DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION

Dimensional Analysis is a mathematical technique that makes use of the

dimensions as a tool to the solution of several engineering problems. Each
physical phenomenon can be expressed by an equation composed of physical
quantities (or variables). These physical quantities may be dimensional or non-
dimensional quantities. Through dimensional analysis, the physical quantities or
variables can be arranged in a systematic fashion and the physical quantities can
be combined to form non-dimensional parameters.

Uses of dimensional analysis in the study of fluid mechanics:

1. Testing the dimensional homogeneity of any equation in fluid mechanics

2. Deriving equations expressed in terms of non-dimensional parameters to
show the relative significance of each parameter
3. Planning model tests and presenting experimental results in a systematic
manner using non-dimensional parameters; this enables analysis of even
complex fluid flow phenomenon.

DIMENSIONS

Engineers and scientists use various physical quantities to describe a physical

phenomenon. These physical quantities can be described by a set of quantities
which are in a sense independent of each other. These quantities are called
fundamental quantities or primary quantities.

The primary quantities are mass, length, time, and temperature denoted by M, L,
T and  respectively.

All other physical quantities such as area, volume, acceleration, force, energy,
power, etc. are termed as derived quantities or secondary quantities. These
quantities are called secondary quantities because they can be expressed in
terms of physical quantities.

The expression for a derived quantity in terms of the primary quantities is called
the dimension of the physical quantity. For instance, let us derive the dimension
of the derived quantity namely, force.

As per Newton’s second law of motion, the dynamic force is the product of
mass and acceleration. Acceleration, too, is a derived quantity which is the rate
of change of velocity. Velocity is yet another derived quantity which represents
 Dimensional Analysis

the rate of change of displacement. The dimensions of velocity are: LT -1. Hence,
the dimensions of acceleration are: LT-2; so, the dimensions of force are: MLT -2.

Some engineers prefer to use force instead of mass as fundamental quantity

because force is easy to measure. In such a case, the physical phenomenon is
represented by variables expressed in F-L-T system instead of M-L-T system.
The advantage with the dimensional form of any quantity is that it is
independent of the system of units and enables us to convert from one system of
units to the other system of units.

DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY

The Fourier’s principle of dimensional homogeneity states that an equation

which expresses a physical phenomenon must be algebraically correct and
dimensionally homogeneous.

When an equation is said to be dimensionally homogeneous?

An equation is said to dimensionally homogeneous, if the dimensions of the

terms on the left hand side of the equation are same as the dimensions of the
terms on the right hand side of the equation.

Illustration of dimensional homogeneity

Consider the expression for discharge in a rectangular weir,

Q = (2/3)Cd(2g)1/2 LH3/2

Let us list the SI units and dimensions of the various quantities in the above
expression
Quantity SI units Dimensions
(M-L-T system)
3 3 -1
Discharge, Q m /s LT
Coefficint of discharge, No units Dimensionless
Cd
(Acceleration due to (m/s2)1/2 (LT-2)1/2 = L1/2T-1
gravity)1/2, g1/2
Length of the notch, L m L
3/2
(Head over the sill of (m) L3/2
notch)3/2, H3/2
The dimensions of the left hand side of the equation are: L3T-1. the dimensions
of the right hand side of the equation are: (L1/2T-1).L.L3/2 = L1/2+1+3/2. T-1 = L3T-1

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 Dimensional Analysis

Thus we find that the dimensions of both the LHS and RHS of the equation are
the same. Hence, the equation is dimensionally homogeneous.

The unique characteristic of a dimensionally homogeneous equation is that it is

independent of the system of units chosen for measurement, i.e., if an equation
is dimensionally homogeneous, it can be used without any modification with
either system of units.

METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

(A) Rayleigh Method

(B) Buckingham  - Method

(A) Rayleigh Method

This method was proposed by Lord Rayleigh in the year 1989 to determine the
effect of temperature on viscosity of a gas. Let X be a variable which is a
function of different variables namely, X1, X2, ……, Xn. This can be written in
the general form as

X  f  X 1 , X 2 ,......, X n  …… (1)

In the above equation, X is the dependent variable and X1, X2, ……, Xn are the
independent variables.

In the Rayleigh method, the functional relationship of the variables X1, X2, ……,
Xn is expressed in the form of an exponential equation which must be
dimensionally homogeneous. Hence, equation (1) can be expressed as


X  C X1a X 2b ......X nn  …… (2)

where C is a dimensionless constant; C can be determined either from the

physical characteristics of the problem or from experimental measurements. a,
b, ……, n are the exponents of X1, X2, ……, Xn respectively which can be
evaluated on the basis that the equation is dimensionally homogeneous. By
grouping together the variables with like powers, the dimensionless parameters
are formed. The Rayleigh method is illustrated in the following example.

Illustration

Let us consider the problem of flow of liquid through a circular orifice

discharging freely into the atmosphere under a constant head. Let Q be the

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 Dimensional Analysis

discharge passing through the orifice of diameter d, under a constant head H.

Let  be the mass density and let  the dynamic viscosity of the liquid
discharged through the orifice. Now, the discharge Q through the orifice can be
assumed to be dependent on the variables namely, diameter d of the orifice,
constant head H, mass density  of liquid, dynamic viscosity  of liquid and the
acceleration due to gravity g since the flow is freely into the atmosphere. Hence,
the general functional relationship for the dependent variable Q can be written
as

Q  f ( ,  , d , H , g) …… (3)

Equation (3) can be expressed by Rayleigh method in the exponential form as


Q  C  a  bd c H d g e  …… (4)

where C is a dimensionless constant

The following Table shows the SI units and the dimensions of the various
quantities considered in this illustration.

Quantity with symbol SI units Dimensions (in MLT system)

Discharge, Q m3s-1 M0L3T-1
Dynamic viscosity,  kg(mass)m-1s-1 ML-1T-1
Mass density,  kg(mass)m-3 ML-3T0
Diameter, d m M0LT0
Head, H m M0LT0
Gravitational constant, g ms-2 M0LT-2
Dimensionless constant, C - M0L0T0

Substituting the dimensions for each variable in equation (4)

M0L3T-1 =(M0L0T0) (ML-1T-1)a (ML-3T0)b (M0LT0)c (M0LT0)d (M0LT-2)e

For dimensional homogeneity of the above equation, the exponents of each of

the dimensions M, L and T on both sides of the equation must be identical. Thus

for M: 0=a+b (5a)

for L: 3 = - a – 3b + c + d + e (5b)
for T: -1 = - a – 2e (5c)

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 Dimensional Analysis

Now, there are 5 unknowns namely a, b, c, d and e; but there are only 3
equations; hence, three of the unknowns must be expressed in terms of the other
two.

From equation (5a), b = - a …… (6a)

1 a
From equation (5c), e   …… (6b)
2 2
1 a
From equation (5b), 3  a  3(a)  c  d  
2 2
3a 1
3  cd 
2 2
5 3a
c    d …… (6c)
2 2
Substituting the values of b, c and e from equations (6a), (6c) and (6b) in (4), we
have,

  5 3a 
  d 
1 a
  
 a a  2 2
Q  C   d  d 2 2
H g 
 
 5 1  3a  a  
  
= C  d 2 g 2   a  a d 2 g 2  H d d d
  
 


   
 1 1
  H  d 
a
  2 2 2     
= C d d g 
 
 d 3 / 2 1 / 2  d  
 
g  
 1
 
a d
    
= C  d    
1 H
2
g 2 
 1 / 2 
 d 3 / 2 1 / 2  d  

d

g  
 1
 
a d 1 / 2 
  
2 2    H  1 
= C d g 
     
  d 3 / 2 1 / 2  d  d  
 
g  
 1
 
a d 1 / 2 
     
H 
2 2     H 1 / 2
= C d g 
 
 d 3 / 2 1 / 2  d 
 
g  

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 Dimensional Analysis

 1
 
a d 1 / 2 
    
= C  d H g 2  
2 1 / 2    H
 
 d 3 / 2 1 / 2  d  
 
g  
   H  d 1 / 2 
a
C   2   
=  d 2 gH  3 / 2 1 / 2   
  4  d 
2 g  d 
4
   H 

= a 2 gH f1  

 ,
3 / 2 1 / 2   d 

 d g  
This expression may be written in the usual form as
Q  Cd a 2 gH …… (7)

where Cd is the coefficient of discharge of the orifice

   H 
C d  f1  3 / 2 1/ 2 ,   …… (8)
 d g d
 
   H 
In the above expression, both the terms  ,
 d 3 / 2 g1 / 2   d 
are dimensionless
 
and Cd is also a dimensionless factor.

Example 1: Show by Rayleigh method that the resistance R to the motion of a

sphere of diameter D moving with a uniform velocity V through a fluid having
density  and viscosity  may be expressed as


R  D 2V 2   
  

 VD 
Solution.

The functional relationship for R may be expressed as

R = f(, , D, V) …… (9)

By Rayleigh method, equation (9) can be expressed in the exponential form as

R = k(abDcVd) …… (10)

where k is a dimensionless constant.

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 Dimensional Analysis

The following Table shows the SI units and the dimensions of the various
quantities considered in this illustration.

Quantity with symbol SI units Dimensions (in MLT system)

Resistance, R N (or) ML1T-2
kg(mass)ms-2
Dynamic viscosity,  kg(mass)m-1s-1 ML-1T-1
Mass density,  kg(mass)m-3 ML-3T0
Diameter, D m M0LT0
Velocity, V ms-1 M0LT-1
Dimensionless constant, k - M0L0T0

Substituting the dimensions for each variable in equation (10)

MLT-2 =(M0L0T0) (ML-1T-1)a (ML-3T0)b (M0LT0)c (M0LT-1)d

For dimensional homogeneity of the above equation, the exponents of each of

the dimensions M, L and T on both sides of the equation must be identical. Thus

for M: 1=a+b (11a)

for L: 1 = - a – 3b + c + d (11b)
for T: -2 = - a – d (11c)

Now, there are 4 unknowns namely a, b, c and d; but there are only 3 equations;
hence, three of the unknowns must be expressed in terms of the other one.

From equation (11a), b = 1 – a …… (12a)

From equation (11c), d = 2 – a …… (12b)
From equation (11b), c = 1 + a + 3(1 – a) - (2 – a)
= 1 + a + 3 - 3a - 2 + a
c=2–a …… (12c)
Substituting the values of b, c and d from equations (12a), (12c) and (12b) in
(10), we have,


R  k  a  1a D2a V 2a  
 a  D2 V 2 
= k  
  a D a V a 

 
    
a
= k  D V 
2 2
 
  DV  
This may be expressed in the functional form as

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 Dimensional Analysis

 
  
R = D 2V 2   
 DV 
…… (13)

Buckingham  - Method

Statement of Buckingham’s  - Theorem: If a phenomenon is described by n

dimensional variables, and if these n dimensional variables can be completely
described by m fundamental quantities or dimensions (such as mass, length,
time, etc.), and are related by a dimensionally homogeneous equation, then the
relationship among the n quantities (or variables) can always be expressed by (n
– m) dimensionless and independent  terms.
Let Y be a variable which depends on the independent variables X 1, X2, X3,
……, Xn. Then, the functional equation can be written as

Y = f(X1, X2, X3,……, Xn) …… (14)

Equation (14) can be transformed to another functional relationship as

f1(Y, X1, X2, X3,……, Xn) = C …… (15)

where C is a dimensionless constant. This is as if Y = f(X) = X2 + C; hence, Y –

X2 = f1(X, Y) = C. In accordance with the Buckingham’s  - theorem, a non-
dimensional equation can be obtained as

f2(1, 2, 3, ……, n-m) = C1 …… (16)

How are these  - terms formed?

Each dimensionless  - term is formed by combining m variables out of the total

n variables with one of the remaining (n – m) variables. These m variables in
each of the  - terms are the same. As these m variables appear repeatedly in
each of the  - terms, these variables are called repeating variables.

How are these repeating variables chosen?

These repeating variables are chosen from among the n variables such that they
involve all the m fundamental quantities or dimensions and they themselves do
not form any dimensionless number. Thus the different  - terms may be
established as below.
________
1  X1a1 X 2b1 X 3c1 ......X m
m1
X m1 |

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 Dimensional Analysis

 2  X1a2 X 2b2 X 3c2 ......X m

m2
X m 2 | …… (17)
………………………………….. |
 nm  X1anm X 2bnm X 3cnm ......X m
mn  m
Xn |
_______ |
In equation (17), each individual equation is dimensionless and the exponents a,
b, c, d, ……, m, etc., are determined by considering the dimensional
homogeneity for each equation so that each  - term is dimensionless.

The final general equation for the phenomenon may be obtained by expressing
one  - term as a function of other  - terms. That is,
________
1  f1  2 ,  3 ,  4 ,...... nm  |
 2  f 2 1,  3 ,  4 ,...... nm  |
……………………………… | …… (18)
 nm  f1 1,  2 ,  3 ,...... nm1  |
________|

Illustration of Buckingham’s  - method

Let us consider the same problem of flow through a small orifice as considered
under the Rayleigh’s method.

Step 1. The discharge of an orifice depends upon the diameter d of orifice,

constant supply head H, acceleration due to gravity g, dynamic viscosity  of
liquid and mass density  of liquid. The functional equation for discharge Q can
be written as

Q  f (d , H , g ,  ,  ) …… (19)

Equation (19) can be expressed in its most general form as

f1 (Q, d , H , g ,  ,  )  C …… (20)

The total number of variables (including both the dependent variable Q and all
the independent variables) n = 6. All these variables can be expressed by the
three fundamental dimensions of either the M-L-T or F-L-T system. Hence, the
number of fundamental quantities m= 3. Therefore, the number of
dimensionless  - terms to be formed are (n –m) = (6 – 3) = 3, so that

f 2 ( 1 ,  2 ,  3 )  C1 …… (21)

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 Dimensional Analysis

Step 2. Selection of Repeating Variables.

In order to form these  - terms, we have to choose m = 3 repeating variables.
The criteria for choosing these m repeating variables is that these variables
among themselves contain all the three fundamental dimensions and they
themselves do not form any dimensionless parameter. Thus let us choose the
dynamic viscosity  with dimensions ML-1T-1, constant supply head H with
dimension L and acceleration due to gravity g with dimensions LT-2 as the
repeating variables.

Step 3. Formulation of the different  - terms.

___________
1   a1 H b1 g c1 Q |
 2   a2 H b2 g c2  | …… (22)
 3   a3 H b3 g c3 d |
___________|

Step 4. Determination of the  - terms

Let us express the 1 – term in the dimensional form using the M-L-T system.


1  M 0 L0T 0  ML1T 1 a Lb LT 2 c L3T 1
1 1 1

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a1 ……(23a)
for L: 0 = - a1 + b1 + c1 + 3 ……(23b)
for T: 0 = - a1 – 2c1 – 1 ……(23c)

From (23a), a1 = 0; from (23c), c1 = - ½; from (23b), b1 = - 5/2

0 5 / 2 1 / 2 Q
Hence, 1   H g Q
H 5 / 2 g1/ 2
Now, Let us express the 1 – term in the dimensional form using the M-L-T
system.


 2  M 0 L0T 0  ML1T 1 a Lb LT 2 c ML3 
2 2 2

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

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 Dimensional Analysis

for M: 0 = a2 + 1 ……(24a)
for L: 0 = - a2 + b2 + c2 - 3 ……(24b)
for T: 0 = - a2 – 2c2 ……(24c)

From (24a), a2 = - 1; from (24c), c2 = ½; from (24b), b2 = 3/2

g1 / 2 H 3 / 2
Hence,  2   1H 3 / 2 g1/ 2  =

Now, Let us express the 3 – term in the dimensional form using the M-L-T
system.


 3  M 0 L0T 0  ML1T 1 a Lb LT 2 c L
3 3 3

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a3 ……(25a)
for L: 0 = - a3+ b3+ c3 + 1 ……(25b)
for T: 0 = - a3 – 2c3 ……(25c)

From (25a), a3 = 0; from (25c), c3 = 0; from (25b), b3 = - 1

Hence,  3   0 H 1g 0 d =
d
H

Step 5.

As per equation (21), we have,

f 2 ( 1 ,  2 ,  3 )  C1

 Q g1/ 2 H 3 / 2 d 
 f2  , ,
 H 5 / 2 g1 / 2  H  = C1
 

or

Q  g1 / 2 H 3 / 2 d 
= C2 f 3  , 
5 / 2 1/ 2   H 
H g 

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Example 1. Find the form of the equation for discharge Q through a sharp –
edged triangular notch assuming Q depends on the central angle  of the notch,
head H, gravitational acceleration g, and density  of fluid, viscosity  of fluid
and surface tension  of fluid.

Solution.

Functional relationship for discharge Q

Q = f (, H, g, , , ) …… (26)

Equation (26) can be written in the most general form as

f1 (Q,, H, g, , , ) = C …… (27)

Number of variables n = 7
Number of fundamental quantities m = 3
Number of  - terms, (n – m) = 7 – 3 = 4

Repeating variables: , g, H

 - terms:

1 = a1. gb1. Hc1. Q

2 = a2. gb2. Hc2. 
3 = a3. gb3. Hc3. 
4 =  (since, the central angle  of the notch itself is a
dimensionless quantity)

1 – term:

1 = a1. gb1. Hc1. Q

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a1 (LT-2)b1 (L)c1 (L3T-1)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a1 ……(28a)
for L: 0 = - 3a1 + b1 + c1 + 3 ……(28b)
for T: 0 = - 2b1 – 1 ……(28c)

From (28a), a1 = 0; from (28c), b1 = - ½; from (28b), c1 = - 5/2

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 Dimensional Analysis

Q
1 
g1 / 2 H 5 / 2
2 – term:

2 = a2. gb2. Hc2. 

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a2 (LT-2)b2 (L)c2 (ML-1T-1)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a2 + 1 ……(29a)
for L: 0 = - 3a2 + b2 + c2 – 1 ……(29b)
for T: 0 = - 2b2 – 1 ……(29c)

From (29a), a2 = - 1; from (29c), b2 = - ½; from (29b), c2 = - 3/2


2 
g1 / 2 H 3 / 2
3 – term:

3 = a3. gb3. Hc3. 

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a3 (LT-2)b3 (L)c3 (MT-2)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a3 + 1 ……(30a)
for L: 0 = - 3a3 + b3 + c3 ……(30b)
for T: 0 = - 2b3 – 2 ……(30c)

From (30a), a3 = - 1; from (30c), b3 = - 1; from (30b), c3 = - 2


3 
gH 2
Thus we have,

f 2 1,  2 ,  3 ,  4   C1
 Q   
 f 2  1/ 2 5 / 2 , 1/ 2 3 / 2 , ,  C1
g H g H 2 
gH 


Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:13 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

   

Q C f
= 2 3  , ,  
1/ 2 5 / 2  1/ 2 3 / 2
 2 
g H  g H gH 
    5/ 2
 Q  g1 / 2  1 / 2 3 / 2 , ,  H
 g H gH 2 
 
 Q  CH 5 / 2
   
where C  g1 / 2  , ,  

 g 1/ 2 3 / 2
H gH 2


Example 2. The discharge Q of a centrifugal pump is dependent on the mass

density  of fluid, pump speed N (rpm), diameter D of impeller, pressure p of
fluid, and viscosity  of fluid. Show using Buckingham’s  - theorem that Q can
be represented by

 gH  
Q  ( ND3 )  2 2 , 
 N D ND2 
where H = head and  = kinematic viscosity of the fluid.

Solution.

Functional relationship for discharge Q

Q = f (, N, D, p, ) …… (31)

Equation (31) can be written in the most general form as

f1 (Q, , N, D, p,) = C …… (32)

Number of variables n = 6
Number of fundamental quantities m in which the six variables can be expressed
=3
Number of  - terms, (n – m) = 7 – 3 = 4

Repeating variables: , N, D

 - terms:

1 = a1. Nb1. Dc1. Q

2 = a2. Nb2. Dc2. p
3 = a3. Nb3. Dc3. 

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:14 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

1 – term:

1 = a1. Nb1. Dc1. Q

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a1 (T-1)b1 (L)c1 (L3T-1)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a1 ……(33a)
for L: 0 = - 3a1 + c1 + 3 ……(33b)
for T: 0 = - b1 – 1 ……(33c)

From (33a), a1 = 0; from (33c), b1 = - 1; from (33b), c1 = - 3

Q
1 
ND 3
2 – term:

2 = a2. Nb2. Dc2. p

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a2 (T-1)b2 (L)c2 (ML-1T-2)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a2 + 1 ……(34a)
for L: 0 = - 3a2 + c2 – 1 ……(34b)
for T: 0 = - b2 – 2 ……(34c)

From (34a), a2 = - 1; from (34c), b2 = - 2; from (34b), c2 = - 2

p
2 
N 2 D 2

3 – term:

3 = a3. Nb3. Dc3. 

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a3 (T-1)b3 (L)c3 (ML-1T-1)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:15 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

for M: 0 = a3 + 1 ……(35a)
for L: 0 = - 3a3 + c3 - 1 ……(35b)
for T: 0 = - b3 – 1 ……(35c)

From (35a), a3 = - 1; from (35c), b3 = - 1; from (35b), c3 = - 2


3 
ND2
Thus we have,

f 2 1,  2 ,  3   C1
 Q p  
f2  , ,  C1
 ND3 N 2 D 2 ND2 
 
Q  p  
  C f  ,
ND3
2 3  N 2 D 2 ND 2 
 
Q  p  
    ,
ND3  N 2 D 2 ND 2 
 

Since, p = gH and   , we have,

Q  gH  
   2 2 ,
3

ND  N D ND2 

 
 gH
 Q  ND3   2 2 ,
 
 N D ND2 


Example 3. Show by -theorem that a general equation for discharge Q over a

weir of any shape is given by
     
Q  (H g ) 
5 / 2 1/ 2  ,  
 3 / 2 1/ 2   2 
 H g   H g 
where H = head over the weir,  = kinematic viscosity of the liquid,  = mass
density of the liquid, and  = surface tension of the liquid. Hence show that
discharge over a rectangular weir of crest length L is given by
Q  Cd LH 3 / 2

Solution:

Functional relationship for discharge Q

Q = f (H, g, , , ) …… (36)

Equation (36) can be written in the most general form as

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:16 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

f1 (Q, H, g, , , ) = C …… (37)

Number of variables n = 6

Number of fundamental quantities m in which the six variables can be expressed

=3

Number of  - terms, (n – m) = 6 – 3 = 3

Repeating variables: , g, H

 - terms:

1 = a1. gb1. Hc1. Q

2 = a2. gb2. Hc2. 
3 = a3. gb3. Hc3. 

1 – term:

1 = a1. gb1. Hc1. Q

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a1 (LT-2)b1 (L)c1 (L3T-1)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a1 ……(38a)
for L: 0 = - 3a1 + b1 + c1 + 3 ……(38b)
for T: 0 = - 2b1 – 1 ……(38c)

From (38c), b1 = -1/2

Putting a1 = 0 and b1 = -1/2 in (38b), we have,
c1 = -5/2

Hence, 1 = 0. g-1/2. H-5/2. Q

Q
=
g1/ 2 H 5 / 2
2 – term:

2 = a2. gb2. Hc2. 

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a2 (LT-2)b2 (L)c2 (L2T-1)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a2 ……(39a)
for L: 0 = - 3a2 + b2 + c2 + 2 ……(39b)
Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:17 of 47
Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

for T: 0 = - 2b2 – 1 ……(39c)

From (39c), b2 = -1/2

Putting a2 = 0 and b2 = -1/2 in (39c), c2 = -3/2

Hence, 2 = 0. g-1/2. H-3/2. 


=
g1/ 2 H 3 / 2
3 – term:

3 = a3. gb3. Hc3. 

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a3 (LT-2)b3 (L)c3 (MT-2)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a3 + 1 ……(40a)
for L: 0 = - 3a3 + b3 + c3 ……(40b)
for T: 0 = - 2b3 – 2 ……(40c)

From (40a), a3 = -1; from (40c), b3 = -1

Putting a3 = -1 and b3 = -1 in (40b), we have, c3 = -2

Hence, 3 = -1. g-1. H-2. 


=
gH 2
Thus we have,

f 2 1,  2 ,  3   C1
 Q      
 f2   ,  ,  
 1/ 2 5 / 2   1/ 2 3 / 2   2  = C1
 g H  g H   gH 
       
  Q  =C f   ,  
 g1 / 2 H 5 / 2  2 3  g 1 / 2 H 3 / 2   gH 2 
    
     
 Q  ( g1 / 2 H 5 / 2 )  ,  
 1/ 2 3 / 2   2
 g H   gH 
Q
We have, = a dimensionless term; this can be written as
1/ 2 5 / 2
g H

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:18 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Q Q
 which is also dimensionless (the term H is replaced
1/ 2 3/ 2 1/ 2 3/ 2
g HH g LH
by the crest length L of the rectangular weir)
Q
Let =C
1/ 2 3/ 2
g LH
Q
  Cg1/ 2  Cd
3/ 2
LH
 Q  Cd LH 3 / 2

Example 4. By dimensional analysis show that the torque T on a shaft of

diameter d, revolving at a speed N in a fluid of viscosity  and mass density  is
given by the expression
   
T  d 5 N 2   
 d 2N 


Use Buckingham’s method. Hence show that power P is given by

   
P  d 5 N 3    
 d 2N 
Solution:

Functional relationship for discharge T

T = f (d, N, , ,) …… (41)

Equation (36) can be written in the most general form as

f1 (T, d, N, , ,) = C …… (42)

Number of variables n = 5

Number of fundamental quantities m in which the six variables can be expressed

=3

Number of  - terms, (n – m) = 5 – 3 = 2

Repeating variables: , d, N

 - terms:

1 = a1. db1. Nc1. T

2 = a2. db2. Nc2. 

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:19 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

1 - term:

1 = a1. db1. Nc1. T

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a1 (L)b1 (T-1)c1 (ML2T-2)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a1 + 1 ……(43a)
for L: 0 = - 3a1 + b1 + 2 ……(43b)
for T: 0 = - c1 – 2 ……(43c)

From (43a), a1 = - 1; from (43c), c1 = - 2; putting a1 = - 1 in (43b), we have,

b1 = - 5

Hence, 1 = -1. d-5. N-2. T

 T 
1   
 d 5 N 2 
 

2 - term:

2 = a2. db2. Nc2. 

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a2 (L)b2 (T-1)c2 (ML-1T-1)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a2 + 1 ……(43a)
for L: 0 = - 3a2 + b2 - 1 ……(43b)
for T: 0 = - c2 – 1 ……(43c)

From (43a), a2 = - 1; from (43c), c2 = - 1; putting a2 = - 1 in (43b), we have,

b2 = - 2

Hence, 2 = -1. d-2. N-1. 

  
2   
 d 2 N 
 

As   , where  is the kinematic viscosity, the 2 – term can be written as

  
 2   
 d 2N 

Thus we have,
f 2 1,  2   C1

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

 T    
f2   ,    C1
 5 2 2 
 d N   d N 
 T 
   C2 f 3   
 d 5 N 2   2 
  d N 
  
 T  ( d 5 N 2 )  
 d 2N 
We know that power, P = (Torque, T) x (angular velocity, )
2N
Angular velocity,  =
60
2N    5 3   
Hence, P = ( d 5 N 2 )   = ( d N )  
60  d 2N   d 2N 
It should be noted that in the above expression, the quantity
 P 
  is a dimensionless quantity
 d 5 N 3 
 

Example 5. The resistance R to the motion of a supersonic aircraft of length L,

moving with a velocity V in air of density , depends on the viscosity  and
bulk modulus of elasticity K of air. Obtain using Buckingham’s  - theorem, the
following expression for the resistance R

 2 2
     K 
R  L V  
 
, 

 V

2
LV   
Solution:

Functional relationship for discharge R

R = f (L, V, , , K) …… (44)

Equation (44) can be written in the most general form as

f1 (R, L, V, , , K) = C …… (45)

Number of variables n = 6

Number of fundamental quantities m in which the six variables can be expressed

=3

Number of  - terms, (n – m) = 6 – 3 = 3

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:21 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Repeating variables: , L, V

 - terms:

1 = a1. Lb1. Vc1. R

2 = a2. Lb2. Vc2. 
3 = a3. Lb3. Vc3. K

1 - term:

1 = a1. Lb1. Vc1. R

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a1 (L)b1 (LT-1)c1 (MLT-2)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a1 + 1 ……(46a)
for L: 0 = - 3a1 + b1 + c1 + 1 ……(46b)
for T: 0 = - c1 – 2 ……(46c)

From (46a), a1 = - 1; from (46c), c1 = - 2; putting a1 = - 1 and c1 = - 2 in (46b),

we have, b1 = - 2

Hence, 1 = -1. L-2. V-2. R

 R 
1   
 L2V 2 
 

2 - term:

2 = a2. Lb2. Vc2. 

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a2 (L)b2 (LT-1)c2 (ML-1T-1)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a2 + 1 ……(47a)
for L: 0 = - 3a2 + b2 + c2 - 1 ……(47b)
for T: 0 = - c2 – 1 ……(47c)

From (47a), a2 = - 1; from (47c), c2 = - 1; putting a2 = - 1 and c2 = - 1 in (47b),

we have, b2 = - 1

Hence, 2 = -1. L-1. V-1. 

  
2   
 LV 
Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:22 of 47
Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

3 - term:

3 = a3. Lb3. Vc3. K

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a3 (L)b3 (LT-1)c3 (ML-1T-2)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

or M: 0 = a3 + 1 ……(48a)
for L: 0 = - 3a3 + b3 + c3 - 1 ……(48b)
for T: 0 = - c3 – 2 ……(48c)

From (48a), a3 = - 1; from (48c), c3 = - 2; putting a3 = - 1 and c3 = - 2 in (48b),

we have, b3 = 0

Hence, 3 = -1. L0. V-2. K

 K 
3   
 V 2 
 
Hence, f 2 1,  2 ,  3   C1
 R      K 
 f 2  ,  ,   = C1
 2 2  LV 
 L V   2
  V 
 R    
   C2 f 3   ,  K 
 L2V 2   LV   V 2 
 


 R  L2V 2   
    K 
, 



 LV   V 
2

MODEL INVESTIGATION

Different kinds of hydraulic structures such as dams, spillways, canal head

works and diversion structures and hydraulic machines such as turbines and
pumps are designed and constructed to yield efficiently the desired output. We
have to ascertain that the designed structures after construction will definitely
yield the desired output. In case, if the structure is found not to perform as per
the design, then it is not possible to rectify the same as the structures are very
massive. Therefore, it becomes imperative to study, in advance, how the
structure or the machine would perform once it is constructed. For this purpose,
one has to resort to experimental investigation. As the real structures or
machines to be constructed in the field are very huge in size, it is not feasible to
conduct these experimental investigations on the full size of the structure.

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:23 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Hence, a small scale replica of the actual structure is constructed and then tests
are conducted to obtain the desired information. The small scale replica
(imitation) of the actual structure or the machine is known as its model whiles
the actual structure or machine is known as the prototype.

The model tests are quite economical and convenient as the design, construction
and operation of the model may be altered several times if necessary, till all the
discrepancies found in the model are eliminated and the most suitable design is
obtained. On the basis of final results obtained from the model tests, the design
of the prototype may be modified and also it may be possible to predict the
behaviour of the prototype. However, the model test results can be used to
obtain the performance of the prototype only if a complete similarity between
the model and the prototype exists. This may be achieved as below.

TYPES OF SIMILARITIES

There are three types of similarities to be established for complete similarity to

exist between the model and the prototype. They are:

1. Geometric similarity
2. Kinematic similarity
3. Dynamic similarity

1. Geometric similarity:

When a model and the corresponding prototype are said be geometrically

similar?

If the ratios of the corresponding length dimensions of the model and the
prototype are equal, the model and the prototype are said to be geometrically
similar. Such a ratio is called scale ratio.

For example, let the lengths, breadths and depths of a model and the
corresponding prototype be respectively, Lm, bm and dm and Lp, bp and dp.

Then the length scale ratios are: Lm / Lp, bm / bp and dm / dp. If these scale ratios
are equal, then the model and the prototype are said to be geometrically similar.

Hence, for geometric similarity between the model and the prototype,

Length scale ratio, Lr = Lm / Lp = bm / bp = dm / dp

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:24 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

The area scale ratio, Ar, is defined as the ratio of the area of the model and the
area of the prototype.

Ar = Am / Ap = (Lm x bm) / (Lp x bp) = (Lm / Lp) (bm / bp) = Lr. Lr = Lr2

Similarly, the volume scale ratio, Vr, is defined as the ratio of the volume of the
model and the volume of the prototype.

Vr = Vm / Vp = (Lm x bm x dm) / (Lp x bp x dp) = (Lm / Lp) (bm / bp) (dm / dp)
= Lr. Lr.Lr = Lr3

It is thus observed that, if the model and the prototype are geometrically similar,
by mere change of the scale, both the model and the prototype can be
superimposed.

2. Kinematic similarity:

When a model and the corresponding prototype are said be kinematically

similar?

If the paths of the homologous moving particles are geometrically similar and if
the ratios of the velocities as well as accelerations of the homologous particles
are equal, kinematic similarity is said to exist between the model and the
prototype.
What is a homologous point?

Consider a model and the corresponding prototype which possess geometric

similarity. A point in the model and the corresponding point in the prototype are
said to be homologous points.

Since, both velocity and acceleration are vector quantities (i.e., both have
magnitude and direction), kinematic similarity implies that the directions of
velocities and accelerations at corresponding points (i.e., homologous points)
are parallel to each other and the ratios of magnitudes of both velocities and
accelerations at corresponding points in the model and the prototype have
constant values at all corresponding set of points. Some of the scale ratios which
are useful in describing kinematic similarity are:

Time scale ratio, Tr = Tm / Tp

Velocity scale ratio, Vr = Vm / Vp = (Lm / Tm) / (Lp / Tp)

= (Lm / Lp) (Tp / Tm)
= (Lm / Lp) {1 / (Tm / Tp)}

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

= Lr / Tr

where, Vm and Vp are respectively, the velocities of flow in the model and the
prototype at homologous points.

Acceleration scale ratio, ar = am / ap = {Lm / (Tm)2} / {Lp / (Tp)2}

= (Lm / Lp) {(Tp)2 / (Tm)2}
= (Lm / Lp) [1 / {(Tm)2 / (Tp)2}]
= Lr / Tr2

Discharge scale ratio, Qr = Qm / Qp = {(Lm)3 / Tm} / {(Lp)3 / Tp}

= {(Lm)3 / (Lp)3}{Tp / Tm}
= {(Lm)3 / (Lp)3} {1 / (Tm / Tp)}
= Lr3 / Tr
Kinematic similarity can be attained if the flow nets for the model and the
prototype are geometrically similar. This means that, by mere change of the
scale, the flow net for the model and the flow net for the prototype can be
superimposed.

3. Dynamic similarity:

When a model and the corresponding prototype are said be dynamically

similar?

If the ratios of all the forces acting at homologous points in the model and the
prototype which possess both geometric and kinematic similarities are equal,
then it is said that the model and the prototype possess dynamic similarity.

In the problems concerning fluid flow, the forces acting may be any one, or a
combination of several of the following forces:

(i) Inertia forces, Fi

(ii) Friction or viscous forces, Fv
(iii) Gravity forces, Fg
(iv) Pressure forces, Fp
(v) Elastic forces, Fe
(vi) Surface tension forces, Fs

Inertia force, Fi, is the force of resistance offered by an inert mass to

acceleration. According to Newton’s law of motion, the magnitude of the
inertial force is equal to the product of the particle mass and acceleration of the
particle. The direction of the inertia force is opposite to the direction of the
acceleration of the particle.

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

The conditions required for complete dynamic similarity are developed from the
Newton’s Second Law of Motion. In a flowing fluid, if a fluid particle of mass
M is subjected to acceleration a, then the inertial force Fi of the particle equals
‘Ma’. If all the above listed forces come into play in the fluid flow system under
consideration, then the resultant force, F, which is the vectorial sum of all the
listed forces acting on the fluid particle, will be equal to the inertial force of the
fluid particle, i.e.,

F = Fv + Fg + Fp + Fe + Fs = Ma

For complete dynamic similarity to exist between the model and its prototype,
the ratio of the inertia forces of the model and the prototype must be equal tot he
ratio of the resultant forces of the model and the prototype. i.e.,

(F)m / (F)p = (Fv + Fg + Fp + Fe + Fs)m / (Fv + Fg + Fp + Fe + Fs)p

= (Ma)m / (Ma)p …… (1)

In addition to the above stated condition for complete dynamic similarity, the
ratio of the inertia forces of the model and the prototype must also be equal to
the ratios of the individual component forces of the model and the prototype.
i.e.,

(i) (Fv)m / (Fv)p = (Ma)m / (Ma)p

(or)
(Ma/Fv)m = (Ma/Fv)p ...... (2)

(ii) (Fg)m / (Fg)p = (Ma)m / (Ma)p

(or)
(Ma/Fg)m = (Ma/Fg)p …… (3)

(iii) (Fp)m / (Fp)p = (Ma)m / (Ma)p

(or)
(Ma/Fp)m = (Ma/Fp)p …… (4)

(iv) (Fe)m / (Fe)p = (Ma)m / (Ma)p

(or)
(Ma/Fv)m = (Ma/Fv)p …… (5)

(v) (Fs)m / (Fs)p = (Ma)m / (Ma)p

(or)
(Ma/Fs)m = (Ma/Fs)p …… (6)

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Thus, it may be mentioned that when both the model and the prototype are
geometrically, kinematically and dynamically similar, then they are said to be
completely similar or complete similitude exists between the two systems.
However, the existence of dynamic similarity implies that both geometric and
kinematic similarities exist between the model and the prototype. Hence, if
dynamic similarity exists between the model and the prototype, they are said to
be completely similar. Further, for complete similarity to exist between the
model and the prototype, the dimensionless terms (or the  - terms) formed
from the complete set of variables involved must be the same for both the model
and the prototype.

DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS (FORCE RATIOS)

When a mass is in motion, inertial force always exists. Hence, in order to

develop the conditions for dynamic similarity, the ratio of inertial force and any
one of the remaining forces listed previously is considered. Each of these ratios
will obviously be a non-dimensional factor. The various force ratios are
discussed herein:

(a) Inertia force – viscous force ratio (Reynolds number)

We know that, Inertia force = mass x acceleration

Since, mass density  = mass / volume, mass can be expressed as the product of
mass density  and volume. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
Hence, we have,

Inertia force = (mass density x volume) (velocity / time)

= mass density x (volume / time) x velocity

By definition, (volume / time) represents the discharge. Discharge is the product

of cross-sectional area of flow, A and the velocity of flow, V, i.e., discharge, Q =
AV

So, Inertia force =  (AV) V = AV2

As cross sectional area of flow passage, A, has dimensions of L2, we have,

Inertia force, Fi = L2V2

By definition, as per Newton’s law of viscosity, we have, shear stress due to

viscous force, Fv, is given by

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

 =  (dV / dy)
where,  = coefficient of viscosity of fluid (or) simply, the dynamic viscosity of
the fluid
(dV / dy) = velocity gradient

Viscous force, Fv = shear stress x area = A =  (dV / dy) A

Assuming (dV / dy) to be linear, the above expression can be written as

Fv =  (V / y) A

As y represents the thickness of fluid film, it has dimensions of L. The

dimension of the area ‘A’ is ‘L2’. Replacing ‘y’ by ‘L’ and ‘A’ by ‘L2’ , the
above expression for Fv becomes

Fv =  (V / L) L2 = VL

Now, the ratio between the inertia force, Fi, and the viscous force, Fv, is given
by
(Fi / Fv) = (L2V2) / (VL) = (LV /  ) = (VL / )

where  is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.

The force ratio (or) non-dimensional ratio, (LV /  ) , is called the Reynolds
number, Re or NR.

The Reynolds number indicates the relative predominance of the inertia force to
the viscous force occurring in the flow system. If the Reynolds number is larger,
greater will be the relative magnitude of inertia force. If the Reynolds number is
smaller, the greater will be the relative magnitude of viscous force.

(b) Inertia force – Gravity force ratio (Froude number)

From the previous discussion, we have, Fi = L2V2

As per Newton’s second law of motion, force due to gravity can be expressed as

Fg = mass x acceleration due to gravity

Mass can be expressed as the product of mass density,  and the volume; hence,

Fg = (mass density x volume) (acceleration due to gravity)

= ( x volume) x g

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Volume has dimensions of L3. Replacing ‘volume’ by ‘L3’, the above expression
becomes

Fg = L3g

Now, the ratio between the inertia force, Fi, and the gravity force, Fg, is given
by

(Fi / Fg) = (L2V2) / ( L3g) = V2 / Lg

The square root of this ratio, i.e., (V2 / Lg)1/2 = V / (Lg)1/2 is called the Froude
number.

(c ) Inertia Force – Pressure Force ratio (Euler number)

Pressure force, Fp can be expressed as the product of the pressure intensity, p

and the area, A, over which it acts. i.e.,

Fp = p x A

Area A has dimensions of L2; Replacing ‘A’ by ‘L2’, the above expression
becomes

Fp = p x L2

Hence, the ratio between the inertia force, Fi, and the pressure force, Fp, is given
by

Fi / Fp = (L2V2) / (pL2) = V2 / p = V2 / (p / )

The square root of this ratio, i.e., [V2 / (p / )]1/2 = [V / (p/)1/2] is called the
Euler number, Eu or NE. The reciprocal of Euler number, i.e., [(p / )1/2 / V] is
sometimes known as ‘Newton number’.

(d) Inertia force – Elasticity force ratio (Mach number)

Force due to elasticity, Fe, is expressed as the product of the bulk modulus of
elasticity, K, of the flowing fluid and the area, A, over which the force acts, i.e.,

Fe = K x A

As the dimensions of area, A, are L2, the above expression becomes

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Fe = K x L2

The ratio between the inertia force, Fi, and the force due to elasticity, Fe, is
given by

Fi / Fe = (L2V2) / (KL2) = V2 / K = V2 / (K / ) = V2 / C2

where, C = (K / )1/2 = velocity of sound in that fluid medium whose bulk

modulus of elasticity, K, and mass density, , are being considered.
The ratio (V2 / C2) is known as the ’Cauchy number’. The square root of this
ratio, i.e., (V / C) or {V / (K / )1/2} is known as the ‘Mach number’, Ma or NM.
When Ma > 1, i.e., V > C, or in other words, the characteristic velocity of flow
of the fluid is more than velocity of sound in that flow medium, the flow is said
to be supersonic. When Ma < 1, i.e., V < C, or in other words, the characteristic
velocity of flow of the fluid is less than velocity of sound in that flow medium,
the flow is said to be subsonic. When Ma = 1, or V = C, the flow is considered
to be sonic. When Ma >>1, i.e., V >> C, then the flow is sometimes termed as
hypersonic. A higher Mach number indicates the predominance of the effect of
compressibility of the fluid. However, when the Mach number is relatively
small, say, less than 0.4, the effect of compressibility of the fluid can be
neglected.

(e) Inertia force – Surface tension force ratio (Weber number)

Force due to surface tension, Fs = L

where  = surface tension of fluid in contact with, say, air (in N/m)
L = length of the fluid film over which the force due to surface tension
acts
Hence, the ratio of the inertia force, Fi, and the surface tension force, Fs, is
given by

Fi / Fs = (L2V2) / (L) = (LV2) /  = [V2 / { / (L)}]

The square root of this ratio, i.e., [V / { / (L)}1/2] is called the Weber number.

SIMILARITY LAWS OR MODEL LAWS

The results obtained from the model tests can be transferred to the prototype by
the use of model laws. The model laws can be developed from the principles of
dynamic similarity. The conditions for the existence of dynamic similarity
between the model and the prototype are depicted by equations (1) to (6). In

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

almost all hydraulic problems encountered in practice, for which model studies
are required to be carried out, it is quite rare that all the forces, namely, Fi, Fg,
Fv, Fp, Fe and Fs are simultaneously predominant in the flow phenomenon.
Moreover, in most of the fluid flow problems, only one force in addition to the
inertia force, Fi, is relatively more significant than the rest of the forces. The
rest of the forces may either do not exist or may be of negligible magnitude.
Under these circumstances, the various model laws have been developed
depending upon the significant influence of each of the forces on the different
fluid flow phenomena. In the derivation of these model laws, it has been
assumed that for equal values of the dimensionless parameters the
corresponding flow pattern in model and its prototype are similar.

(a) Reynolds Model Law

In case of flows where, in addition to the inertia force, the only other force of
significance is the viscous force, the similarity in flow in the model and the
prototype can be obtained if the Reynolds number of flow is the same in both
the model and the prototype. This is known as Reynolds Model Law.

According to the law, we have,

(NR)model = (NR)prototype

(m Vm Lm) / m = (p Vp Lp) / p

where (NR)model = Reynolds number of flow in model

(NR)prototype = Reynolds number of flow in prototype
m = mass density of fluid in model
Vm = characteristic velocity of flow in model
Lm = characteristic length in model
m = dynamic viscosity of fluid in model
p = mass density of fluid in prototype
Vp = characteristic velocity of flow in prototype
Lp = characteristic length in prototype
p = dynamic viscosity of fluid in prototype

Dividing LHS by RHS of above equation,

[(m Vm Lm) / m] / [(p Vp Lp) / p] = (m / p)(Vm / Vp)(Lm / Lp)(p / m)

= {(m / p)(Vm / Vp)(Lm / Lp)} / {(m / p)}

= r Vr Lr / r = 1 …… (7)

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

where r = Mass density scale ratio

Vr = characteristic velocity scale ratio
Lr = Length scale ratio
r = dynamic viscosity scale ratio

Equation (7) may be used to obtain the scale ratios for various other physical
quantities on the basis of Reynolds model law.
Let us derive the scale ratios for models of certain quantities governed by
Reynolds model law.

Scale ratio for Velocity (Vr):

From equation (7), Vr = r / (rLr) …… (8)

Scale ratio for time (Tr):

The scale ratio for velocity can be written as Vr = Vm / Vp

= (Lm / Tm) / (Lp / Tp)
= (Lm / Lp) (Tp / Tm)
= (Lm / Lp) {1 / (Tm / Tp)}
= Lr / Tr
Substituting Vr = Lr / Tr in equation (7), we have,

{r (Lr / Tr) Lr} / r = 1

 rLr2/rTr = 1
Tr = rLr2/r …… (9)

Scale ratio for acceleration (a r):

Acceleration scale ratio, ar = am / ap = {Lm / (Tm)2} / {Lp / (Tp)2}

= (Lm / Lp) {(Tp)2 / (Tm)2}
= (Lm / Lp) [1 / {(Tm)2 / (Tp)2}]
= Lr / Tr2
From equation (7), we have,
Vr = r / (rLr)
ar = Vr / Tr = {r / (rLr)} / {rLr2/r}

Putting the expression for Tr from equation (9) in the above expression, we
have,

ar = {r / (rLr)} / Tr = = r2 / r2Lr3 …… (10)

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Scale ratio for discharge (Qr):

We know that, Qr = ArVr = Lr2 Vr

From equation (7), we have,

Vr = r / (rLr)

Hence, Q = Lr2 {r / (rLr)} = Lrr / r …… (11)

Scale ratio for force (Fr):

Shear force due to viscosity of fluid = shear stress x area

= A =  (V/y) A
Fr = r (Vr/yr)Ar = r (Vr/Lr) (Lr ) = r Vr Lr
2

From equation (7), we have, Vr = r / (rLr)

Putting Vr = r / (rLr) in the above expression for Fr

Fr = r {r / (rLr)} Lr = r2 / r …… (12)

Some of the phenomena for which Reynolds model law can be a sufficient
criterion for similarity of flow in the model and the prototype are:

(i) flow of incompressible fluid in closed pipes

(ii) motion of submarines completely under water
(iii) motion of air planes
(iv) flow around structures and other bodies immersed completely under
moving fluids

(b) Froude Model Law

In case of flows where, in addition to the inertia force, the only other force of
significance is the force of gravity, the similarity in flow in the model and the
prototype can be obtained if the Froude number of flow is the same in both the
model and the prototype. This is known as Froude Model Law.

According to the law, we have,

(Fr)model = (Fr)prototype

Vm / (Lm gm)1/2 = Vp / (Lp gp)1/2 ...... (13)

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

where (Fr)model = Froude number of flow in model

(Fr)prototype = Froude number of flow in prototype
Vm = velocity of flow in model
Lm = characteristic dimension (length) in model
gm = acceleration due gravity at the site of model testing
Vp = velocity of flow in prototype
Lp = characteristic dimension (length) in prototype
gp = acceleration due gravity at the site of prototype

Dividing LHS by RHS of above equation,

Vm / (Lm gm)1/2 / Vp / (Lp gp)1/2 = 1

 Vr / (grLr)1/2 = 1
 Vr = (grLr)1/2 ...... (14)

Since in most cases, as the value of g at the site of model testing will practically
be the same as the value of g at the site of the proposed prototype, we have the
scale ratio of g, i.e., gr = gm / gp = 1

Hence, equation (14) becomes

Vr = Lr1/2
Vr / Lr1/2 = 1 …… (15)

Equation (14) or (15) may be used to obtain the scale ratios for various other
physical quantities.

Let us derive the scale ratios for models of certain quantities governed by
Froude model law.

Scale ratio for Time (Tr):

As discussed previously, the scale ratio for velocity can be written as

Vr = Lr / Tr

Substituting Vr = Lr / Tr in equation (14), we have,

Lr / Tr = (grLr)1/2
 Tr = Lr / (grLr)1/2 = Lr1/2 / gr1/2 ...... (16)

Scale ratio for acceleration (a r):

As discussed previously, acceleration scale ratio,

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

ar = Lr / Tr2

We have just expressed the scale ratio for time, Tr, as

Tr = Lr1/2 / gr1/2

Putting the above expression for Tr in ar = Lr / Tr2, we have,

ar = Lr / (Lr1/2 / gr1/2)2 = Lr / (Lr / gr) = gr ...... (17)

Scale ratio for discharge (Qr):

We know that, Qr = ArVr = Lr2 Vr

From equation (14), we have, Vr = (grLr)1/2

Substituting the above expression for Vr in the expression for Qr stated above,
we have,

Qr = Lr2 (grLr)1/2 = Lr5/2gr1/2 …… (18)

Scale ratio for force (Fr):

Force due to gravity (weight of fluid) = mass x acceleration due to gravity

= Mg
where M = mass of fluid
g = acceleration due to gravity
M = mass density of fluid x volume of fluid =  x volume of fluid =  L3

Hence, F =  L3 g

So, Scale ratio for force, Fr = r Lr3 gr ...... (19)

Some of the phenomena for which Reynolds model law can be a sufficient
criterion for dynamic similarity of flow in the model and the prototype are:

(i) Free-surface flows such as flow over spillways, sluices, etc.,

(ii) Flow of jet from an orifice or nozzle
(iii) Problems in which waves are likely to be formed on the surface
(iv) Problems in which fluids of different densities flow over one another

(c) Euler Model Law

In case of fluid systems where, in addition to the inertia force, the only other
force of significance is the force due to supplied pressures, the dynamic
similarity in flow in the model and the prototype can be obtained if the Euler
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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

number of flow is the same in both the model and the prototype. This is known
as Euler Model Law.

(Eu)model = (Eu)prototype

[Vm / (pm/m)1/2] = [Vp / (pp/p)1/2] ...... (20)

where (Eu)model = Euler number of flow in model
(Eu)prototype = Euler number of flow in prototype
Vm = velocity of flow in the model
pm = intensity of fluid pressure in the model
m = mass density of fluid in the model
Vp = velocity of flow in the prototype
pp = intensity of fluid pressure in the prototype
p = mass density of fluid in the prototype

Dividing LHS by RHS of above equation,

[Vm / (pm/m)1/2] / [Vp / (pp/p)1/2] = 1

 [Vr / (pr/r)1/2] = 1 ...... (21)

Equation (21) represents the Euler Model Law which may be used to evaluate
scale ratios for various other physical quantities.

Euler model law may be considered as an essential requirement for establishing

dynamic similarity in an enclosed fluid system where the turbulence is fully
developed and the viscous forces are insignificant, and also the forces of gravity
and surface tension are completely absent.

(d) Mach Model Law

In case of fluid flow phenomena where, in addition to the inertia force, the only
other force of significance is the force resulting from elastic compression, the
dynamic similarity in flow in the model and the prototype can be obtained if the
Mach number of flow is the same in both the model and the prototype. This is
known as Mach Model Law.

(Ma)model = (Ma)prototype

[Vm / (Km / m)1/2] = [Vp / (Kp / p)1/2] ...... (22)

where (Ma)model = Mach number of flow in model

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

(Ma)prototype = Mach number of flow in prototype

Vm = velocity of flow in the model
Km = bulk modulus of elasticity of fluid in the model
m = mass density of fluid in the model
Vp = velocity of flow in the prototype
Kp = bulk modulus of elasticity of fluid in the prototype
p = mass density of fluid in the prototype

Dividing LHS by RHS of above equation,

[Vm / (Km / m)1/2] / [Vp / (Kp / p)1/2] = 1

 [Vr / (Kr / r)1/2] = 1 ...... (23)

Equation (23) represents the Mach Model Law which may be used to evaluate
scale ratios for various other physical quantities.

The Mach model law finds extensive application in aerodynamic testing and in
phenomena involving velocities exceeding the speed of sound. It is also
applicable in hydraulic model testing for cases of unsteady flow, especially
water hammer problems.

(e) Weber Model Law

In case of fluid flow phenomena where, in addition to the inertia force, the only
other force of significance is the force resulting from surface tension, the
dynamic similarity in flow in the model and the prototype can be obtained if the
Weber number of flow is the same in both the model and the prototype. This is
known as Weber Model Law.

(We)model = (We)prototype

[Vm / {m / (m Lm)}1/2] = [Vp / {p / (p Lp)}1/2] …… (24)

where (We)model = Weber number of flow in model

(We)prototype = Weber number of flow in prototype
Vm = velocity of flow in the model
m = surface tension of fluid in the model
m = mass density of fluid in the model
Lm = characteristic length in the model
Vp = velocity of flow in the prototype
p = surface tension of fluid in the prototype

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

p = mass density of fluid in the prototype

Lp = characteristic length in the prototype

Dividing LHS by RHS of above equation,

[Vm / {m / (m Lm)}1/2] / [Vp / {p / (p Lp)}1/2] = 1

 [Vr / {r / (r Lr)}1/2] = 1 …… (25)

Equation (25) represents the Weber Model Law which may be used to evaluate
scale ratios for various other physical quantities.

Weber model law can be applied in the following cases:

(i) flow over weirs involving very low heads

(ii) very thin sheet of liquid flowing over a surface
(iii) capillary waves in channels

TYPES OF MODELS

Hydraulic models can be broadly classified into two categories namely,

(i) Undistorted Models

(ii) Distorted Models

(i) Undistorted Models

An undistorted model is the one which is geometrically similar to its prototype,

that is, the scale ratios for corresponding linear dimensions of the model and its
prototype are same. As the basic condition of perfect similitude, i.e., geometric
similarity, is satisfied, prediction in case of such models is relatively easy and
many of the results obtained from the model tests can be transferred directly to
the prototype.

(ii) Distorted Models

Distorted models are those in which one or more terms of the model are not
identical with their counterparts in the prototype. As the basic condition of
perfect similitude, i.e., geometric similarity, is not satisfied, the results obtained
with the help of such models are liable to distortion and have more qualitative
value only.

A distorted model may have either geometrical distortion, or distortion of

hydraulic quantities or a combination of these.
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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

What is geometric distortion?

The geometric distortion can either be dimensional distortion or

configurationally distortional. For example, when the scale ratio adopted for the
longitudinal dimension of the model and the prototype is different from the
scale ratio adopted for the vertical dimension of the model and the prototype,
the model is said to be dimensionally distortional. In general, when different
scale ratios are adopted for the longitudinal, transverse and vertical dimensions,
then it is said to be a distortion of dimensions.

Where dimensionally distorted models are frequently employed?

Distortion of dimensions is frequently adopted in river models where a different

scale ratio is adopted for depth. In river models, the scales for vertical
dimensions are larger than scales for horizontal dimensions. Such models are
called ‘vertically exaggerated models’.

When the general configuration of the model does not bear a resemblance with
its prototype, it results in a configurationally distortional model. For example, a
river model will have a distortion of configuration if it is constructed with a
bed-slope different from the one given by vertical exaggeration.

What is material distortion?

When the physical properties of the corresponding materials in the model and
the prototype do not satisfy the similitude conditions, the material distortion
arises.

Material distortion may have to be adopted in river models constructed for the
studies of sediment transport.

Further, it may not be possible to obtain similitude in respect of certain

uncontrollable hydraulic quantities such as time, discharge, etc., which may lead
to distortion of hydraulic quantities.

Typical examples where distorted models are required:

(i) Rivers
(ii) Dams across very wide rivers
(iii) Harbours
(iv) Estuaries, etc.,

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

In all the above cases, the horizontal dimensions are large in proportion to the
vertical ones.

What are the reasons for adopting distorted models?

(i) to maintain accuracy in vertical measurements

(ii) to maintain turbulent flow
(iii) to obtain suitable bed material and its adequate movement
(iv) to obtain suitable roughness condition
(v) to accommodate the available facilities such as space, money, water
supply and time.

Merits of Distorted Models

(i) the vertical exaggeration results in steeper water surface slopes and
magnification of wave heights in models. Hence, the water surface
slopes and the wave heights can be measured easily and accurately.
(ii) Due to exaggerated slopes, the Reynolds number of a model is
considerably increased and the surface resistance is lowered. This
assists in the simulation of flow conditions in the model and its
prototype.
(iii) Sufficient tractive force can be developed to produce adequate bed
movement with a reasonable small model.
(iv) Model size can be sufficiently reduced by distortion. This effects
simplification in its operation and considerable reduction in cost.

Limitations of Distorted models ?

Example 6. A ship 150 m long moves in fresh water at 15C at 36 km/h. A

1:100 model of this ship is to be tested in a towing basin containing a liquid of
specific gravity 0.90. What viscosity must this liquid have for both Reynolds
and Froude model laws to be satisfied? At what speed must the model be
towed? If 117.7 watts is required to tow the model at this speed, what power is
required by the ship? Dynamic viscosity of water at 15C is 1.13 x 10-3 N.s/m2.

Solution.

Prototype Ship:
Length of prototype ship, Lp = 150 m
Velocity of prototype ship, Vp = 36 km/h = (36 x 1000) / (1 x 60 x 60) = 10 m/s
Dynamic viscosity of water at 15C, p = 1.13 x 10-3 N.s/m2
Mass density of water, p = 1000 kg (mass)/m3

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Model Ship:
Length scale ratio = 1/100, i.e., Lm / Lp = (1 / 100)
Length of model ship, Lm = (1 / 100) Lp = (1 / 100) (150) = 1.5 m
Mass density of liquid, m = (specific gravity of liquid) x (mass density of
water)
= 0.9 x 1000 kg (mass)/m = 900 kg (mass)/m3
3

Dynamic viscosity of liquid, m = ?

Power required to tow the model, Pm = 117.7 watts

Reynolds model law and Froude model law are to be satisfied.

Reynolds model law:

(NR)model = (NR)prototype

(m Vm Lm) / m = (p Vp Lp) / p

Froude model law:
(Fr)model = (Fr)prototype

Vm / (Lm gm)1/2 = Vp / (Lp gp)1/2

Vm 10
 
1.59.811/ 2
1509.811 / 2
 Vm = 1 m/s

Substituting Vm = 1 m/s in the Reynolds model law, we have,

(900)(1)(1.5) (1000)(10)(150)

m 1.13x10- 3
m = 1.017 x 10-6 N.s/m2

Power required to tow the model ship, Pm = 117.7 watts.

We know that,
Power required to tow the model =
(total resistance experienced by the model ship) x
(Velocity of model ship)
i.e., Pm = Rm Vm
where Rm = total resistance experienced by the model ship
P 117.7
Rm  m   117.7 N
Vm 1
The total resistance R experienced by a ship may be assumed to consist of two
portions viz., (i) wave resistance R w due to the action of waves; and (ii) the
frictional resistance Rf due to frictional effects on the wetted surface of the ship.

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

That is,

R  Rw  R f

Let the above equation for the prototype ship may be written as

R p  Rw  p  R f
p
 
and for the model ship as

Rm  Rw m  R f  m
The total resistance R encountered by a ship is a function of the velocity V of
ship, viscosity  of liquid (water) and mass density  of liquid (water), some
characteristic length L to specify the size of the ship and the gravitational
acceleration g. Hence, the functional relationship for R may be written as:

R =  (V, , , L, g)

This functional relationship can be expressed in terms of dimensionless

parameters as

R  VL   V 2  
 1  ,  
L V
2 2     gL 

R

that is, 2 2  1 N R , ( Fr ) 2
L V

Hence, for dynamic similarity between the model and the prototype for total
resistance, we have,
Rp Rm

 p L p 2V p 2  m Lm 2Vm 2
Rp  p L p 2V p 2 (1000)(150) 2 (10) 2
  = = 1111111.1
Rm  m Lm 2Vm 2 (900)(1.5) 2 (1) 2
Rp = Rm x 1111111.1 = 130777777.7 N = 1.308 x 108 N

Hence, Pp = Rp Vp = 1.308 x 108 x 10 = 1.307 x 109 Nm = 1.308 x 109 watts

= 1.308 x 106 kW

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Example 7. A spillway 7.2 m high and 150 m long discharges 2150 m3/s under
a head of 4 m. If a 1:16 model of the spillway is to be constructed, find the
model dimensions, head over the model and the model discharge.

Solution.

Prototype spillway:
Height of prototype spillway, (Height)p = 7.2 m
Length of prototype spillway, Lp = 150 m
Discharge of prototype spillway, Qp = 2150 m3/s
Head in prototype spillway, (Head)p = 4 m

Model spillway:
Length scale ratio, Lr = Lm / Lp = 1 / 16
Hence, length of model spillway, Lm = (1 / 16) Lp = (1 / 16) (150) = 9.375 m
For geometric similarity of model and prototype,
( Height ) m Lm

( Height ) p Lp

= 7.2   = 0.45 m
Lm 1
 (Height)m = (Height)p
Lp  16 
( Head ) m Lm

( Head ) p Lp

= 4   = 0.25 m
Lm 1
(Head)m = (Head)p
Lp  16 
The discharge equation for spillway is given by
Q = CdLH3/2
where Cd = coefficient of discharge of spillway
L = Length of spillway
H = Head of water in spillway

For kinematic similarity to exist between the model and the prototype, we have,

Qm Lm H m 3 / 2 (9.375)( 0.25) 3 / 2
  = 9.765625 x 10-4
Qp 3 / 2 3 / 2
Lp H p (150)( 4)
Qm = (9.765625 x 10-4)Qp = (9.765625 x 10-4)(2150) = 2.1 m3/s

Example 8. In order to estimate the frictional head loss in a pipe 1 m in

diameter, through which castor oil of specific gravity 0.96 and dynamic
viscosity 9.9 poise, is to be transported at the rate of 5000 litres per second, a
test was conducted on a pipe of diameter 50 mm using water at 15C as the
model fluid. Calculate the discharge required for the model pipe. If the head loss

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

in 40 m length of the model pipe is measured as 13.6 mm of water, determine

the corresponding head loss in the prototype. Also obtain the value of Darcy’s
friction factor for the prototype. Given absolute viscosity of water at 15C =
0.0131 poise.

Solution.

Prototype pipe:
Diameter of pipe, Dp = 1 m
 
Cross-sectional area of pipe, Ap = D p2 = 12 = 0.7854 m2
4 4
Specific gravity of castor oil transported through pipe = 0.96
Mass density of castor oil, p = (specific gravity of castor oil) x
(mass density of water)
= 0.96 x 1000 = 960 kg (mass) / m3
Dynamic viscosity of castor oil, p = 9.9 poise = 9.9 x 0.1 N.s/m2 = 0.99 N.s/m2
Discharge rate of castor oil through the pipe, Qp = 5000 litres per second
= 5000 x 10-3 m3 / s
= 5 m3 / s
Average velocity of flow through pipe, Vp = Qp / Ap = 5 / 0.7854 = 6.3662 m/s
Head loss due to friction in prototype pipe, (Hf)p = ?
Darcy’s friction factor for the prototype pipe, fp = ?

Model pipe:
Diameter of pipe, Dm = 50 mm = 50 x 10-3 m = 0.05 m
 
Cross-sectional area of model pipe, Am = Dm 2 = 0.052 = 1.963 x 10-3 m2
4 4
Mass density of water, m = 1000 kg (mass) / m3
Discharge of water required for the model pipe, Qm = ?
Length of model pipe, Lm = 40 m
Head loss due to friction in 40 m length of model pipe, (Hf)m = 13.6 mm
= 0.0136 m
Dynamic viscosity of water, m = 0.0131 poise = 0.0131 x 0.1 N.s/m2
= 0.00131 N.s/m2

For dynamic similarity of model and prototype, Reynolds model law must be
applicable.

Reynolds model law:

(NR)model = (NR)prototype

(m Vm Lm) / m = (p Vp Lp) / p

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Here, the characteristic dimension of pipe is its diameter; hence, Lm = Dm and Lp

= Dp in the above expression
960Vm 0.05 10006.36621
 
0.00131 0.99
 Vm  0.1755 m/s

Hence, discharge required for the model pipe, Qm = Am x Vm

= (1.963 x 10-3) x (0.1755)
= 3.446 x 10-4 m3/s
= 0.345 x 10-3 m3/s
= 0.345 litres per second
By dimensional analysis, the Resistance to flow is given by

 VD 
R = L2V 2  
  
As the Reynolds number for both the model and the prototype are the same, the
value of the function  in the above expression will be the same for both the
model and the prototype. Hence, we can write,
 R   
   R 
 L2V 2   2 2
  m  L V  p
Resistance to flow, R = (drop in pressure intensity due to head loss) x
(cross-sectional area of pipe)

= (gHf)  D 2 
4 
Hence, we have,

 
  2 
 gH f  4 D  


  2 
 gH f  4 D   
      
 L V
2 2   L V
2 2 
   
 m  p
( H f ) m  D p 2  Lm 2  Vm 2 
 
( H f ) p  Dm 2  L p 2  V p 2 
   
 L   D   0.05 
As  m    m    
 Lp   Dp   1 
( H f ) m  1  2  0.05  2  0.1755  2
       7.5997 x 10-4
( H f ) p  0.05   1   6.3662 
It is given that (Hf)m = 0.0136 m of water in a length of 40 m
Hence, (Hf)p = (Hf)m / (7.5997 x 10-4) = 0.0136 / (7.5997 x 10 -4)
= 17.896 m of castor oil

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

The corresponding length of prototype pipe in which this loss of 17.896 m

occurs can be determined using the length scale ratio.

Lm Dm 0.05
   0.05
Lp Dp 1
 Lp = Lm / 0.05 = 40 / 0.05 = 800 m
Hence, loss of head per metre length of prototype pipe = (Hf)p / Lp
= 17.896 / 800
= 0.02237 m of castor oil
= 22.37 mm of oil per m length of pipe

Darcy-Weisbach equation for head loss due to friction in pipe is given by

fL V 2
Hf 
D 2g
Applying the above equation for the model pipe, we have,
f p Lp V p2
 
Hf
p

D p 2g p
f p (800) (6.3662) 2
17.896 =
1 ( 2)( 9.81)
 fp = friction factor for the prototype pipe = 0.01083

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:47 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar