Chapter 3

Voltage and Current Laws

These “Laws” Cannot Be Broken

◼ Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

◼ Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
◼ All circuit behavior and circuit analysis
techniques are based on these two laws

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 Nodes, Paths, Loops, Branches

◼ Node
◼ A connection point for two or more
components
◼ Ideal wires (short circuits) between components
are part of the node

Nodes, Paths, Loops, Branches

◼ Good idea to highlight the node connections

until you are confident identifying them

2
 Nodes, Paths, Loops, Branches

◼ A branch is a path in a network consisting

of
◼ One element
◼ The node on each end of the element
◼ A path is a connection of one or more
branches that does not create a loop

Nodes, Paths, Loops, Branches

◼ Branch examples

Still technically
a branch
because it
doesn’t include
the resistor, but
a bit confusing
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3
 Nodes, Paths, Loops, Branches

◼ Tracing a Path
◼ Start at a node
◼ Move through an element connected to that
node to the node on the other side of the
component
◼ If moving to the other side of an element
would create a loop, stop and don’t do it
◼ Nodes can only be encountered once in a
path

Nodes, Paths, Loops, Branches

◼ Path examples

◼ Note that entire nodes are highlighted but

there are no loops
◼ There are other paths in this circuit 8

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 Nodes, Paths, Loops, Branches

◼ Tracing a Loop (a closed path)

◼ Start at a node
◼ Move through branches until you return to the
starting point
◼ Don’t trace through a branch twice

Nodes, Paths, Loops, Branches

◼ Loop examples

◼ Are there other loops?

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 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

◼ The algebraic sum of the currents entering

a node is zero
OR
◼ The algebraic sum of the currents entering
a node equals the algebraic sum of
currents leaving the node

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Kirchhoff’s Current Law

i A + iB + (−iC ) + (−iD ) = 0 (1)

or
i A + iB = iC + iD (2)
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 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

◼ General KCL equation for N branches

connected to a node
N
 in = 0
n =1
(3)
or
i1 + i2 + i3 + + iN = 0

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Example 3.1: KCL

◼ The voltage source supplies 3 A out of its

+ terminal (iR1)
◼ Find the current in R3 (iR3)

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 Example 3.1: KCL

◼ Identify the node or nodes that you can

use to calculate unknown currents with
KCL

◼ Write a KCL equation – We’ll use Eq. 1

version iR1 + 5 + (−i ) + (−2) = 0
3+5−i − 2 = 0  i = 6 A 15

15

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

◼ The algebraic sum of the voltages around

any closed path (loop) is zero
◼ General equation
N
 vn = 0
n =1
(4)
or
v1 + v2 + v3 + + vN = 0

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8
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

◼ The circuit below has voltage values and

polarities identified
◼ Write the KVL equation
◼ Start at node A and
go clockwise
−v2 + v3 + v1 = 0
◼ Going counter-clockwise from node A
yields same result
−v1 − v3 + v2 = 0
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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

◼ Note that the sum of voltage rises as you

move around the loop equals the sum of
voltage drops
v1 + v3 = v2

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 Example 3.3: KVL

◼ Find VR2 and vx

◼ Determine how many loops are in the
circuit and which one or ones will give the
KVL equation you need

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Example 3.3: KVL

◼ There are 3 loops through elements in which

current will flow (shown clockwise from
bottom node)

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 Example 3.3: KVL

◼ The blue loop will give vR2

−4 + 36 − vR 2 = 0  vR 2 = 32 V

◼ Write this on the schematic so you see it

32V

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Example 3.3: KVL

◼ To get vx, we use the green loop

◼ Notice that vx appears across multiple elements,
not just one, so adjust the green loop
32 − 12 − 14 − vx = 0  vx = 6 V

32V

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 Example 3.3: KVL

◼ Notice that you cannot find v2 , vs1 and vR1

with KVL without additional information

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Practice 3.4: KVL, Ohm’s Law,

and KCL
◼ Determine vx in the circuit below

◼ You can’t find vx with KVL by itself since the

voltages across the resistors are not known
◼ But you can find these voltages with Ohm’s law
using the 2 A current and the 30 V source value
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 Practice 3.4: KVL, Ohm’s Law,
and KCL
◼ Label resistor voltages for convenience
◼ Note that vR4 = vx, so find vR4

+ − + vR3 −
vR1 + +
vR2 vR4
− −

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Practice 3.4: KVL, Ohm’s

Law, and KCL
◼ Find vR1: vR1 = (2 A)(8 ) = 16 V
◼ Now find vR2 with KVL using blue loop below
30 − vR1 − vR 2 = 0
vR 2 = 30 − 16 = 14 V

+ − + vR3 −
vR1 + +
vR2 vR4
− −

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 Practice 3.4: KVL, Ohm’s Law,
and KCL
◼ Use KCL at node 1 (green): 2 + (−iR 2 ) + (−iR 3 ) = 0
◼ Using Ohm’s law, iR2 = vR2/10 = 14/10 = 1.4 A
◼ So i = 2 − 1.4 = 0.6 A
R3
1
2A iR3

+ − + vR3 −
iR2
vR1 +
+
vR2 vR4
− −

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Practice 3.4: KVL, Ohm’s Law,

and KCL
◼ Use KVL around blue loop vR 2 − vR 3 − vR 4 = 0
◼ Using Ohm’s law, vR3 = iR3(2) = 0.6(2) = 1.2 V
◼ So 14 − 1.2 − v = 0  v = v = 12.8 V
R4 x R4
1
2A iR3

+ − + vR3 −
iR2
vR1 +
+
vR2 vR4
− −

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 Practice 3.4: KVL, Ohm’s Law,
and KCL
◼ How would you find ix?
◼ Use KCL at node 2

1
2A iR3 2
+ − + vR3 −
iR2
vR1 +
+
vR2 vR4
− −

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Single-Loop Circuit: Series

Circuit
◼ In a single loop circuit
◼ The same current flows through every
component
◼ Components with the same current
flowing through them are connected in
series

Series circuit with

2 batteries and
2 resistors
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 Single-Loop Circuit: Series
Circuit
◼ The series circuit is a natural application for KVL
◼ Steps:
1. Assume a direction for current
2. Based on assumed current direction, write voltage
drop across resistors
3. Draw a KVL loop that follows the assumed current
direction and write equation + vR1 −
+ vs1 − vR1 − vs 2 − vR 2 = 0
+
vR2
−
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Single-Loop Circuit: Series

Circuit
4. Use Ohm’s law for resistors to get their
voltages in terms of i
+ vs1 − R1i − vs 2 − R2i = 0
5. Separate variables to isolate and solve for i
vs1 − vs 2 = R1i + R2i
+ vR1 −
v −v
 i = s1 s 2 i
R1 + R2 +
vR2
−
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 Practice 3.6: Power in Series
Circuit
◼ Find the power absorbed by each element
in the circuit below
◼ The circuit uses a VCVS that has output
voltage depending on vx
◼ vx depends on the
current i, both unknown
◼ 2 equations needed

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Practice 3.6: Power in Series

Circuit
◼ Start with KVL equation around blue loop with
assumed current direction as shown
+ vx + 12 − v8 − v7  − 4vx = 0
◼ Second equation is Ohm’s law with 30 resistor
◼ But which way are you
+
going to say current
is going? −
◼ Use the direction you + −
assumed for KVL
equation
vx = −30i i
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 Practice 3.6: Power in Series
Circuit
◼ Now substitute for vx in KVL equation, write
resistor voltages in terms of i , solve for i
+vx + 12 − v8 − v7  − 4vx = 0
−30i + 12 − 8i − 7i − 4(−30i ) = 0
75i + 12 = 0
i = −0.16 A

◼ Note: since i is negative, our assumed

direction was wrong, but that’s OK

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Practice 3.6: Power in Series

Circuit
◼ Find power absorbed by resistors first
◼ Remember that resistors always absorb
power
P30 = 0.162 (30) = 0.768 W
P8 = 0.162 (8) = 0.2048 W
P7  = 0.162 (7) = 0.1792 W

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 Practice 3.6: Power in Series
Circuit
◼ Power absorbed by VCVS
◼ Assumed current direction is going into +
terminal, so power absorbed equation is P =i
 4vx
-0.16 A
PVCVS = i (4vx ) = i (4)(−30i )
= −120i 2 = −120(−0.16) 2
= −3.072 W

◼ This element is actually delivering +3.072 W

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Practice 3.6: Power in Series

Circuit
◼ Power absorbed by independent source
◼ Assumed current direction is going out of +
terminal, so power absorbed is P = -i  12
-0.16 A
P12V = −i (12) = −(−0.16)(12)
= 1.92 W

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 Practice 3.6: Power in Series
Circuit
◼ Due to conservation of energy, sum of
absorbed power = 0, so check
 Pabsorbed = 0 (5)
all elements
0.768 + 1.92 + 0.2048 + 0.1792 − 3.072 = 0

◼ Another way to think of it is the sum of

absorbed power = sum of delivered power
 Pabsorbed =  Pdelivered (6)

0.768 + 1.92 + 0.2048 + 0.1792 = 3.072 39

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Single-Node-Pair Circuit: Parallel

Circuit
◼ In a single-node-pair circuit
◼ The same voltage appears across every
component
◼ Components with the same current across
them are connected in parallel

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 Practice 3.8: Parallel Circuit

◼ Find iA , iB , iC

◼ The voltage vx across the elements is not

known and all the sources are current sources
◼ May need to find vx to get iA and iC , and iB,
so it looks like a 4 unknown problem
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Practice 3.8: Parallel Circuit

◼ Write some equations and see which are

independent and can be used to eliminate
the unknowns
◼ Start with a KCL equation for the top node
◼ Use assumed directions for iA , iB , iC and
actual directions for independent current
sources (3 unknowns)

 ientering =  ileaving
5.6 = i A + iB + iC + 2
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 Practice 3.8: Parallel Circuit

◼ Equation for VCCS

iB = −0.1vx
◼ Use Ohm’s law with the resistors
i A = vx 18
iC = vx 9

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Practice 3.8: Parallel Circuit

◼ Now all currents are in terms of vx, so use

the KVL equation to find vx
5.6 = vx 18 − 0.1vx + vx 9 + 2
6.67 10−2 vx = 3.6
vx = 54.0 V
◼ The currents are:
i A = 54.0 18 = 3 A
iB = −0.1(54) = −5.4 A
iC = 54.0 9 = 6 A 44

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 Combining Sources

◼ When analyzing circuits, you can simplify

them by
◼ Combining voltage sources in series
◼ Combining current sources in parallel

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Combining Sources

◼ When combining sources, you are

changing the circuit, but you are doing it
to simplify analysis
◼ The combined sources are equivalent

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 Impossible Circuits

◼ Never connect voltage sources in parallel

◼ Violates KVL
◼ Never connect current sources in series
◼ Violates KCL

OK – sources
not in parallel 47

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Resistors in Series

◼ You can convert series-connected resistors

to one equivalent resistor
◼ Based on KVL – same current in each resistor
vs = R1i + R2i + + RN i = ( R1 + R2 + + RN )i
= Req i

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 Resistors in Series

◼ So,

Req = R1 + R2 + + RN (7)

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Ex. 3.11: Equivalent Elements

◼ Simplify the circuit below by combining

elements into equivalents

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 Ex. 3.11: Equivalent Elements

◼ May help to rearrange series elements to see

how they combine
◼ Helps getting source signs right
◼ Current is the same in equivalent series circuit

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Parallel Resistors

◼ You can convert parallel-connected

resistors to one equivalent resistor
◼ Based on KCL – same voltage across each
v v v  1 1 1 
is = + + + = v + + + 
R1 R2 RN R
 1 R2 RN 
v
=
Req

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 Parallel Resistors

◼ So,
1 1 1 1 (8)
= + + +
Req R1 R2 RN

◼ In terms of conductance
Geq = G1 + G2 + + GN (9)

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Parallel Resistors

◼ Parallel resistor notation (3 resistors shown)

Req = R1 R2 R3
◼ If combining 2 resistors in parallel, an
alternative equation results
1
Req = R1 R2 =
1 1
+
R1 R2

R1R2 product Product/Sum only

Req = = works for 2 (10)
R1 + R2 sum resistors
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 Parallel Resistors

◼ For parallel resistors, Req is always less

than the smallest of the resistors being
combined

R1 R2 R3 R N  min( R1 , R2 , R3 , RN )

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Ex. 3.12: Simplifying Circuit to

find Power
◼ Calculate the power absorbed and voltage
across the dependent source (CCCS)
◼ Need to find i3 and vx

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 Ex. 3.12: Simplifying Circuit to
find Power
◼ Look for series and parallel combinations
◼ First: the two 6 resistors in parallel  6||6 =
3
◼ Second: the two independent current sources in
parallel  6 A – 4 A = 2 A upward
◼ Third: 15 in series with 3  from first step 
15 + 3  = 18

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Ex. 3.12: Simplifying Circuit to

find Power
◼ Fourth: combine 18 and 9 resistors in parallel
 18||9 = 6
◼ Note: do not absorb 3 resistor since it carries i3
which you need to find
◼ Write KCL equation for top node
◼ Assume currents go through resistors from top
down as with i3
v
2 + 0.9i3 = i3 +
6
◼ Use Ohm’s law with the 3 resistor
v = 3i3
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 Ex. 3.12: Simplifying Circuit to
find Power
◼ Calculate i3
3i3
2 + 0.9i3 = i3 +
6
i3 = 3.33 A
◼ Now find v
v = 3(3.33) = 10 V
◼ Absorbed power in CCCS is Pabs= –v  i due to
direction of current being out of terminal with
+ side of voltage across it
P = −10(3.33)(0.9) = −30 W
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Finding Elements in Series or

Parallel
◼ Remember:
◼ Series elements have same current through
◼ Parallel elements have same voltage across

Parallel

Series

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 Voltage Division

◼ Voltage division equation relates voltage

across one of several series-connected
resistors to the total voltage
◼ How voltage is “shared”
◼ Derived from KVL
◼ Total voltage
v − v1 − v2 = 0
v = i ( R1 + R2 )
v
 i=
R1 + R2 61

61

Voltage Division
v1
◼ Current through R1 i=
R1
◼ Set the two currents equal
v1 v
=
R1 R1 + R2
R1 (11)
 v1 = v
R1 + R2
◼ Repeat for v2
R2
 v2 = v (12)
R1 + R2
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 Voltage Division

◼ General voltage divider equation

◼ Series connection of N resistors
◼ Voltage vk across resistor Rk
◼ Voltage v across the entire series combination

Rk
vk = v (13)
R1 + R2 + + RN

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Practice 3.16 : Voltage Division

◼ Find vx
◼ Combine the parallel resistors
−1
1 1
Req = +  =2
6 3

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 Practice 3.16: Voltage Division

◼ Apply voltage division

2
vx = (12sin t ) = 4sin t V
2+4

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Current Division

◼ Current division equation relates current

through one of several parallel-connected
resistors to the total current through all
◼ How current is “shared”

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 Current Division

◼ Current in R2
v i ( R1 R2 ) i R1R2
i2 = = =
R2 R2 R2 R1 + R2

R1
i2 = i (14)
R1 + R2

◼ Similarly for i1
R2 (15)
i1 = i
R1 + R2
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Current Division

◼ General current divider equation

◼ Parallel connection of N resistors
◼ Current ik through resistor Rk
◼ Current i through the entire parallel
combination
1
Rk (16)
ik = i
1 1 1
+ + +
R1 R2 RN
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 Current Division

◼ Using conductance

Gk (17)
ik = i
G1 + G2 + + GN

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Practice 3.17

◼ Find i1, i2, and v3

◼ Strategy
◼ Need to find i1 first to get the others
◼ Combine elements starting farthest from the
current source until you can use current
division to get i1

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 Practice 3.17

◼ Sequence to get i1 i1
i1

2 3
i1 i1

125
i1 = 0.120
125 + 25
= 0.100 A
4 5
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Practice 3.17

◼ Use circuit 3 to get i2

◼ i1 divides between i2 and current in 50 
i1 i2
50
i2 = i1
50 + 50
= 0.050 A
3

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 Practice 3.17

◼ Use circuit 3 and Ohm’s law to get voltage

across 48  (node 1)
i1 i2
1
v1 = i2 (48)
= 2.4 V

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Practice 3.17

◼ Use circuit 1 and voltage divider to get v3

1

20
v3 = v1 = 2.4(0.333)
20 + 40
= 0.800 V 74

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 Grounds

◼ Power systems (grids) use the earth’s

potential as reference
◼ Called “earth ground”
◼ Symbol

◼ Often referred to as “common” terminal connected

to earth potential
◼ In this class, we will use this symbol as a 0 V
reference

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Indicating Earth Ground on

Schematics
◼ In this circuit you can find potential differences
(or the voltage) between two terminals
◼ But you cannot say what the potential is at a
node because you have no reference indicated
◼ It is easy to lose sight of this distinction
◼ You have to say the voltage difference between the
voltage source terminals is 9 V

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 Indicating Earth Ground on
Schematics
◼ Most circuits connected to the power grid use
earth ground as the reference voltage, so in this
class we will often use it on schematics
◼ Now you can refer to a circuit node potential
referenced to 0 V ground and call it a voltage
◼ You can say the voltage at the top of the source is 9V

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Two Other Ground Symbols

◼ Chassis ground
◼ Inside customer equipment, the power
system 0 V reference wire is connected to the
enclosure or chassis
◼ Symbol

◼ In this class, we will consider this symbol a 0V

reference

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 Two Other Ground Symbols

◼ Signal ground
◼ Analog and digital circuits are connected to
one or more dc power supplies inside the
equipment
◼ The common 0 V reference for the dc power
supplies wired to the analog and digital
circuits is called signal ground
◼ Symbol

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Two Other Ground Symbols

◼ The dc supplies are connected to chassis

ground at the supplies
◼ In this class, we will consider this symbol a 0V
reference

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 Appendix: Single-Phase 115
Vrms System Wiring
◼ The power grid brings the ground
reference to customers in the neutral wire
(white color inside outlets)
◼ The grid potential is brought in through
the hot wire (black color inside outlets)
◼ Current flows into and out of customer
equipment through these two wires

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Appendix 1: Single-Phase 115

Vrms System Wiring
◼ Neutral is connected to a copper rod
driven into the earth where the power grid
connects to the customer distribution
panel
◼ A special safety ground wire (green color)
connects to the neutral at the distribution
panel and is wired to each outlet
◼ So each 115 V outlet has 3 wires: hot,
neutral, safety ground
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 Appendix 1: Single-Phase 115
Vrms System Wiring
◼ Some equipment uses all three wires
◼ Safety ground and neutral are connected to
chassis inside equipment
◼ If commercial equipment has a metal
enclosure it must have safety ground
connected to chassis inside
◼ If a customer can touch the chassis that
neutral connects to, it must have safety
ground connected to chassis

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Appendix 1: Single-Phase 115

Vrms System Wiring
◼ Two types of equipment use only hot and
neutral
◼ Equipment that plugs directly into the wall
bringing 115 inside the equipment
◼ This equipment must have a plastic enclosure that
the customer would have to unscrew to open and
only then be able to touch the chassis
◼ Equipment that has an adapter that plugs into
the wall and has a low ac or dc output voltage
that connects to the equipment
◼ This equipment can have metal or plastic enclosures
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 Appendix 2: How Safety Ground
Works
◼ If there is only 2-wire (hot & neutral)
wiring to chassis and neutral wire breaks
or is corroded
◼ You can get shocked if you touch the
equipment’s metal chassis because you will
make a current path to ground

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85

Appendix 2: How Safety Ground

Works
◼ Shock scenario for 2-wire connection

High corroded
or broken
neutral wire
resistance 86

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 Appendix 2: How Safety Ground
Works
◼ The safety ground wire has a low-
resistance path from chassis to earth
ground in case the neutral wire is
compromised
◼ A person touching the chassis will not be
shocked

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Appendix 2: How Safety Ground

Works
◼ 3-wire with safety ground prevents shock

Low safety
ground wire
resistance
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