It is a way of imparting messages to an entire crowd.

Generally it is recognized with tools of

modern mass media, which include books, the press, cinema, television, radio, internet etc. It
also includes speeches delivered by leaders to a large audience.
Grapevine
It is a form of communication that stretches throughout the organization in every direction
regardless of the hierarchy or authority levels. As man is a social animal, he tends to interact
with a lot of people while living in a society, as a result he uses informal forms of
communication more while working within an organization despite the existence of formal
channels. It exists more at lower levels of organization. E.g. Suppose the profit amount of a
company is known, rumor is spread that this much profit is there and on that basis bonus is
declared. Thus, grapevine spreads like wildfire and many a times it is not easy to find the cause
of such communication.
SMRC Model of Communication

Figure 2

SMCR model of communication by Berlo.

There are various elements that Berlo has incorporated in his model of communication:

Sender or Source

The starting point of a message is called Source. A message begins from a source.
Communication skills
According to Berlo, communication is also influenced by people’s skills of comprehension
that is reading and listening and skills of expression which include their ability in writing and
speaking.
Attitudes
By attitude, Berlo means a sender’s attitude towards himself and his audience. It matters
while communicating. For instance, a teacher teaches with the attitude of imparting
knowledge and a student’s attitude is to assimilate more.
Knowledge
This element deals with a speaker’s hold on the subject that he chooses to share with his
audience. It shows that the speaker doesn’t disseminate general information of the topic
rather he displays his acquaintance with the subject. He shows that he knows what he’s
conveying.
Social system
A lot of social factors such as the moral standards, ideologies, ideals and beliefs of people
are included in the Social system. It also considers religious and cultural aspects of a specific
society. Depending upon a social system, communication occurs.
For e.g. class rooms are not same everywhere. They differ from country to country like
behaviors or how we communicate etc.
Culture
Social system also includes the culture of a specific society.
Encode
A message is encoded in the form of a text, a signal etc. Encoder is the one who initiates a
message.
Message
It is the content or the information which is to be shared with a receiver.
Content
The entire message from beginning to end is called content. For example, everything that a
teacher delivers in a class from starting to end becomes content.
Elements
Elements of a message involve verbal and non-verbal methods such as body language,
gestures, language etc.
Treatment
Packing of the message is referred to as Treatment. It is the way in which the message is
conveyed or delivered.
Structure
Structure of the message shows its arrangement or the way it is organized into various
segments. The same message may fail to be delivered if it not appropriately structured.
Code
A message can be sent in any form such as language, body language, gestures, music etc.
Sending a message using a particular form is known as a Code. Culture is also considered as
a code. A code is used to send or receive a message. If improper code is used to transfer a
message then clear message will not be transmitted and there are chances of its
misinterpretation.
Channel
Channel is a medium we use to send a message. Five sensory organs i.e. hearing, sight, touch,
smell and taste work as a channel. All communication happens through these five sense
organs.
Hearing
Here, ears act as a channel to receive vocal, interpersonal etc. messages.
Seeing
This includes ocular/visual medium. For instance, television acts as a channel for a receiver
to see and receive a message.
Touching
As a part of non-verbal communication, the sense of touch can be used as a channel to send a
message. For example, food is bought by touching. Hugging also falls in this.
Smelling
A message is communicated through the sense of smell. For e.g. food, perfumes are smelled
before buying them. Charred smell communicates something is burning. Through smelling,
we get to know the type of food being cooked etc.
Tasting
Communication occurs through tongue as well. The taste of food is checked through tongue.
Decode
Decoding a message means to unfold/analyze it. The one who receives a message and
unravels it, is known as a decoder.
Receiver
As per Berlo, a receiver and a source need to think alike.
Berlo’s model presents the view that a source and a receiver should share the same mental
and social level for an effective communication to take place. It’s only when they are on the
same level, communication happens appropriately. Thus, source and receiver should be same.

Criticism of Berlo’s SMCR model of communication:

1. This model doesn’t mention about feedback as one of the elements
2. Barriers in the form of noise which are an inevitable part of any communication, have not
been talked about
3. This model is complex
4. It is a linear model of communication
5. The model requires communicators to be on the same page which is not practically
possible
6. The biggest flaw lies in the fact that it doesn’t say anything about the important sense i.e.
sixth sense. Sense of perceiving, comprehending also acts as a significant medium which
Berlo has not taken into consideration.

Shannon Weaver Model

An American mathematician and Electronic engineer, Claude Elwood Shannon and an
American scientist, warren Weaver came together to create an article named as “A
Mathematical Theory of Communication” which was published in the journal called “Bell
System Technical Journal” This theory later on came to be known as Shannon Weaver Model
of communication.
This model reveals the stages involved in developing effective communication between a
sender and a receiver. They have also mentioned the barriers that disrupt communication and
are called “Noise”. Initially, the model was created to enhance the Technical communication.
Later on, it’s implemented in Communication field as well.
The model comprises concepts like Sender, Encode, Noise, channel, Message, Receiver, and
Decode.

Sender
The Information source chooses the message that he wishes to convey.
Encoder
Message is converted into signals by the transmitter which is called encoder.
Annotation
The message is compacted into signals (waves or Binary data)so that it can be transmitted
through cables or satellites. For instance, when a person chooses telephone as a medium to
send his message, the voice is transformed into wave signals and it is transmitted through
cables.
Decoder
This process is just opposite of the process of encoding. It is the reception place of signals.
Here, signals are converted back into a message or in other words it can be said that signals
are changed into comprehensible form by a decoder.
Annotation
It is essential for a receiver to convert those binary data or waves into a message which is
comfortable and understandable. Without this process, a receiver fails to receive the exact
message which in turn impedes effective communication between a sender and a receiver.
Receiver
The destination point of the message is a Receiver.
Annotation
The receiver provides feedback to sender on the basis of the decoded message. If the message
is obstructed by noise it affects the smooth communication flow between a sender and a
receiver.
Noise
When a message is sent by a sender to a receiver through a medium called channel, it may get
distorted or affected by physical noise such as the noise created by natural phenomenon like
thundering, noise generated by horns or crowd etc. Apart from it, encoded signals may get
disrupted in the channel during the transmission process which impacts the communication
flow leading to the failure of the reception of correct message by a receiver.
Annotation
Apparently, this model deals with only external noises which affect the messages or signals
from external sources. For example, any problem that crops up in the network which directly
affects the mobile phone communication and hampers the messages.

Criticism of Shannon-Weaver model of communication:

1. Unlike many complicated models, this model is one of the simplest models of
communication which lays foundation for other communication theories.
2. It arouses the interest of Human communication and Information theorist to carry out
more research in the field of communication
3. It’s more helpful in direct communication between two people than in a group or with a
large audience.
4. It deals with the concept of “Sender and Receiver”. The key function is performed by a
sender and a receiver performs the secondary role.
5. Communication is a two-way process. If it were a one- way process, it would lose its
strength. For example, audience or receiver listening to a radio, reading the books or
watching television reflects one-way communication as there is no feedback provided by the
receiver.
6. In order to resolve issues in communication, it is important to understand the factor of
noise.

Barriers of communication (Problems in communication)

We understand that communication is a complex process. Even if we prepare the best, the
receiver might perceive it differently or there can be external problems which might cause
our communication to be distorted or problematic.
Following can create barriers to communication
i. Psychological barriers
ii. Physiological barriers
iii. Semantic blocks
iv. Organizational Barriers

Psychological barriers
We know that no two people think alike so there will be problems when our messages are
taken differently from different people, depending on their thought process. Psychological
barriers include peoples’ emotions, perceptions and selectivity.
It is the barriers to effective communication created from the lack of interest of the people
from who the communication is meant. People do not pay attention to the communication
which is not interesting to them and which do not fulfill their want.
a. Perception: – it is the process of accepting and interpreting the information by the receiver.
People receive things differently for a various number of reasons.
b. Filtering: – communication some time filters the negative information to make it more
favorable to the receiver. In this process, knowingly or unknowingly some valuable
information may be disposed.
c. Distrust: – superior provides information or message to the subordinates according to their
own view, ideas and opinion which create obstruction in communication.
d. Emotions: – emotion also creates barriers to effective communication like anger, hate,
mistrust, jealousy etc.
e. Viewpoint: – it also creates barriers to effective communication. If the receiver doesn’t
clear the message and ignore without hearing, the message may create obstructions.
f. Defensiveness: – if the receiver receives the message as threat and interprets that message
in the same way, it creates barriers to effective communication.
Emotional
One possible psychological block is emotional. For example if you are announcing a new
policy which you know will be unpopular you will be emotionally blocked, giving the first
major presentation for your job, writing a letter to someone you dislike you will be
emotionally blocked. The people we are communicating to may also have emotional blocks.
They may feel indifferent or hostile towards our subject or can be biased against us or our
subject.
Perceptual
Even if there are no poignant blocks every person perceives things differently.
Communication involves perception and perception is never accurate. One perceptual
problem is that people perceive things differently. A glass is half filled for one and half
empty for another.
Selectivity
A final set of psychological barriers exist because of prioritizing one’s time and attention. In
our daily lives we are bombarded with a huge amount of information from different sources.
We only remember the information which we think is important to us or somehow is
connected to us. The rest of the information is discarded from the mind as garbage. Another
thing is that we remember the extremes of everything and forget the moderate information.
Physiological barriers
Communication does not consist of words alone. Another set of barriers is caused by physical
manifestation, audience or the context of the document or presentation. For written
communication take the examples of bad handwriting, unclear photocopies, water or tea
spots, messy overwriting. Another set of barriers might be caused by the paper itself. For oral
communication the examples are bad seating arrangements, loud noises inside and outside the
room, slamming doors, ringing telephones.
o Physical appearance of communicator or audience, the context of the document or the
presentation. Illegible documents, jammed margins, faulty typing, unclear photocopies –
all are physical barriers.
o Other physical blocks include mumbling, speaking to fast, disturbing gestures, noise
inside the room such as ringing telephones etc – or outside the building such as traffic or
aero -planes.
o Your message may be blocked because people in your audience are uncomfortable; they
cannot hear because of bad sound system and cannot see because of inadequate lighting.

Internal structure of the organization creates physical barriers in communication

a. Distance: – communication is found obstructed in long distance. Like communication
between America and Nepal.
b. Noise: – it is from external sources and affects the communication process. Noise
depressingly affects the correctness.
c. Physical arrangement: – the physical arrangement of organizational sources like men,
money, material and machine hamper the communication process.

Semantic Barriers
Words as we know are symbols and therefore limited because they cannot have precisely the
same meaning for everyone. The study of word choice is called Semantics, so the barriers
associated with use of words are known as semantic blocks. These arise due to denotation and
connotation. Denotation means the dictionary meaning of a word and connotation is an
implication of a word or a suggestion separate from the usual meaning.
Take the following examples: Cheap or inexpensive, heavy or bulky, divide and split,
Elevated and alleviated, proclaim and exclaim.
The use of difficult and multiple uses of languages, words, figures, symbols create semantic
barriers.
a. Language: – we can find some words having different meaning. As meaning sent by
the sender can be quite different from the meaning understood by the receiver. Long
and complex sentences create problem in communication process.

b. Jargons: – technical or unfamiliar language creates barriers to communication that may

be drawn from the literature. So message should be simple and condensed as far as
possible so that no confusion creation will be there to the receiver.
Organizational Barriers
Most of the communication barriers exist in workplaces can be included into this category.
Poor organization structures, rules and regulations, poor employee relationships, physical
separations, outdated equipments can badly affect communication processes within the
organization.
It is raised from the organizational goals, regulations, structure and culture.
a. Poor planning: – it refers to the designing, encoding, channel selection and conflicting
signals in the organization.
b. Structure complexities:- difficult organizational structure barrier for free flow of
information. Appropriate communication process must be used.
c. Status differences – it creates barrier for communication. Superior provides information to
the subordinate about plans and policies. Different information is further provided by
different subordinates who create barrier in communication.
d. Organizational distance - distance between sender and receiver also creates barriers to
effective communication.
e. Information overload – if superior provides too much information to the subordinate in
short period receiver suffers from information overload which creates barriers to effective
communication.
f. Timing – communication can be obstructed if not done on time. It creates barriers to
effective communication.
The Seven 7 C’s of Effective communication -Principles of communication
i. Completeness

ii. Conciseness

iii. Consideration

iv. Concreteness

v. Clarity

vi. Courtesy

vii. Correctness

Additions:
1. Confidence

2. Conversational tone

Completeness
Your message is complete when you have given everything that is required to induce a
reaction from the audience (reader). Your message needs to be complete in all terms of data
and facts. To accomplish this you need to follow this guideline:
  Offer all necessary records

 Answer all questions requested

 Give something extra, if preferred

This indicates you have to offer all of the essential statistics required to complete your
message which means all the records and all the details. Secondly in case you are replying to
a message make sure that you solve all questions requested inside the request or message that
you are replying to, in the last give a little something extra to the reader as this extra
information might help the reader but only when desirable, be careful not to put in too much
extra information.
Conciseness
Conciseness means to deliver your message in the least possible words, meaning in a nut
shell. While following conciseness do not in any case sacrifice the other principles of
communication. To write your message concise comply these guidelines:
 Discard prolonged expressions

 Only add relevant facts

 Avoid pointless repetition

This means do not use lengthy sentences wherein short sentences can suffice, secondly do not
mention any extra information in your message and in the last do not repeat things which the
reader already knows or have already been stated.

Consideration
This means preparing every message keeping the receiver’s in mind; try to put yourself in
reader’s place. You are foremost aware of their desires, problems, circumstances, emotions
and probable to your request, then prepare your message. This thoughtful consideration is
also called “you attitude”. There are three specific ways to consider your receiver’s are:
 Emphasis on “You” in place of “I” or “We”

 Be sure benefits are prominent

 Consciously use positive information

As a final note, true consideration is a result of Integrity and ethics in communication. If your
receiver‘s see something of their advantage, they will surely react positively. By this it means
that the message should use the word “You” in places of “I” and “We” and sentences should
then be structured for the message. Lastly no one likes bad ideas or bad news so try to be
more positive and friendly.
Concreteness
Communicating concretely means being specific and definite rather than vague and general.
Be precise about your data. The ideas in your message should be well established. It means
you should be sure of what you are communicating not unsure or indefinite.try to use
energetic voice in preference to passive voice in your message. Use words which the reader
can relate to and make out in real life. The following guidelines should help you compose
concrete and convincing messages:
 Use specific facts and figures

 Put action in your verbs

 Choose vivid and image-building words

In this manner your message should be sturdy and the ideas in that message should be
particular and positive. Whenever possible use all facts and figures with exact information
not vague ideas for example do not use some time ago use 3 days ago instead.
Clarity
The reader should not get harassed after reading your message. You must be accurate in what
you need to say. To achieve clarity we should follow these guiding principles:
 Choose easy and familiar phrases

 Construct effective sentences and paragraphs

Use clear terms, defines them briefly. If you don’t, you will confuse and irritate the reader.
Don’t use words that are not common and are used rarely in only a few situations. Use
paragraphs that are easy to read with small sentences and easy language, grammar and
punctuation. This will help make your message much more effective.
Courtesy
Courtesy is politeness, respect and consideration for others. It is not merely politeness with
mechanical insertions of please and thank you, but it means much more. It is being aware of
other people’s values and feelings and respecting them. Remember that a more courteous
message will leave a good and lasting impression on your receiver. Courteous
communication generates a special tone in writing and speaking. For courtesy in your
messages the guideline is:
 Be absolutely thoughtful and appreciative

 Use expression which show respect

 Use of non discriminatory expressions

This means no one wants to hear or read massages which offend them in any manner by any
means. Use sentences which have a reflection of respect in them. Furthermore, you should
not use any remarks or gestures that would generally offend other people like religion, race,
color, gender etc.
Correctness
This last of the seven C’S focuses on correctness in grammar, punctuation and spellings as
well as in facts and information. Not only this, you have to check whether the information
you are giving in your message is accurate or not. Guideline for correctness:
 Select the right level of language

 Confirm accuracy of information, figures and statistics

 Use suitable medium of messages

The correct level of language means you have to use the level that is most suited with your
audience not the level you think is better because the message is intended for the reader not
yourself. If you are giving any details in your message such as figures or facts check that they
are correct and verify the sources you took the data from. Acceptable medium means use
ways in which communication is usually done, do not endeavor to find better approaches for
conveying which would befuddle your audience.
Confidence
Keep in mind when you communicate you should demonstrate confidence in yourself
because this will influence the receiver’s mind. If a person tells a truth half-heartedly and
without much self-confidence people tend not to believe, but if the same person tells a lie
with full confidence people usually believe what is being said. So the sender should always
show confidence in one’s self. Try not to use words which mirror that you don’t have much
confidence, for example I trust, I accept, I think, perhaps
Conversational Tone
This implies that you should set up your message in such a way that the beneficiary is
directly before you. The reader ought to read as though conversing with you vis-à-vis rather
than simply of just reading a piece of paper. This means that your message need to be formal
to a limit not over the edge formal, if this happens the reader will lose enthusiasm in the
message and you might fail to get a coveted response.
What is LSRW?

The four major formal communicative skills are known as LSRW.

L = listening
S = speaking
R = reading
W = writing

Listening refers to the ability to understand an oral message. One is to understand what one
hears. Listening attentively as well as assimilating the information is very important for
effective communication. The way one listens reveals ones attitude. Listener's response to
the message (interest, empathy, boredom etc.) is communicated through the act of
listening. The power to comprehend the delivered information quickly is the need of the
hour. Effective listening skill is required for a professional as it is one of the basic and most
important skills needed for activities such as interviews, group discussions, meetings etc.
Importance of listening
Listening plays a vital role in communication. Many barriers can be avoided through
effective listening. Use below tips to improve your listening capabilities.

 Use face-to-face communication and eye contacts

 Listen to ideas not just words
 Do not interrupt when someone speaks
 Ask questions to clarify unclear points of the conversation
 Always give feedbacks

Types of Listening
 Discriminative listening
Discriminative listening is when the listener distinguishes between the verbal and the
nonverbal message. This type of listening can be used for all types of public speeches. For
example recognizing somebody is sad despite what they are saying or how they are saying
it.
 Comprehensive Listening
Comprehensive listening involves understanding the message or messages that are being
communicated. Like discriminative listening, comprehensive listening is fundamental to
all listening sub-types. For example as when we attend a lecture or listen to directions for
finding a friend’s house.
 Informational Listening
Whenever you listen to learn something, you are engaged in informational listening. This
is true in many day-to-day situations, in education and at work, when you listen to the
news, watch a documentary, when a friend tells you a recipe or when you are talked-
through a technical problem with a computer.
 Critical Listening
Critical listening means engaging in what you are listening to by asking yourself questions
such as, ‘what is the speaker trying to say?’ or ‘what is the main argument being
presented?’, ‘how does what I’m hearing differ from my beliefs, knowledge or opinion?’.
Critical listening is, therefore, fundamental to true learning.
 Therapeutic or Empathic Listening
Empathy is a way of deeply connecting with another person and therapeutic or empathic
listening can be particularly challenging. Counsellors, therapists and some other
professionals use therapeutic or empathic listening to understand and ultimately help their
clients.
Appreciative Listening
Appreciative listening is listening for enjoyment. A good example is listening to music,
especially as a way to relax.

 Rapport Listening
When trying to build rapport with others we can engage in a type of listening that
encourages the other person to trust and like us. A salesman, for example, may make an
 effort to listen carefully to what you are saying as a way to promote trust and potentially
make a sale.
 Selective Listening
This is a more negative type of listening, it implies that the listener is somehow biased to
what they are hearing.

Speaking
Which is the most frequently required skill in professional and social spheres? It is Effective
Speaking. Effective speaking is but the ability to express one's message effectively to the
audience through spoken words. The delivery of messages is possible through both face-to-
face communication and electronic devices. This skill is very much required for
communicating in conferences, meetings, seminars, group discussions etc.

Introduction:
Speaking:
Speaking is an act of making vocal sounds. We can say that speaking means to converse, or
expressing one's thoughts and feelings in spoken language. To speak often implies conveying
information. It may be from an informal remark to a scholarly presentation to a formal
address.
Speaking skills:
 Speaking skills are the skills that give us the ability to communicate effectively.
 These skills allow the speaker, to convey his message in a passionate, thoughtful, and
convincing manner.
 Speaking skills also help to assure that one won't be misunderstood by those who are
listening.

Description:
Speaking is the productive skill in the oral mode. It, like the other skills, is more complicated
than it seems at first and involves more than just pronouncing words.
There are three kinds of speaking situations in which we find ourselves:

1. interactive,
2. partially interactive, and
3. Non-interactive.

 Interactive speaking situations include face-to-face conversations and telephone calls,

in which we are alternately listening and speaking, and in which we have a chance to ask
for clarification, repetition, or slower speech from our conversation partner.
 Some speaking situations are partially interactive, such as when giving a speech to a
live audience, where the convention is that the audience does not interrupt the speech.
 The speaker nevertheless can see the audience and judge from the expressions on their
faces and body language whether or not he or she is being understood.
 Few speaking situations may be totally non-interactive, such as when recording a speech
for a radio broadcast.

In all the above explained conditions speaking is always a headache for most of the people.
Although the fear of speaking is common, studies show that ability to speaking can be
enhanced by improving speaking skills.

What to do before speaking?

The first step to speaking is to think and the first step to perfect speaking is to thick positive.
Good speakers have the ability to quickly analyze and absorb the information given to them,
assess it fast and to make a decision and communicate that decision to other. Keep in mind to:

1. Be an active listener:
The key ingredient towards making you a person who can think on the spot and respond
intelligently is to be an active listener. This means listening carefully and giving your full
attention to the words, tone, emotion and logic behind what the other one is saying.

2. Be a quick organiser of thoughts:

All of us have the ability to think fast. The trick is to adopt some frameworks or models to
structure new information into something coherent that we can respond with. One can break
down issues or ideas into past, present and future.

3. Structure your speech in your mind:

These are useful frameworks to organise ideas and thoughts quickly.
The basic structure of any speech involves:
 Opening
 Body
 Conclusion
It is very useful in delivering speeches and especially for speaking in situations such as table
topics during meetings or other times when called upon to "say some words". Thinking
before speaking is important for us to add value in terms of communicating our thoughts,
ideas and feelings. We can touch lives through deeds and we can touch lives through speech.

Speaking Skills:

Some speaking skills are:

1. Be prepared and practice.
The more you know what you want to say, the better you'll get at it. First, brainstorm the
topic of your speech and research it, if you need to. Write down all the points you want to
make and then organize them into an outline. Then, practice your speech out loud at least 3 to
5 times.
2. Know your audience.
The better you know your audience or listeners, the easier it will be to connect to them as you
speak. When you are able to make that connection, you'll hold their attention.

3. Pay attention to the old KISS principle, that is, Keep It Short and Simple.
When you are speaking don't beat around the bush or try to impress with complex metaphors.
Stories, however, can be a powerful public speaking tool, especially when they contain at
least a hint of humor. But again, keep them short and on point. Shorter messages leave more
impression. They're also easier for your audience to remember.

4. Interact with your audience.

Lectures will rarely have the same impact on an audience that an open discussion will. Look
for opportunities to involve your audience in what you are speaking about. Ask for validation
of points you are making ("Am I right?" "Has that ever happened to you?") Or allow time for
questions. Also, make sure to establish eye contact with your audience, and keep it
throughout your speech.

5. Speak with sincerity and passion.

When a person wants to leave a lasting impression with the audience about one’s topic then
be sure that you are true to yourself and your topic as you speak .Don't be afraid to inject
enthusiasm and passion into the speech as well.

6. Close your speech in a memorable way.

Give your audience something to think about as you finish up your speech. Certainly, it's a
good idea to summarize your main points one more time, but then finish up with an inspiring
story or quote, or leave them with a thought provoking question.

7. Fluency
The main goal is fluency. Remember that one don't have to know many complex
grammatical structures to achieve that goal! First of all try to speak as fluent as possible
(even making some grammar mistakes). Then, after making one’s speaking fluent, one can
focus on grammar aspects.

Speaking skills required in meeting:

Speaking skills are very important in business. Those who are at ease conversationally have
the ability to "connect" with others which builds rapport and, eventually, relationships. Here
are important tips on speaking well as a meeting participant.

1. Talk to the entire group.

When speaking in groups moves your eyes around and talk to anyone who's listening to what
you have to say. "When responding to a question, address the entire group, not just the person
who asked the question,"
2. Reach out and encourage
feedback. Actively encourage comment
and feedback based on what you have to contribute.

3. Mirror the tenor of the meeting.

Another business meeting basic is establishing a comfortable atmosphere where everyone

feels at ease. One effective way to achieve that is to establish a consistency in
communication. If, for instance, most participants are keeping their remarks short, do the
same. If their tone is low and reserved, follow their lead.

4. Don’t be a time hog.

Be thorough, but don't take much time to get your message across that you lose others'
attention.

Micro-skills:
Here are some of the micro-skills involved in speaking.
 The speaker has to Pronounce the distinctive sounds of a language clearly enough so that
people can distinguish them. This includes making tonal distinctions.
 Use the correct forms of words. This may mean, for example, changes in the tense, case,
or gender.
 Put words together in correct word order.
 Use vocabulary appropriately.
 Use the language that is appropriate to the situation and the relationship to the
conversation partner.
 Make the main ideas stand out from supporting ideas or information.

Barriers while speaking:

There are certain barriers to speaking:

1.Unclear messages.
2. Lack of consistency in the communication process.
3. Incomplete sentences.
4. Not understanding the receiver.
5. Words can have different meanings to different listener.
6. Use of negative words.
Now the question arises how we can improve our speaking skills

How to improve speaking skills:

1. Practice where you can, when you can: Any practice is good whether you speak to
someone who is a native English speaker or not.
2. It's important to build your confidence. If possible, use simple English sentence structure
that you know is correct, so that you can concentrate on getting your message across.
3. Try to experiment with the English you know. Use words and phrases you know in new
situations. Native English speakers are more likely to correct you if you use the wrong
word than if you use the wrong grammar. Experimenting with vocabulary is a really good
way of getting feedback.
4. Try to respond to what people say to you. You can often get clues to what people think by
looking at their body language. Respond to them in a natural way.
5. Try NOT to translate into and from your own language. This takes too much time and
will make you more hesitant.
6. If you forget a word do what native English speakers do all the time, and say things that
'fill' the conversation. This is better than keeping completely silent. Try using um, or err,
if you forget the word.
7. Don't speak too fast! It's important to use a natural rhythm when speaking English, but if
you speak too fast it will be difficult for people to understand you.
8. Try to relax when you speak you'll find your mouth does most of the pronunciation work
for you. When you speak English at normal speed, you'll discover that many of the
pronunciation skills, such as linking between words, will happen automatically.
9. Remember, when speaking English Try to become less hesitant and more confident.
Don’t be shy to speak the more you do it, the more confident you'll become. Remember
to be polite use "please" and "thank you" if you ask someone to do something for you.

Different types of Speeches

Special occasion: A Special Occasion (or ceremonial, commemorative, or epideictic) speech

should pay tribute or praise a person, an institution, an event, idea, or place.. Depending on
the context, special occasion speeches can be funny or sad.

There are many examples of special occasions like, an individual might give a speech at a
memorial for an audience of friends and families or a toast given at a wedding, which is also
an example of a special occasion speech

Narrative/personal: Narrative speeches involve standing up in front of an audience and

telling a story. As with a written narrative, a narrative speech should include a clear opening,
middle and conclusion. Some narrative presentations include a teachable moment or a moral
for the listener, but this element is not necessary.

Manuscript: When giving a manuscript speech, a speaker reads every word from a pre-
written speech. Manuscript speeches are useful when it is important for wording to be
precise, such as with legal issues.

Impromptu Speech: This is a speech that has no advanced planning or practice. Think for a
second about what you are going to say.

 Keep your points brief and to the point.

  Take a few seconds between thoughts to compose yourself.

Extemporaneous Speech: It is a limited-preparation speech event based on research and

original analysis. Extemporaneous speaking provides 5-10 minutes of preparation time,
followed by a 7-8 minute speech. This speech involves the speaker's use of notes and some
embellishment to deliver a speech. What makes this different than an impromptu speech is
that he has a loose guideline for his speech. He did not memorize anything; he just used cues
to know where to go next.

Following things are evaluated in an extempore speech:

 How quickly one can imagine and speak on the topic

 How one begins and ends the speech creating an impression on the audience
 Confidence - measured by the tone, hand gestures and facial expressions of the
speaker
 Clarity of thought
 Stage presence and how one connects with the audience

Informational speeches: This type of speech is like teaching and explaining of a subject or
idea. It tries to explain how things work or how to do something. The classroom lecture of the
teacher on any new subject is a typical example of informative speech.
There are a few types of informational speeches: about objects, events, processes, concepts
Persuasive: The main consequence of persuasive speech is it inflicts some changes in the
minds of the people. It helps the audience to make a decision. In the persuasive
communication the speaker is regarded as the sender who tries to influence the values,
beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors of the listeners who are regarded as receivers.

Reading
The act of effective reading requires the skills of decoding and comprehending the written
message. Thus reading is a complex skill. The reader has to develop different skills such as
vocabulary, fast reading, and intensive reading. Fast reading skills include; a) scanning, and,
b) skimming. Intensive reading includes; a) thorough reading, and, b) inferential skills.

Skimming Skills: Skimming is used to quickly gather the most important information, or
'gist'.
. For Example: The Newspaper (quickly to get the general news of the day) , Magazines
(quickly to discover which articles you would like to read in more detail) or Business and
Travel Brochures (quickly to get informed)

Scanning Skills: Scanning is used to find a particular piece of information. Use scanning on
schedules, meeting plans, etc. in order to find the specific details you require. Examples of
Scanning - The "What's on TV" section of your newspaper. Or A train / airplane schedule

Extensive reading is used to obtain a general understanding of a subject and includes reading
longer texts for pleasure. Use extensive reading skills to improve your general knowledge.
Examples of Extensive Reading - The latest marketing strategy book , A novel you read
before going to bed or Magazine articles that interest you

Intensive reading is used on shorter texts in order to extract specific information. It includes
very close accurate reading for detail. Use intensive reading skills to grasp the details of a
specific situation. In this case, it is important that you understand each word, number or fact.
Examples of Intensive Reading: An insurance claim or a contract of employment

Critical Reading Skills is a Form of language analysis that does not take given text at face
value, but involves a deeper examination of supporting points and possible counter
arguments.
Critical readers thus recognize not only what a text says, but also how that text portrays the
subject matter. What a text means – interpretation, analysis of the text and asserting a
meaning for the text as a whole.

Ways to improve Reading Skills

 Read about things that interest you.
 Read material that is at your level of understanding or just a little more difficult for
you to comprehend.
 Ask yourself questions while reading and after reading.
 Read many kinds of texts. Recognize that the key is to read a lot.
 Let your imagination get involved.

Writing
When we write down a graphic element on a piece of paper, it becomes a written
document. This written communication is the second form of communication which is
transmitted through words. Effective writing skills are required to write documents such as
reports, letters, memos and emails. Why written communication is more important than oral
communication? Because it is a permanent record of one's transactions and it can be referred
to at any point of time. Only practice can perfect the writing skill. For effective writing, one
must write, rewrite, and finally learn to edit.

Writing Skills
Seven principles to improve writing skills
1. Learn Grammar
Every language has its own grammar and knowledge of grammar is necessary to use that
language accurately and effectively. Improve your grammar skills to make you writing more
effective.
2. Enhance your vocabulary
Vocabulary means the collection of words you have at your disposal when writing or
speaking, the more words you remember the better. Vocabulary can be mainly increased
through reading English novels and newspapers and consulting dictionaries.
3. Keep a Dictionary
Always keep a standard dictionary in your reach because it improves your chances of being
effective as you will get help not only in meanings of words but in pronunciation as well as
spellings of different words.
4. Develop reading habit
Remember that the best writer is the one who reads the most as by reading you get more ideas
and your grammar as well as vocabulary increases and develops. In order to become an
effective writer you should become a frequent reader.
5. Develop writing habit
Effective writing not only comes from excessive reading but from writing as well. As it is
said “Practice makes perfect”. Make it a routine to write something like stories, notes or
anything else that you prefer. The more you write in a language the more your chances are of
getting better in that language.
6. Develop your imagination
Imagination means the ideas that come to your mind while in the process of writing and
speaking, great writers have great imagination that is why they are able to write amazing
stories and articles. Without good imagination perfect grammar and best vocabulary means
nothing.
7. Improve knowledge of the subject
Knowledge of the subject means the knowledge of what you are writing, suppose you want to
write something about Information Technology but if you do not even know what
information technology is you cannot even write a single line. Increase your knowledge by
various ways; read, listen and research.
Types of Writing
Narrative Writing
Recounts a personal experience in the form of a story and always includes characters, setting,
and plot.
Examples: short story, novel, narrative poem, journal
Descriptive Writing
Uses vivid images to describe a person, place, or event so that the topic can be clearly “seen”
in the reader’s mind.
Examples: menu, travel brochure, poster
Expository Writing
Provides information that explains, clarifies or defines
Examples: essay, research paper, report, manual
Persuasive Writing
Gives an opinion using facts that attempts to convince a reader to agree with a writer’s belief
Examples: movie review, restaurant critique, letter to a newspaper editor, essay
Creative Writing
Entertains the reader
Examples: short story, novel, poem, play
Argumentative Writing
 investigate a topic
 collect, generate, and evaluate evidence
 establish a position on the topic in a concise manner
 Extensive research so that she/he may choose a position and support it with the
evidence collected during research.

The writing process

Prewriting: Includes thinking, taking notes, talking to others, brainstorming, outlining, and
gathering information (e.g., interviewing people, researching in the library, assessing data).
Drafting: Ideas are put into sentences and paragraphs. Concentrate upon explaining and
supporting ideas fully. Begin to connect ideas. The draft tends to be writer-centered
Revising: document becomes reader-centered keeping readers’ needs and expectations in
mind. Organize effectively by refining prose, making each sentence concise and accurate.
Make connections between ideas explicit and clear.
Editing: Check for grammar, mechanics – lexical and syntax, and spelling.
 Lexical: Vocabulary and usage
 Syntax: the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a
language

Proofreading: Read and mark any errors. Indicate that a word or punctuation mark should be
inserted or deleted, that text should be moved, that paragraphs should be changed, and so
forth

Tips for Effective Writing

Put the reader first
Use simple words and short sentences
Use jargon only when necessary
Use of appropriate punctuation, grammar and correct spellings are essential for effective
writing.
Use multiple examples to clarify your point in each paragraph. Each point should include
only one main topic.
Tips for Effective Writing
 When you begin writing, don’t forget to have a solid introduction.
 Make sure your entire writing is in the same tense.
 Using formal language is essential.
 Longer sentences are not necessarily better.
 Eliminate unnecessary words and phrases.
Coherence
Coherence in writing is the "logical glue" that allows readers to move easily and clearly from
one idea to the next.
Coherence in writing is much more difficult to sustain than coherent speech because writers
have no nonverbal clues to inform them if their message is clear or not.
PARAGRAPH WRITING
Paragraph writing is developing a topic or an idea through a group of sentences. When
learning how to write a paragraph, these are three main components one needs to be aware of
: Topic Sentence, Supporting Details, and Closing Sentence or simply put, Beginning,
Middle, and End.

The Topic Sentence has to be the very first sentence of your paragraph. The reason it's not
just called “the first sentence” is because it is more than just whatever you write first. You
should present what the paragraph is going to try to convey. t

An example of a Topic Sentence would be: I find it difficult to get out of bed in the
morning.

This sentence gives you the main idea of what is going to be discussed. When working on
paragraph writing , ask yourself whether the very first sentence gives you the exact meaning
of what is going to be discussed in that particular paragraph.

The next element is Supporting Details. The bulk of your paragraph will consist of sentences
that support your topic. These sentences should not drift from this topic.

Example of Supporting Details: As soon as I hear the alarm go off, my head fills with
reasons telling me why I should call in sick to work. I often begin to focus on the horrible
things that may await me if I leave the comfort of my bed to start my day. It doesn't take long
for me to begin to plan what I may tell my boss when I call in.

The final element in paragraph writing is your Closing Sentence. This sentence serves as a
reminder of your topic. This will be your very last sentence and it should reiterate your Topic
Sentence, however, it should be phrased differently.

Closing Sentence Example: I go through this routine every morning which is why it is so
difficult for me to even make it out of bed.

The whole paragraph together would then be:

I find it difficult to get out of bed in the morning. As soon as I hear the alarm go off, my head
fills with reasons telling me why I should call in sick to work. I often begin to focus on the
horrible things that may await me if I leave the comfort of my bed to start my day. It doesn't
take long for me to begin to plan what I may tell my boss when I call in. I go through this
routine every morning which is why it is so difficult for me to even get up at all.

How to Write a Paragraph Using the Four Essential Elements

A basic paragraph arrangement usually consists of five sentences: the topic sentence, three
supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence. But the secrets to paragraph writing lay in
four fundamental elements, which when used correctly, can make an okay paragraph into a
great paragraph.

Element 1: Unity. Unity in a paragraph begins with the topic sentence. Every paragraph has
one single, controlling idea that is expressed in its topic sentence, which is usually the first
sentence of the paragraph. A paragraph is merged around this main idea, with the supporting
sentences providing detail and discussion. In order to write a good topic sentence, think about
your theme and all the points you want to make. Choose which point drives the rest, and then
write it as your topic sentence.

Element 2: Order. Order refers to the way you systematize your supporting sentences.
Whether you choose sequential order, order of importance, or another reasonable presentation
of detail, a solid paragraph always has a specific organization. In a well-ordered paragraph,
the reader follows along easily, aided by the pattern you’ve established. Order helps the
reader grasp your meaning and evade confusion.

Element 3: Coherence. Coherence is the quality that makes your writing comprehensible.
Sentences within a paragraph need to connect to each other and work together as a whole.
One of the best ways to attain coherency is to use transition words. These words create
bridges from one sentence to the next. You can use transition words that show order (first,
second, third); spatial relationships (above, below) or reason (furthermore, in addition, in
fact). Also, use of consistent verb tense and point of view are important ingredients for
coherency in paragraph writing.

Element 4: Completeness. Completeness means a paragraph is well-developed. If all

sentences clearly and suitably support the main idea, then your paragraph is complete. If the
information and the sentences are not enough to prove your thesis, then the paragraph is
incomplete. Usually three supporting sentences, in addition to a topic sentence and
concluding sentence, are required for a paragraph to be complete. The concluding sentence or
final sentence of the paragraph should recapitulate your main idea by reinforcing your topic
sentence.

READING COMPREHENSION
Reading comprehension is the skill to interpret a text, process it and comprehend its
connotation. An individual's capacity to realize the text is influenced by his qualities and
dexterity, one of which is the knack to make conclusion.
A reading comprehension exercise contains a passage followed by some multiple choice
questions. The reader is supposed to select the most appropriate response based on the
information specified in the passage.
One first needs to read the passage so that one can recognize the chief thought of the passage
and understand features such as the author's tenor and approach as well as the association of
the passage.
Reading comprehension is the adroitness to read text, process it and know its meaning. An
individual's ability to comprehend text is influenced by his traits and skills, one of which is
the ability to make inferences.
A reading comprehension exercise contains a passage followed by some multiple choice
questions. The respondent is supposed to choose the most appropriate answer based on the
information given in the passage.