question might arise to her struggle for liberation along with her
sisters elsewhere. Strangers to Egyptian society have many
misconceptions about Egyptian women. And, what was known
about Egyptian women fifty years ago has changed with the
changing times, which made Egyptian women freer, more
independent and industrious as individuals.

22. We live in a rapidly changing society, in the age of globalization

and the information and communication revolution. We must
accept the reality of the dramatic changes that are affecting our
lifestyles, our ways of thinking, feeling and acting. We must work
together towards a globalization that does not marginalize, but

- 183 -
instead, one that humanizes and strengthens the bonds of our
human solidarity; that spreads its benefits equitably rather than
creates new gaps between peoples, their economies and cultures.

23. Although scientists cannot always predict exactly when floods

will occur, they do know a great deal about when floods are likely,
or probably, going to occur. Deep snow, ice-covered rivers, and
weak dams are all strong conditions for potential flooding.
Hopefully, this knowledge of why floods happen can help us
reduce the damage they cause.

24. Long before they can actually speak, babies pay special attention
to the speech they hear around them. Within the first month of
their lives, babies' responses to the sound of the human voice will
be different from their responses to other sorts of auditory stimuli.
They will stop crying when they hear a person talking, but not if
they hear a bell or the sound of a rattle. At first, the sounds that an
infant notices might be only those words that receive the heaviest
emphasis and that often occur at the ends of utterances. By the
time they are six or seven weeks old, babies can detect the
difference between syllables pronounced with rising and falling
inflections. Very soon, these differences in adult stress and
intonation can influence babies' emotional states and behavior.
Long before they develop actual language comprehension, babies
can sense when an adult is playful or angry, attempting to initiate

- 184 -
or terminate new behavior, and so on, merely on the basis of cues
such as the rate, volume, and melody of adult speech.

- 185 -
REFERENCES

- 186 -
- 187 -
References

Cullen, Kay (ed.) (1999): Chambers Guide to Common Errors.

Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd.

Gear, Jolene & Gear, Robert (1996): Cambridge Preparation for the
TOEFL Test. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Huddleston, R. (1984): Introduction to the Grammar of English,

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Huddleston, R. (1988): English Grammar: an Outline. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press

Jupp, T.C. & Milne, John (1969): Guided Course in English

Composition. London: Heinemann Educational Books.

Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. (1994): A Communicative Grammar of

English, 2nd edition. London: Longman.

Maley, Alan & Duff, Alan (1976): Beyond Words: Certificate

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