i.

Sets
ii. The Number Systems
iii. Inequalities
i. Sets
A set is a collection of objects.
An object in a set is called an element or a member of the set.
Let A ={1,2,...,100}. Then 100 is an element of A, but 101 is not an element of A.

The set that has no element is called the empty set and is denoted by  .

ii. The Number Systems

1. Natural numbers
The set of natural numbers is denoted by ,defined as  1, 2,3, .
If we add number zero is called whole number  0,1, 2,3, .
2. Integer numbers
The numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, are called integers, and dented by , that is,

  , 2, 1,0,1, 2, .
3. Rational numbers
The rational numbers denoted by , represented in the form

p 
  : p ,q  and q  0 .
q 
Notice that,   .
4. Irrational numbers
Numbers that can be represented by non-terminating and repeating decimals are
called irrational numbers. For example,  and 2 are irrational numbers.
5. Real numbers
Rational numbers together with irrational numbers are called real numbers. The
set of all real numbers is denoted by .
 Irr .

1
iii. Inequalities

2
3
 Chapter 1

Functions

Function

A function f is a relation that assigns to each value x in a set D a unique value denoted
f (x ) . The set D is the domain of the function. The range (co-domain) is the set of all
values of f (x ) produced as x varies over the domain.

Another definition:- Let and denote sets which contain some subset of the real
numbers with elements and . If a rule or relation is given such that for each
there corresponds exactly one real number , then is said to be a real single
valued function of and the relation between and is denoted and read as
“ ”.

4
The independent variable is the variable associated with the domain, the dependent
variable belongs to the range. The graph of a function f is the set of all points (x , y ) in
the xy  plane that satisfy the equation y  f (x ) .

Farther more A function f consists of a set of inputs, a set of outputs, and a rule for
assigning each input to exactly one output.

Example: For the function f (x )  3x 2  2x  1 , evaluate

a. f (2)

b. f ( 2)

c. f (a  h )
Solution
a. f (2)  3(2)2  2(2)  1  7

b. f ( 2)  3( 2)2  2( 2)  1  5  2 2

c. f (a  h )  3(a  h )2  2(a  h )  1  3a 2  6ah  3h 2  2a  2h  1 .

Example: Consider the function f (x )  4x  2 .

a. Find all zeros of f (x ) .
b. Find the y-intercept.
c. Sketch a graph of f (x ) .
Solution
a. To find the zeros, f (x )  0 that is
1 1
4x  2  0  x  is zero value of f (x ) . That is ( , 0) is x-intercept.
2 2
b. The y-intercept is given by (0, f (0))  (0, 2) .
c. It is clear that f (x ) is a linear function of the form f (x )  mx  b that passes

1
through the points ( , 0) and (0, 2) , we can sketch the graph of f (x ) .
2

5
Vertical line test

A graph represents a function if and only if it passes the vertical line test. Every vertical
line intersects the graph at most once. A graph that fails this test does not represent a
function.

6
Monotonic Function

Functions are known as monotonic if they are increasing or decreasing in their entire
domain.

Non-monotonic Function

The functions which are increasing as well as decreasing in their domain are known as
non-monotonic functions.

Example: The function f (x )  3x is increasing on the interval (, ) because

f (x 1 )  f (x 2 ) whenever x 1  x 2 . On the other hand, the function f (x )  x 3 is

decreasing on the interval (, ) because f (x 1 )  f (x 2 ) whenever x 1  x 2 .

7
Example: f  x   sin x , f  x   x are examples of non-monotonic functions. But

 
f  x   sin x is increasing in [0, ] , or we can say it is monotonic in [0, ] .
2 2

Combining Functions
Assume that f (x ) and g (x ) are two functions, we can define the following new
functions:
1. Sum (f  g )(x )  f (x )  g (x )
2. Difference (f  g )(x )  f (x )  g (x )
3. Product (f .g )(x )  f (x ) g (x )
f f (x )
4. Quotient ( )(x ) 
g g (x )

8
Example: Consider f (x )  2x  3 and g (x )  x 2  1 , find the domain each of the
following function.
a. (f  g )(x )
b. (f  g )(x )
c. (f .g )(x )

f
d. ( )(x )
g
Solution
a. (f  g )(x )  (2x  3)  (x 2  1)  x 2  2x  4. The domain is .

b. (f  g )(x )  (2x  3)  (x 2  1)  x 2  2x  2. The domain is .

c. (f .g )(x )  (2x  3)(x 2 1)  2x 3  3x 2  2x  3. The domain is .

2x  3
. The domain of this function is x  x  1 .
f
d. ( )(x )  2
g x 1

Symmetry in function

An even function f has the property that f (x )  f (x ) for all x in the domain. The
graph of an even function is symmetric about the y  axis.

An odd function f has the property that f (x )  f (x ) for all x in the domain. The
graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.

9
Example

a. For any even integer n, f (x )  ax n is an even function.

b. For any odd integer n, f (x )  ax n is an odd function.

10
Example: Determine whether each of the following functions is even, odd, or neither.
a. f  x   5x 4  7x 2  2

b. f  x   2x 5  4x  5

3x
c. f  x  
x 2 1
Solution
a. f  x   5(x )4  7(x )2  2  5x 4  7x 2  2  f  x  . Therefore f is even.

b. f  x   2(x )5  4(x )  5  2x 5  4x  5 . Now f (x )  f (x ) and

f (x )  f (x ) that is, f is neither even nor odd.

3(x ) 3x
c. f  x    2  f (x ) Therefore f is odd.
(x )  1 x  1
2

11
Example

The absolute value function, written as x . And defined by f (x ) x , x  0

x, x 0
.

12
Composite functions

Assume that f and g are two functions, the composite function f g is defined by
(f g )(x )  f ( g (x )) . It is evaluated in two steps: y  f (u ) , where u  g (x ) .The
domain of f g consist of all The domain of x in the domain of g such that u  g (x ) is
the domain of f .

13
Example

14
15
One-to-one and the Horizontal line test

A function f is one-to-one on a domain D if each value of f (x ) corresponds to exactly

one value of x in D . More precisely, f is one-to-one on D if f (x 1 )  f (x 2 ) whenever

x 1  x 2 , for x 1 and x 2 in D .

The horizontal line test says that every horizontal line intersects the graph of a one-to-one
function at most once.

Example
For each the following functions, use the horizontal line test to determine whether it is
one-to-one.

a. b.

16
Solution
a. Since the horizontal line y = n for any integer n ≥ 0 intersects the graph more than
once, this function is not one-to-one.

b. Since every horizontal line intersects the graph once (at most), this function is one-to-
one.

17
Inverse Functions
1
Given a function f (x ) with domain D and range R , the function f (x ) with domain R
1
and range D is the inverse function of f (x ) (if it exists) such that f (y )  x .

Not that f 1
(x ) is read as ( f inverse ). Here 1 is not used as an exponent and

1 1
f (x )  .
f (x )

Theorem: Existence of Inverse functions

Let f be one-to-one function on a domain D with a range R . Then f has a unique

1
inverse f with domain R and range D such that

1 1
f (f (x ))  x and f (f (y )  y

Where x is in D and y is in R .

Finding a Function’s Inverse

1. Solve the equation y  f  x  for x .

2. Interchange the variables x and y and write y  f 1

x  .

18
Example:
Find the inverse for the function f (x )  3x  4 . State the domain and range of the
inverse function. Verify that f -1( f (x)) = x.

Graphing Inverse Functions

When we graph f -1, the point (b, a) is on the graph. As a result, the graph of f -1 is a
reflection of the graph of f about the line y = x.

19
 a. The graph of this function f (x ) shows point (a, b ) on the graph of f (x ) .
1
b. Since (a, b ) is on the graph of f (x ) , the point (b , a ) is on the graph of f (x ) .

The graph of f 1
(x ) is a reflection of the graph of f (x ) about the line y  x .

1
Example: For the graph of f (x ) in the following image, sketch a graph of f (x ) by

sketching the line y  x and using symmetry. Identify the domain and range of f 1
(x ) .

20
Algebraic functions

1. Polynomial functions

Polynomials are functions of the form

f (x )  an x n  an 1x n 1   a1x  a0

where the positive integer n is the degree of polynomials and the coefficients
a0 , a1 , , an are real numbers.

It is clear that the quadratic and cubic functions are polynomials:

Consider a quadratic function f (x )  ax 2  bx  c . If a  0 , the values

f (x )   as x   . If a  0 , the values f (x )   as x   . The graph of
a quadratic function is a parabola, the parabola opens upwards if a  0 ; and its
opens downward if a  0 .

21
 Now consider a cubic function f (x )  ax 3  bx 2  cx  d . If a  0 , then
f (x )   as x   , and f (x )   as x   . If a  0 , then. f (x )  
as x   , and f (x )   as x   .

2. Rational functions
A rational function is a function that is the ratio of polynomials. Any function of
one variable, x, is called a rational function if, it can be represented as:

p (x )
f (x )  where p (x ) and q (x ) are Polynomials such that q (x )  0 .
q (x )

Domain of Rational Function

The domain of a rational function is the set of all x-values that the function can take. To
find the domain of a rational function y  f (x ) :

 Set the denominator ≠ 0 and solve it for x.

 Set of all real numbers other than the values of x mentioned in the last step is the
domain.

22
 2x  1
Example: Find the domain of f (x )  .
3x  2

Solution:

We set the denominator not equal to zero.

2  2
3x  2  0  x  Thus, the domain is x  x  .
3  3

Range of Rational Function

The range of a rational function is the set of all outputs (y-values) that it produces. To
find the range of a rational function y  f (x ) :

 If we have f(x) in the equation, replace it with y.

 Solve the equation for x.
 Set the denominator of the resultant equation ≠ 0 and solve it for y.
 Set of all real numbers other than the values of y mentioned in the last step is the
range.

2x  1
Example: Find the range of f (x )  .
3x  2

Solution:

2x  1
Let us replace f(x) with y. Then y  . Now, we will solve this for x.
3x  2

y (3x  2)  2x  1
3xy  2 y  2x  1
3xy  2x  2 y  1
x (3 y  2)  2 y  1

2y 1
x 
3y  2

23
 2  2
Now 3 y  2  0  y  So, the range is  y  y  .
3  3

Vertical Asymptote of a Rational Function

A Vertical Asymptote (VA) of a function is an imaginary vertical line to which its graph
appears to be very close but never touch. It is of the form x   ,   . Here, x   is
closely connected to the excluded values from the domain. But note that there cannot be a
vertical asymptote at x = some number if there is a hole at the same number. A rational
function may have one or more vertical asymptotes. So to find the vertical asymptotes of
a rational function:

 Simplify the function first to cancel all common factors (if any).
 Set the denominator = 0 and solve for (x) (or equivalently just get the excluded values
from the domain by avoiding the holes).

x 2  5x  6
Example: Find the vertical asymptotes of the function f (x )  .
x 2 x 2

Solution:

We have already seen that this function simplifies to

x 2  5x  6 (x  2)(x  3) x  3
f (x )  2   .
x  x  2 (x  2)(x  1) x  1

Setting the denominator to 0, we get

x 1  0  x  1

Thus, there is a VA of the given rational function is, x  1 .

24
Horizontal Asymptote of a Rational Function

A Horizontal Asymptote (HA) of a function is an imaginary horizontal line to which its

graph appears to be very close but never touch. It is of the form y   ,   . Here,

y   is closely connected to the excluded values from the range. A rational function can have
at most one horizontal asymptote. Easy way to find the horizontal asymptote of a rational
function is using the degrees of the numerator (N) and denominators (D).

 If N < D, then there is a HA at y = 0.

 If N > D, then there is no HA.
 If N = D, then the HA is y = ratio of the leading coefficients.

x 2  5x  6
Example: Find the horizontal asymptote (if any) of the function f (x )  .
x 2 x 2

Solution:

Here the degree of the numerator is, N = 2, and the degree of the denominator is, D = 2.

Since N = D, the HA is y = (leading coefficient of numerator) / (leading coefficient of

denominator) = 1/1 = 1.

Thus, the HA is y = 1.

25
 3. Power function
Power function includes linear functions, quadratic functions, cubic functions and
square root functions, provided that they are single term.
A one-term function with a variable as the base and a constant as the exponent.
The exponent in the case of a power function is always a constant and a real
number.
The general form of a power function is,
f (x )  kx  where  and k are non-zero real number

Example:
The basic form of the rule of a square root function is f (x )  x . The standard form of

the rule of the square root function is f (x )  a b  x  h   k where a is not equal to

zero and b > 0. The square root function is a particular case of an nth root function.

26
 Its domain is [0, ] and its range is [0, ] .

Finding the slope and equations of lines

Consider a line passing through the point (x 1 , y 1 ) with slope m. The equation

y  y 1  m (x  x 1 )
is the point-slope equation for that line.
Consider a line with slope m and y-intercept (0, b ) . The equation
y  mx  b
is an equation for that line in slope-intercept form.
The standard form of a line is given by the equation:
ax  by  c , where a and b are both not zero.
This form is more general because it allows for a vertical line x=k.

27
Example: Consider the line passing through the points (11, 4) and (4,5) , as shown in
the following graph.

a. Find the slope of the line.

b. Find an equation for this linear function in point-slope form.
c. Find an equation for this linear function in slope-intercept form.
Solution:

The Quadratic Formula

Consider the quadratic equation
ax 2  bx  c  0 ,
where a  0 . The solutions of the equation are given by the quadratic formula

b  b 2  4ac
x  That is
2a
1. If b 2  4ac  0 , there are two real number satisfy the quadratic equation.
b
2. If b 2  4ac  0 , there is only one solution and it is x  .
2a
3. If b 2  4ac  0 , the quadratic formula has no solution.

28
29
Example: For each of the following functions, find the domain and range.
3x  1
a. f (x ) 
5x  2

b. f (x )  4  x 2

30
Example: For each of the following functions, determine the domain of the function.
3
a. f (x ) 
x 1
2

2x  5
b. f (x ) 
3x 2  4
c. f (x )  4  3x

d. f (x )  3 2x  1
Solution

Piecewise-Defined Functions
Sometimes a function is defined by different formulas on different parts of its domain. A
function with this property is known as a piecewise-defined function. The absolute value
function is an example of a piecewise-defined function because the formula changes with
the sign of :
 1
x , x 0 x sin if x  0
f (x )   f (x )   x
 x, x 0 
 if x  0
Other piecewise-defined functions may be represented by completely different formulas,
depending on the part of the domain in which a point falls. To graph a piecewise-defined
function, we graph each part of the function in its respective domain, on the same
coordinate system. If the formula for a function is different for and , we
need to pay special attention to what happens at when we graph the function.

31
Example:

Example: Sketch a graph of the following piecewise-defined function:

x  3, x 1
f (x )   .
(x  2) , x 1
2

Solution:

32
Non Algebraic functions(transcendental function)

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Exponential have the form f (x )  b x , where the base b  1 is a positive real number.

Properties of Exponential Functions f (x )  b x

1. Because b x is defined for all real numbers, the domain of f (x ) is .

Because b x  0 for all values of x , the range of f (x ) is (0, ) .

2. For b  1 , b 0  1 , and thus f (0)  1 .

3. If b  1 , then f (x )  b x is an increasing function of x .

33
 4. If 0  b  1, then f (x )  b x is an decreasing function of x .

The Natural Exponential Function

The natural exponential function is f (x )  e x , which has the base
e  2.718281828459

Laws of Exponents
For any constants a  0, b  0 , and for all x and y ,

1. b x .b y  b x  y
bx
2.  b x y
by

b 
y
3. x
 b xy

ab   ax b x
x
4.

34
 x
ax  a 
5.  
bx b 
y
6. x
b b
y x

Logarithmic Functions
The exponential function f (x )  b x is one-to-one, with domain and range
. Therefore, it has an inverse function, called the logarithmic function with base
. For any , , the logarithmic function with base b, denoted logb , has

domain and range , and satisfies

logb (x )  y if and only if b y  x .

Example:

The Natural Logarithmic Functions

The natural logarithmic function y = log e x is abbreviated y = ln x and is the inverse of
the natural exponential function y = e x.

35
The function y  e x and y  ln x are inverse of each other, so their graphs are symmetric
about the line y  x .
The laws of logarithms:

For any constants a  0, b  0 , and for all x and y ,

1. logb (1)  0

2. logb (b )  1

3. logb (xy )  logb (x )  logb ( y )

x 
4. logb    logb (x )  logb ( y )
y 

m 
5. logb n (x m )     logb (x )
n

1
6. logb (x ) 
log x (b )

7. b logb ( x )  x

36
Example: Solve each of the following equation for x .
a. 5x  2
b. e x  6e  x  5
Solution:

Now we can solve the quadratic equation, we obtain

(e x  3)(e x  2)  0 .

Therefore, the solutions satisfy e x  3 and e x  2 . Taking the natural logarithm of both
sides give us the solutions x  ln 3 , x  ln 2 .

e 2x 1
Example: Solve  . Home work.
(3  e ) 2
2x

37
Change of Base Formulas

Let a  0, b  0 , and a  1, b  1 .

1. a x  b x logb a for any real number x.

If b  e , this equation become a x  e x loge a  e x ln a .
logb (x )
2. loga (x )  for any real number x  0 .
logb (a )
ln x
If b  e , this equation become loga (x )  .
ln a

Example: logb (xy )  logb (x )  logb ( y ) Solve each of the following equations for x.

a. ln    
1
x 

b. log10 x  log10 (x )  2

c. ln(2x )  ln  x 5   0

Solution:

a. By definition ln     if and only if  e 

1 1
x  x
1 1
That is  e  x   .
x e
b. Using the product and power properties:
log10 x  log10 (x )  2  log10 x x  2
3
log10 x x  2  log10 x 2  2
3
3 2
log10 x 2  2  log10 x  2 
2 3
4
4
log10 x  therefore x  10 3  10 3 10 .
3

c. ln(2x )  ln  x 6   0  ln  6 
2x
0
x 

 2  2 2
ln  5   0  5  e 0  5  1
x  x x

38
 2
That is 5
1  x  5 2
x
Example: Solve ln  x 3   4ln(x )  1 . Home work.

Trigonometric Functions and their Inverse

The ratio of sides of a right triangle, are used to define the six trigonometric functions
associated with one of the acute angles of a right triangle. These definitions can then be
extended to apply to positive and negative angles associated with a point moving on a
unit circle.
Suppose that P (x , y ) be a point on circle of radius r associated with the angle  . Then

y x y
sin   cos   tan  
r r x

x r r
cot   sec   csc  
y x y

39
Trigonometric Identities

A trigonometric identity is an equation involving trigonometric functions that is true for

all angles  for which the functions are defined. We can use the identities to help us
solve or simplify equations. The main trigonometric identities are listed next.

Reciprocal Identities
sin  cos 
tan   cot  
cos  sin 
1 1
csc   sec  
sin  cos 
Pythagorean Identities
sin 2   cos2   1
1  tan 2   sec2 
1  cot 2   csc2 
Addition and subtraction formulas
sin(   )  sin( ) cos( )  cos( )sin( )
cos(   )  cos( ) cos(  )  sin( )sin( )
Double- angle formulas
sin(2 )  2sin  cos 

cos(2 )  2cos2   1
 1  2sin 2 
 cos2   sin 2 
Period function
A function f (x ) is periodic if there is a positive number p such that f (x  p )  f (x ) for
every value of x . The smallest such value of p is the period of f (x ) .
Period of Trigonometric function
The function sin  ,cos ,sec , and csc have a period of 2 :
sin(  2 )  sin  cos(  2 )  cos
sec(  2 )  sec csc(  2 )  csc
For all  in the domain.

40
The function tan  and cot  have a period of  :
tan(   )  tan  cot(   )  cot 
For all  in the domain.

Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions

41
Example: Solve the problem exactly: 2sin 2   1  0, 0    2 .

Solution:

As this problem is not easily factored, we will solve using the square root property. First,
we use algebra to isolate sin  . Then we will find the angles.

2sin 2   1  0

2sin 2   1

1
sin 2  
2

1
sin   
2

 3 5 7
 , , ,
4 4 4 4

Example: Identify all exact solutions to the equation 2(tan   3)  5  tan  , 0    2 .

Solution:

We can solve this equation using only algebra. Isolate the expression tan  on the left side
of the equals sign.

2(tan   3)  5  tan 

2 tan   6  5  tan 

2 tan   tan   5  6

tan   1

There are two angles on the unit circle that have

3 7
a tangent value of −1:   , .
4 4

42
 1 1 2
Example: Prove that  
csc   cot  csc  cot  sin 

Proof: Taking left hand side,

1 1 csc   cot   csc   cot 

 
csc   cot  csc   cot  csc2   cot 2 
csc   csc 

csc2   cot 2 
csc   csc 
 since csc2   cot 2   1
csc2   cot 2 
2 csc  2
  .
1 sin 
Is equal to right hand side.
1  sin 
  sec   tan  
2
Example: Prove that
1  sin 

1  sin 
Proof: Taking left hand side 
1  sin 

Multiply both numerator and denominator by (1  sin  )

1  sin  1  sin 
 
1  sin  1  sin 

1  sin  
2

 since cos2   1  sin 2  

1  sin  2

1  sin  
2
 1  sin  
2

  
cos 2   cos  

sin  
2
 1
     sec  tan  .
2

 cos cos 
Is equal to right hand side.
3 1
Example: Find sin  and tan  where     for which cos    .
2 3

Solution: Home work

43
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The inverse trigonometric functions are defined in the following table. The inverse
trigonometric functions can be graphed by interchanging the axes on the graphs of the
trigonometric functions as illustrated in the following figures. Observe that these inverse
functions are multi-valued functions and consequently one must define an interval
associated with each inverse function such that the inverse function becomes a single-
valued function. This is called selecting a branch of the function such that it is single-
valued.

To graph the inverse trigonometric functions, we use the graphs of the trigonometric
functions restricted to the domains defined earlier and reflect the graphs about the line,
.

44
The graph of each of the inverse trigonometric functions is a reflection about the line
of the corresponding restricted trigonometric function.

Example: Evaluate each the following expressions.

 3
a. sin 1   
 2 

  1 
b. tan  tan 1   
  3 

  5  
c. cos 1  cos  
  4 

  3 
d. sin 1  cos  
  2 

45
Solution:

There are many different intervals over which each inverse trigonometric function can be
made into a single-valued function. These different intervals are referred to as branches
of the inverse trigonometric functions. Whenever a particular branch is required for
certain problems, then by agreement these branches are called principal branches and
are always used in doing calculations. The following table gives one way of defining
principal value branches for the inverse trigonometric functions.

46
These branches are highlighted in the figure

The Hyperbolic Functions

Functions that related to the exponential functions ex and e-x are the hyperbolic functions
These functions are defined
The hyperbolic functions are related to equilateral hyperbola and hence the name
hyperbolic functions.

The hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of certain combinations of ex and e-x.

47
Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions

48
49
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

50
 Chapter Two
2.1 A Preview of Calculus
2.2 The Limit of a Function
2.3 The Limit Laws
2.4 Continuity
2.5 The Precise Definition of a Limit

The Tangent Problem and Differential Calculus

Rate of change is one of the most critical concepts in calculus. We begin our
investigation of rates of change by looking at the graphs of the three lines

, , and , shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2: The rate of change of a linear function is constant in each of these
three graphs, with the constant determined by the slope.

51
As we move from left to right along the graph of , we see that the graph
decreases at a constant rate. For every unit we move to the right along the x-axis, the y-
coordinate decreases by units. This rate of change is determined by the slope of
the line.
Similarly, the slope of in the function tells us that for every change in x of
unit there is a corresponding change in of unit.

The function has a slope of zero, indicating that the values of the function
remain constant. We see that the slope of each linear function indicates the rate of change
of the function.

Compare the graphs of these three functions with the graph of (Figure 2.3).
The graph of starts from the left by decreasing rapidly, then begins to decrease
more slowly and level off, and then finally begins to increase slowly at first, followed by
an increasing rate of increase as it moves toward the right. Unlike a linear function, no
single number represents the rate of change for this function.
We quite naturally ask: How do we measure the rate of change of a nonlinear function?

We can approximate the rate of change of a function at a point on its

graph by taking another point on the graph of , drawing a line through the
two points, and calculating the slope of the resulting line. Such a line is called a secant
line. Figure 2.4 shows a secant line to a function at a point .

52
Definition 2.1: The secant to the function through the points and
is the line passing through these points. Its slope is given by

As we see in Figure 2.5,6, if x is closer to a, the slope of the secant line is a better
measure of the rate of change of f (x) at a.

Figure 2.5: As gets closer to, , the slope of the secant line becomes a better
approximation to the rate
of change of the function at .
Figure 2.6: Solving the Tangent Problem: As approaches, the secant lines approach
the tangent line.

Example) Finding Slopes of Secant Lines:-

Estimate the slope of the tangent line (rate of change) to at by finding
slopes of secant lines through and each of the following points on the graph of,
.

53
 a. b.

Solution:
Use the formula for the slope of a secant line from the definition.

a. b.

The point in part is closer to the point, , so the slope of is closer to the slope
of the tangent line. A good estimate for the slope of the tangent would be in the range of
to . (Figure 2.7).

(a) (b)

Figure 2.7: The secant lines to at through and

provide successively closer approximations to the tangent line to at .

2.1 Estimate the slope of the tangent line (rate of change) to at by

finding slopes of secant lines through and the point on the graph of

The speed of an object traveling at a constant rate is the ratio of the distance traveled to
the length of time it has traveled. We define the average velocity of an object over a time
period to be the change in its position divided by the length of the time period.

Definition 2.2: Let be the position of an object moving along a coordinate axis at
time . The average velocity of the object over a time interval where (or
if ) is

54
As is chosen closer to , the average velocity becomes closer to the instantaneous
velocity. Note that finding the average velocity of a position function over a time interval
is essentially the same as finding the slope of a secant line to a function.

Furthermore, to find the slope of a tangent line at a point , we let the x-values approach
in the slope of the secant line.

Similarly, to find the instantaneous velocity at time , we let the t-values approach in
the average velocity. This process of letting or approach in an expression is called
taking a limit. Thus, we may define the instantaneous velocity as follows.

Definition 2.3: For a position function , the instantaneous velocity at a time

is the value that the average velocities approach on intervals of the form and
as the values of become closer to , provided such a value exists.

Example 2.2 Finding Average Velocity

A rock is dropped from a height of ft. It is determined that its height (in feet) above
ground t seconds later (for ) is given by .
Find the average velocity of the rock over each of the given time intervals.
Use this information to guess the instantaneous velocity of the rock at time, .

a. [0.49, 0.5]
b. [0.5, 0.51]

Solution: Substitute the data into the formula for the definition of average velocity.

a.

b.

The instantaneous velocity is somewhere between and ft/sec. A good

guess might be ft/sec.

2.2 An object moves along a coordinate axis so that its position at time is given by
. Estimate its instantaneous velocity at time by computing its average
velocity over the time interval, .

55
2.2 The Limit of a Function
We begin our exploration of limits by taking a look at the graphs of the functions

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.12: These graphs show the behavior of three different functions around, .
Each of the three functions is undefined at, , but if we make this statement and no
other, we give a very incomplete picture of how each function behaves in the vicinity of
.

Intuitive Definition of a Limit

As the values of approach from either side of , the values of approach .
Mathematically, we say that the limit of as approaches is . Symbolically, we
express this limit as

Definition 2.4: Let be a function defined at all values in an open interval containing
, with the possible exception of itself, and let be a real number. If all values of the
function approach the real number as the values of approach the number
, then we say that the limit of as approaches is . (More succinct, as gets
closer to , gets closer and stays close to .) Symbolically, we express this idea as

Evaluating a Limit Using a Table of Functional Values:

1-To evaluate , we begin by completing a table of functional values

56
2-look at the values in each of the f (x) columns and determine whether the values seem
to be approaching a single value as we move down each column.
3-If both columns approach a common -value , we state .

Example 2.4: Evaluating a Limit Using a Table of Functional Values 1

Evaluate

using a table of functional values.

Solution: We have calculated the values of for the values of listed in

table 2.2 .

We see that the values in each column appear to be approaching one. Thus, it is fairly

reasonable to conclude that

57
Example 2.5: Evaluate using a table of functional values.

Solution: We use a Table 2.3 to list the values of the function for the given values of x.

We see that the functional values less than 4 appear to be decreasing toward 0.25 where
as the functional values greater than 4 appear to be increasing toward 0.25. We conclude
that

Figure 2.14 The graph of f (x) = x – 2 x

− 4 confirms the estimate from Table 2.3.

58
2.4 Estimate using a table of functional values. Use a graph to confirm your

estimate.

Example 2.7: Evaluating a Limit That Fails to Exist

Evaluate using a table of values.

Solution:
Table 2.5 lists values for the function for the given values of .

We can see that the y-values do not seem to approach any one single value. It appears the
limit does not exist.
Before drawing this conclusion, let’s take a more systematic approach. Take the
following sequence of x-values approaching 0:

The corresponding y-values are

At this point we can indeed conclude that does not exist. (Mathematicians

frequently abbreviate “does not exist” as DNE.

The graph of is shown in Figure 2.17 and it gives a clearer picture of the

behavior of as approaches . You can see that oscillates ever more wildly

between and as approaches, .

59
Figure 2.17: The graph of oscillates rapidly

between −1 and 1 as x approaches 0.

One-Sided Limits
Definition 2.5: We define two types of one-sided limits.
Limit from the left:
Let be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the form , and let be
a real number. If the values of the function approach the real number as the values
of (where ) approach the number , then we say that is the limit of as
approaches a from the left. Symbolically, we express this idea as

Limit from the right:

Let be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the form , and let
be a real number. If the values of the function approach the real number as the
values of (where ) approach the number , then we say that is the limit of
as approaches from the right. Symbolically, we express this idea as

Example 2.8: Evaluating One-Sided Limits

For the function, , evaluate each of the following limits.

(a).
(b).

60
Solution: We can use tables of functional values again Table 2.6. Observe that for values
of x less than 2, we use and for values of greater than , we use
.

Based on this table, we can conclude that

(a).
(b). .
Therefore, the (two-sided) limit of does not exist at .
Figure 2.18 shows a graph of and reinforces our conclusion about these limits.

Figure 2.18: The graph of

has a break at .

2.7 Use a table of functional values to estimate the following limits, if possible.

61
Theorem: Relating One-Sided and Two-Sided Limits
Let be a function defined at all values in an open interval containing , with the
possible exception of itself, and let be a real number. Then,

Infinite Limits
Definition 2.6: We define three types of infinite limits.
Infinite limits from the left:
Let be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the form .
i. If the values of increase without bound as the values of (where )
approach the number , then we say that the limit as approaches from the left is
positive infinity and we write

ii. If the values of decrease without bound as the values of (where )

approach the number , then we say that the limit as approaches from the left is
negative infinity and we write

Infinite limits from the right:

Let be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the form .
i. If the values of increase without bound as the values of (where )
approach the number , then we say that the limit as approaches from the right is
positive infinity and we write

ii. If the values of decrease without bound as the values of (where )

approach the number , then we say that the limit as approaches from the right is
negative infinity and we write

Two-sided infinite limit:

Let be defined for all in an open interval containing .

62
i. If the values of increase without bound as the values of (where )
approach the number , then we say that the limit as approaches is positive
infinity and we write

ii. If the values of decrease without bound as the values of (where )

approach the number , then we say that the limit as approaches is negative
infinity and we write

It is important to understand that when we write statements such as

or we are describing the behavior of the function, as we have just
defined it. We are not asserting that a limit exists(DNE).
For the limit of to exist at , it must approach a real number as approaches .

Example 2.9: Recognizing an Infinite Limit

Evaluate each of the following limits, if possible. Use a table of functional values and

graph to confirm your conclusion.

Solution: Begin by constructing a table of functional values.

a) The values of decrease without bound as approaches from the left. We conclude

that

63
b) The values of increase without bound as approaches from the right. We

conclude that

c) Since and have different values, we conclude that

The graph of in Figure 2.19 confirms these conclusions.

Figure 2.19: The graph of confirms that

the limit as x approaches 0 does not exist.

2.8. Evaluate each of the following limits, if possible. Use a table of functional values

and graph to confirm your conclusion.

It is useful to point out that functions of the form where is a positive

integer, have infinite limits as approaches from either the left or right (Figure 2.20).

These limits are summarized in Infinite Limits from Positive Integers.

64
Figure 2.20: The function

has infinite limits at a.

Theorem 2.3: Infinite Limits from Positive Integers

If n is a positive even integer, then

If n is a positive odd integer, then

and

In the graphs of , points on the graph having x-coordinates very near to

are very close to the vertical line . That is, as approaches , the points on the
graph of are closer to the line . The line is called a vertical asymptote
of the graph. We formally define a vertical asymptote as follows:
Definition 2.7: Let be a function. If any of the following conditions hold, then the
line is a vertical asymptote of .

or

Example 2.10: Finding a Vertical Asymptote

Evaluate each of the following limits using Infinite Limits from Positive Integers.
Identify any vertical asymptotes of the function .

65
Solution: We can use Infinite Limits from Positive Integers directly.

The function has a vertical asymptote of .

2.9 Evaluate each of the following limits. Identify any vertical asymptotes of the

function, .

Example 2.11: Behavior of a Function at Different Points

Use the graph of in Figure 2.21 to determine each of the following values:

Figure 2.21: The graph shows .

Solution: Using Infinite Limits from Positive Integers and the graph for reference, we
arrive at the following values:

66
2.3 The Limit Laws
Evaluating Limits with the Limit Laws
The first two limit laws were stated in Two Important Limits. These basic results,
together with the other limit laws, allow us to evaluate limits of many algebraic functions.

Theorem 2.4: Basic Limit Results

For any real number and any constant,
i.
ii.

Example 2.13: Evaluating a Basic Limit

Evaluate each of the following limits using Basic Limit Results.

Solution:
a) The limit of as approaches is :

b) The limit of a constant is that constant:

Theorem 2.5: Limit Laws

Let and be defined for all over some open interval containing .
Assume that and are real numbers such that and .
Let be a constant. Then, each of the following statements
holds:

67
Example 2.14: Evaluating a Limit Using Limit Laws
Use the limit laws to evaluate

Solution:

Example 2.15: Using Limit Laws Repeatedly

Use the limit laws to evaluate

Solution: To find this limit, we need to apply the limit laws several times. Again, we
need to keep in mind that as we rewrite the limit in terms of other limits, each new limit
must exist for the limit law to be applied.

68
Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions
Theorem 2.6: Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions
Let and be polynomial functions. Let be a real number. Then,

and the general form of polynomial function has the form

Example 2.16: Evaluating a Limit of a Rational Function

Evaluate the

Solution: Since 3 is in the domain of the rational function , we can

calculate the limit by substituting for into the function. Thus,

2.12 Evaluate

Additional Limit Evaluation Techniques

Consider the limit

69
The function

and the function are identical for all values of . The graphs of these
two functions are shown in Figure 2.24.

Figure 2.24: The

graphs of and are
identical for all
. Their limits at are equal.

We see that

The limit has the form , where and . (In

this case, we say that has the indeterminate form .)

Example 2.17: Evaluating a Limit by Factoring and Canceling

Evaluate

Solution:

Step 1. The function is undefined for . In fact, if we substitute

into the function we get , which is undefined. Factoring and canceling is a good strategy:

70
Step 2. For all ,

Therefore,

Step 3. Evaluate using the limit laws:

2.13 Evaluate

Example 2.18: Evaluating a Limit by Multiplying by a Conjugate

Evaluate

Solution

Step 1. has the form at . Let’s begin by multiplying by , the

conjugate of , on the numerator and denominator:

Step 2. We then multiply out the numerator. We don’t multiply out the denominator
because we are hoping that the in the denominator cancels out in the end:

Step 3. Then we cancel:

Step 4. Last, we apply the limit laws:

2.14 Evaluate .

71
Example 2.19: Evaluating a Limit by Simplifying a Complex Fraction
Evaluate

Solution:

Step 1. has the form at . We simplify the algebraic fraction by multiplying by

Step 2. Next, we multiply through the numerators. Do not multiply the denominators
because we want to be able to cancel the factor :

Step 3. Then, we simplify the numerator:

Step 4. Now we factor out −1 from the numerator:

Step 5. Then, we cancel the common factors of (x − 1):

Step 6. Last, we evaluate using the limit laws:

2.15 Evaluate

Example 2.20: Evaluating a Limit When the Limit Laws Do Not Apply
Evaluate

72
Solution:
Both and fail to have a limit at zero. Since neither of the two functions has a

limit at zero, we cannot apply the sum law for limits; we must use a different strategy. In
this

Thus,

2.16 Evaluate

Example 2.21: Evaluating a One-Sided Limit Using the Limit Laws

Evaluate each of the following limits, if possible.

a.
b.
Solution:
Figure 2.25 illustrates the function and aids in our understanding of these
limits.

Figure 2.25: The graph shows the function

.

a. The function is defined over the interval . Since this function

is not defined to the left of , we cannot apply the limit laws to compute

In fact, since is undefined to the left of ,

73
b. Since is defined to the right of , the limit laws do apply to

By applying these limit laws we obtain

Example 2.22: Evaluating a Two-Sided Limit Using the Limit Laws

For , evaluate each of the following limits:

Solution:
Figure 2.26 illustrates the function f (x) and aids in our understanding of these limits.

Figure 2.26 This graph shows a function

.

a. Since for all x in , replace in the limit with and

apply the limit laws:

b. Since for all in , replace in the limit with

and apply the limit laws:

c. Since and , we conclude that does

not exist.

74
2.17 Graph and evaluate

We now turn our attention to evaluating a limit of the form

where

where and

That is, has the form , at .

Example 2.23: Evaluating a Limit of the Form , Using the Limit Laws

Evaluate

Solution:
Step 1. After substituting in , we see that this limit has the form . That is, as

approaches from the left, the numerator approaches ; and the denominator
approaches . Consequently, the magnitude of

becomes infinite. To get a better idea of what the limit is, we need to factor the
denominator:

Step 2. Since is the only part of the denominator that is zero when is substituted,

we then separate from the rest of the function:

75
Step 3. and .

Therefore, the product of and has a limit of :

2.18 Evaluate

Theorem 2.7: The Squeeze Theorem

Let , , and be defined for all over an open interval containing . If

for all in an open interval containing and

where is a real number, then

Example 2.24: Applying the Squeeze Theorem

Apply the squeeze theorem to evaluate

Solution:
Because for all , we have . Since

from the squeeze theorem, we obtain

The graphs of , , and are shown in Figure 2.28.

76
 Figure 2.28 The graphs of , , and are
shown around the point .

2.19 Use the squeeze theorem to evaluate

In the figure 2.29, we see that is the -coordinate on the unit circle and it
corresponds to the line segment shown in blue. The radian measure of angle is the
length of the arc it subtends on the unit circle. Therefore, we see that for ,

Figure 2.29: The sine function is shown as a line on the unit circle.

Because

by using the squeeze theorem we conclude that

To see that as well, observe that for – , and

hence, .

77
Consequently, . It follows that .
An application of the squeeze theorem produces the desired limit. Thus, since

and

then

Next, using the identity for – we see that

We now take a look at a limit that plays an important role namely,

To evaluate this limit, we use the unit circle in Figure 2.30. Notice that this figure adds
one additional triangle to Figure 2.30. We see that the length of the side opposite angle
in this new triangle is .
Thus, we see that for , .

Figure 2.30 The sine and tangent functions are shown as lines on the unit circle.

78
By dividing by in all parts of the inequality, we obtain

Equivalently, we have

Since

we conclude that

By applying a manipulation similar to that used in demonstrating that, we can show that

Thus,

In Example 2.25 we use this limit to establish

Example 2.25: Evaluating an Important Trigonometric Limit

Evaluate

Solution:
In the first step, we multiply by the conjugate so that we can use a trigonometric identity
to convert the cosine in the numerator to a sine:

79
Therefore,

2.20 Evaluate .

80
2.4. Continuity
Continuity at a Point
Consider various functions that fail to be continuous at a point. We then create a list of
conditions that prevent such failures.

In Figure 2.32 the graph of has a hole at, . In fact, is undefined. At the very
least, for to be continuous at , we need the following condition:

Figure 2.32: The function is not continuous at because is undefined.

In Figure 2.33, this condition alone is insufficient to guarantee continuity at the point a.
Although is defined, the function has a gap at, . In this example, the gap exists
because does not exist.
We must add another condition for continuity at —namely,

Figure 2.33: The function is not continuous at because does

not exist.

81
In Figure 2.34, these two conditions by themselves do not guarantee continuity at a point.
The function in this figure satisfies both of our first two conditions, but is still not
continuous at a. We must add a third condition to our list:

Figure 2.34: The function is not continuous at a because

does not exist.

Definition 2.8: A function is continuous at a point if and only if the following

three conditions are satisfied:

A function is discontinuous at a point if it fails to be continuous at .

Problem-Solving Strategy: Determining Continuity at a Point
1. Check to see if is defined. If is undefined, we need go no further. The
function is not continuous at . If is defined, continue to step 2.
2. Compute, . In some cases, we may need to do this by first computing

If does not exist (that is, it is not a real number), then the function is not
continuous at and the problem is solved. If exists, then continue to
step 3.
3. Compare and . If , then the function is not
continuous at . If , then the function is continuous at .
Example 2.26: Determining Continuity at a Point, Condition 1

82
Using the definition, determine whether the function is continuous at .

Justify the conclusion.

Solution:

To calculate we can see that , which is undefined. Therefore,

is discontinuous at because is undefined. The graph of is shown in Figure

2.35.

Figure 2.35: The function is discontinuous at because

is undefined.

Example 2.27: Determining Continuity at a Point, Condition 2

Using the definition, determine whether the function

is continuous at x = 3. Justify the conclusion.

Solution:
Calculate . . Thus, is defined. Next, we calculate
. To do this, we must compute and :

and

Therefore, does not exist. Thus, is not continuous at . The graph of is shown
in Figure 2.36.

83
 Figure 2.35: The function is not continuous at
because does not exists.

Example 2.28: Determining Continuity at a Point, Condition 3

Using the definition, determine whether the following function is continuous at .

Solution: First, observe that .

Next,

Last, compare and we see that

Since all three of the conditions in the definition of continuity are satisfied, is
continuous at .

2.21 Using the definition, determine whether the following function is continuous at x
= 1.

Theorem 2.8: Continuity of Polynomials and Rational Functions

Polynomials and rational functions are continuous at every point in their domains.

Example 2.29: Continuity of a Rational Function

84
For what values of is continuous?

Solution: The rational function is continuous for every value of except

2.22 For what values of is continuous?

Types of Discontinuities
From Example 2.26 and Example 2.27 we classify the types of discontinuities we have
seen thus far as removable discontinuities, infinite discontinuities, or jump
discontinuities.

1. A removable discontinuity is a discontinuity for which there is a hole in the graph.

2. A jump discontinuity is a non infinite discontinuity for which the sections of the
function do not meet up.
3. An infinite discontinuity is a discontinuity located at a vertical asymptote.

Figure 2.37 illustrates the differences in these types of discontinuities.

Figure 2.37 Discontinuities are classified

as (a) removable, (b) jump, or (c) infinite.

Definition 2.9: If is discontinuous at , then

1. has a removable discontinuity at if exists. (Note: When we state

that exists, we mean that , where is a real number.)
2. has a jump discontinuity at if and both exist, but

85
 (Note: When we state that and both exist, we mean that
both are real-valued and that neither take on the values .)
3. has an infinite discontinuity at if or .

Example 2.30: Classifying a Discontinuity

In Example 2.26, we showed that is discontinuous at . Classify this

discontinuity as removable, jump, or infinite.

Solution: To classify the discontinuity at we must evaluate :

Since f is discontinuous at 2 and exists, has a removable discontinuity at .

Example 2.31: Classifying a Discontinuity

In Example 2.27, we showed that

is discontinuous at . Classify this discontinuity as removable, jump, or infinite.

Solution: Earlier, we showed that is discontinuous at because does not
exist. However, since

both exist, we conclude that the function has a jump discontinuity at .

Example 2.32: Classifying a Discontinuity

Determine whether is continuous at . If the function is discontinuous at

, classify the discontinuity as removable, jump, or infinite.

Solution:
The function value is undefined. Therefore, the function is not continuous at .
To determine the type of discontinuity, we must determine the limit at . We see that

Therefore, the function has an infinite discontinuity at .

86
2.23 For the following function decide whether is continuous at . If is not
continuous at , classify the discontinuity as removable, jump, or infinite.

Continuity over an Interval

Continuity from the Right and from the Left
A function is said to be continuous from the right at if

A function is said to be continuous from the left at if

Example 2.33: Continuity on an Interval

State the interval(s) over which the following function is continuous.

Solution:
Since is a rational function, it is continuous at every point in its domain.

The domain of is the set, . Thus, f (x) is continuous

over each of the intervals, .

Example 2.34: Continuity over an Interval

State the interval(s) over which the function is continuous.
Solution: From the limit laws, we know that

for all values of in . We also know that

exists and

exists. Therefore, is continuous over the interval .

87
2.24 State the interval(s) over which the function is continuous.

Theorem 2.9: Composite Function Theorem

If is continuous at and

then

Example 2.35: Limit of a Composite Cosine Function

Evaluate

Solution: The given function is a composite of and – . Since

and is continuous at 0, we may apply the composite function theorem. Thus,

2.25 Evaluate .

Theorem 2.10: Continuity of Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric functions are continuous over their entire domains.

2.5 The Precise Definition of a Limit

Quantifying Closeness
The distance between two points and on a number line is given by .
• The statement may be interpreted as:
• The distance between and is less than .
• The statement may be interpreted as:
• and the distance between and is less than .
It is also important to look at the following equivalences for absolute value:
• The statement is equivalent to the statement .

88
• The statement is equivalent to the statement and
.
With these clarifications, we can state the formal epsilon-delta definition of the limit.

Definition 2.10: Let be defined for all over an open interval containing .
Let be a real number. Then

if, for every , there exists a , such that if , then

.

Table 2.9:
Translation of the
Epsilon-Delta
Definition of the Limit

Figure 2.39:
These graphs
show possible
values of ,
given
successively

89
 smaller
choices of .

Example 2.39: Proving a Statement about the Limit of a Specific Function

Prove that

Solution:
Let .
Choose .

Assume . Thus,

Therefore, .

We may also find through geometric methods. Figure 2.40 demonstrates how this is
done.

Figure 2.40 This graph shows how we find δ

geometrically.

90
Problem-Solving Strategy: Proving That for a Specific Function

1. Let’s begin the proof with the following statement: Let .

2. Next, we need to obtain a value for . After we have obtained this value, we make the
following statement, filling in the blank with our choice of : Choose

3. The next statement in the proof should be (at this point, we fill in our given value for
): Assume .
4. Next, based on this assumption, we need to show that , where
and are our function and our limit . At some point, we need to use
.
5. We conclude our proof with the statement: Therefore, .

Example 2.40: Proving a Statement about a Limit

Complete the proof that by filling in the blanks.
Let .
Choose .

Assume (or equivalently, .)

Thus, .

2.27 Complete the proof that by filling in the blanks.

Example 2.41: Proving a Statement about the Limit of a Specific Function

(Geometric Approach)
Prove that

91
Solution:
We must show: If , then , so we must begin by assuming
.
We don’t really need (in other words, ) for this proof. Since
, it is okay to drop
Hence, .
Recall that . Thus, and consequently
. We also use here. We might ask at this point:
Why did we substitute for on the left-hand side of the inequality and
on the right-hand side of the inequality? If we look at Figure 2.41, we see
that corresponds to the distance on the left of on the x-axis and
corresponds to the distance on the right. Thus,

We simplify the expression on the left:

Then, we add to all parts of the inequality:

We square all parts of the inequality. It is okay to do so, since all parts of the inequality
are positive:

We subtract from all parts of the inequality:

Last,

Therefore,

Choose . Figure 2.41 shows how we made this choice

of .

92
 Figure 2.41: This graph shows how we find

geometrically for a given for the proof in

Example 2.41.

2.28 Find corresponding to for a proof that .

Example 2.42: Proving a Statement about the Limit of a Specific Function

Prove that

Solution: Let’s use our outline from the Problem-Solving Strategy:

1. Let .
2. Choose . This choice of may appear odd at first glance, but it was
obtained by taking a look at our ultimate desired inequality: . This
inequality is equivalent to . At this point, the temptation simply to
choose is very strong. Unfortunately, our choice of must depend on ε only and

no other variable. If we can replace by a numerical value, our problem can be

resolved. This is the place where assuming comes into play.
The choice of here is arbitrary. We could have just as easily used any other
positive number. In some proofs, greater care in this choice may be necessary. Now,
since and , we are able to show that . Consequently,
. At this point we realize that we also need . Thus,
we choose .

93
3. Assume . Thus,

Since , we may conclude that . Thus, by subtracting from

all parts of the inequality, we obtain . Consequently, . This
gives us

Therefore,

Proving Limit Laws:

We use the epsilon-delta definition of a limit to construct a rigorous proof of one of the
limit laws. The triangle inequality is used at a key point of the proof, so we first review
this key property of absolute value.

Definition 2.11: The triangle inequality states that if and are any real numbers, then

Proof: We prove the following limit law: If and ,

then

Let .
Choose so that if , then .
Choose so that if , then .
Choose δ = min{ }
Assume . Thus, .
Hence,

94
The limit does not exist if there is no real number for which
. Thus, for all real numbers , .
To understand what this means, we look at each part of the definition of
together with its opposite. A translation of the definition is given in Table 2.10.

Table 2.10: Translation of the Definition of and its Opposite

Finally, we may state what it means for a limit not to exist. The limit does
not exist if for every real number , there exists a real number so that for all ,
there is an x satisfying , so that .

Example 2.43: Showing That a Limit Does Not Exist:

Show that , does not exist. The graph of is shown here:

Solution:
Suppose that is a candidate for a limit. Choose .

Let . Either or . If ,
then let . Thus,

95
and

On the other hand, if , then let . Thus,

and

Thus, for any value of .

One-Sided and Infinite Limits

Definition 2.12:
Limit from the Right: Let be defined over an open interval of the form
where . Then,

If for every , there exists a such that if , then .

Limit from the Left: Let be defined over an open interval of the form where
. Then,

if for every , there exists a such that if , then

.

Example 2.44: Proving a Statement about a Limit From the Right

Prove that

96
Solution:
Let .
Choose . Since we ultimately want | , we manipulate this
inequality to get or, equivalently, , making a clear
choice. We may also determine δ geometrically, as shown in Figure 2.42.

Figure 2.42: This graph shows how

we find for the proof in Example 2.44.

Assume . Thus, . Hence, . Finally,

.
Therefore

2.30 Find corresponding to ε for a proof that .

To have , we want the values of the function to get larger and

larger as approaches . Instead of the requirement that for arbitrarily

97
small when for small enough , we want for arbitrarily
large positive when for small enough . Figure 2.43 illustrates this
idea by showing the value of for successively larger values of . In each graph, is
the smaller of the lengths of the two brown intervals.

(a) (b)
Figure 2.43: These graphs plot values of for to show that .

Definition 2.13:
Let be defined for all in an open interval containing . Then, we have an
infinite limit

if for every , there exists such that if , then .

Let be defined for all in an open interval containing . Then, we have a

negative infinite limit

if for every , there exists such that if , then .

98
 Chapter Three

3 DERIVATIVES
3.1 Defining the Derivative
3.2 The Derivative as a Function
3.3 Differentiation Rules
3.4 Derivatives as Rates of Change
3.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
3.6 The Chain Rule
3.7 Derivatives of Inverse Functions
3.8 Implicit Differentiation
3.9 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

In this chapter, we explore one of the main tools of calculus, the derivative, and show
convenient ways to calculate derivatives. We apply these rules to a variety of functions in
this chapter so that we can then explore applications of these techniques.
3.1 Defining the Derivative
Most mathematicians and historians agree that calculus was developed independently by
the Englishman Isaac Newton (1643–1727) and the German Gottfried Leibniz (1646–
1716). Newton and Leibniz were the first to understand the relationship between the
derivative and the integral.

Tangent Lines
We can obtain the slope of the secant by choosing a value of x near a and drawing a line
through the points and , as shown in Figure 3.3.

We can also calculate the slope of a secant line to a function at a value by using this
equation and replacing with , where is a value close to 0. We can then calculate
the slope of the line through the points and .

99
Definition:
Let be a function defined on an interval containing . If is in , then

is a difference quotient.
Also, if is chosen so that is in , then

is a difference quotient with increment .

These two expressions for calculating the slope of a secant line are illustrated in Figure
3.3. We will see that each of these two methods for finding the slope of a secant line is of
value.

Figure 3.3 We can calculate the slope of

a secant line in either of two ways.

In Figure 3.4(a) we see that, as the values of approach , the slopes of the secant lines
provide better estimates of the rate of change of the function at . Furthermore, the secant
lines themselves approach the tangent line to the function at , which represents the limit
of the secant lines.
Similarly, Figure 3.4(b) shows that as the values of get closer to , the secant lines also
approach the tangent line. The slope of the tangent line at is the rate of change of the
function at , as shown in Figure 3.4(c).

100
Figure 3.4 The secant lines approach the tangent line (shown in green) as the second
point approaches the first.
In Figure 3.5 we show the graph of and its tangent line at in a series of
tighter intervals about . As the intervals become narrower, the graph of the function
and its tangent line appear to coincide, making the values on the tangent line a good
approximation to the values of the function for choices of close to . In fact, the graph
of itself appears to be locally linear in the immediate vicinity of .

Definition:
Let be a function defined in an open interval containing . The tangent line to
at is the line passing through the point having slope

101
provided this limit exists.
Equivalently, we may define the tangent line to at to be the line passing through
the point having slope

provided this limit exists.

Example 3.1: Finding a Tangent Line

Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of at .
Solution: First find the slope of the tangent line. In this example, use Equation 3.3.

Next, find a point on the tangent line. Since the line is tangent to the graph of at
, it passes through the point . We have , so the tangent line
passes through the point . Using the point-slope equation of the line with the slope
and the point , we obtain the line . Simplifying, we have
. The graph of and its tangent line at are shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6: The tangent line to f (x) at x = 3.

Example 3.2: The Slope of a Tangent Line Revisited

102
Use Equation 3.4 to find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of at
.
Solution: The steps are very similar to Example 3.1. See Equation 3.4 for the definition.

We obtained the same value for the slope of the tangent line by using the other definition,
demonstrating that the formulas can be interchanged.

Example 3.3: Finding the Equation of a Tangent Line

Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of at .

Solution: We can use Equation 3.3, but as we have seen, the results are the same if we
use Equation 3.4.

We now know that the slope of the tangent line is .

To find the equation of the tangent line, we also need a point on the line. We know that

. Since the tangent line passes through the point we can use the point-

slope equation of a line to find the equation of the tangent line. Thus the tangent line has

103
the equation . The graphs of and are shown in

Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7 The line is tangent to at .

3.1 Find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of at .

The Derivative of a Function at a Point

The type of limit we compute in order to find the slope of the line tangent to a function at
a point occurs in many applications across many disciplines. These applications include
velocity and acceleration in physics, marginal profit functions in business, and growth
rates in biology. This limit occurs so frequently that we give this value a special name:
the derivative.
The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation.
Definition:
Let be a function defined in an open interval containing . The derivative of the
function at , denoted by , is defined by

provided this limit exists.

Alternatively, we may also define the derivative of at as

Example 3.4: Estimating a Derivative

For , use a table to estimate using Equation 3.5.
Solution:

104
Create a table using values of just below and just above .

After examining the table,

we see that a good estimate is .

3.2 For , use a table to estimate using Equation 3.6.

Example 3.5: Finding a Derivative

For , find by using Equation 3.5.
Solution: Substitute the given function and value directly into the equation.

Example 3.6: Revisiting the Derivative

For , find by using Equation 3.6.
Solution: Using this equation, we can substitute two values of the function into the
equation, and we should get the same value as in Example 3.5.

105
The results are the same whether we use Equation 3.5 or Equation 3.6.
For , find .

Velocities and Rates of Change

Now we can use derivative in velocity applications. Recall that if is the position of
an object moving along a coordinate axis, the average velocity of the object over a time
interval if or if is given by the difference quotient

As the values of approach , the values of approach the value we call the
instantaneous velocity at . That is, instantaneous velocity at , denoted , is given by

To better understand the relationship between average velocity and instantaneous

velocity, see Figure 3.8. In this figure, the slope of the tangent line (shown in red) is the
instantaneous velocity of the object at time whose position at time is given by the
function . The slope of the secant line (shown in green) is the average velocity of the
object over the
time interval .

Figure 3.8: The slope of the secant line

is the average velocity

106
 over the interval . The slope of the
tangent line is the
instantaneous velocity.

Example 3.7: Estimating Velocity

A lead weight on a spring is oscillating up and down. Its position at time with respect to
a fixed horizontal line is given by (Figure 3.9). Use a table of values to
estimate . Check the estimate by using Equation 3.5.

Figure 3.9: A lead weight suspended from a spring in

vertical oscillatory motion.

Solution: We can estimate the instantaneous velocity at by computing a table of

average velocities using values of approaching , as shown in Table 3.2.
−0.1 −0.01 −0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1
0.998334 0.999999 0.999999 0.999983 0.999983 0.998334
166 833 833 3333 3333 166
Table 3.2: Average velocities using values of approaching
From the table we see that the average velocity over the time interval [−0.1, 0] is
0.998334166, the average velocity over the time interval is ,
and so forth. Using this table of values, it appears that a good estimate is . By
using Equation 3.5, we can see that

Thus, in fact, .
3.4 A rock is dropped from a height of feet. Its height above ground at time
seconds later is given by , . Find its instantaneous velocity
second after it is dropped, using Equation 3.5.

107
Definition:
The instantaneous rate of change of a function at a value is its derivative .

Example 3.8: Chapter Opener: Estimating Rate of Change of Velocity

Figure 3.10 (credit: modification of work by Codex41, Flickr)

Reaching a top speed of , the Hennessey Venom GT is one of the fastest cars
in the world. In tests it went from to in seconds, from to in
seconds, from to mph in seconds, and from to in
seconds. Use this data to draw a conclusion about the rate of change of velocity (that is,
its acceleration) as it approaches . Does the rate at which the car is
accelerating appear to be increasing, decreasing, or constant?

Solution:
First observe that , ,
, and . We can summarize the information in a
table.

0 3.05 5.88 14.51 19.96

0 88 147.67 293.33 337.19
Table 3.3: at different values of

108
Now compute the average acceleration of the car in feet per second on intervals of the
form
as approaches , as shown in the following table.

0.0 3.05 5.88 14.51

16.89 14.74 13.46 8.05

Table 3.4: Average acceleration

The rate at which the car is accelerating is decreasing as its velocity approaches
( ).

Example 3.9: Rate of Change of Temperature

A homeowner sets the thermostat so that the temperature in the house begins to drop
from at , reaches a low of during the night, and rises back to by
the next morning. Suppose that the temperature in the house is given by
for , where is the number of hours past Find the
instantaneous rate of change of the temperature at midnight.
Solution:
Since midnight is hours past , we want to compute . Refer to Equation 3.5.

The instantaneous rate of change of the temperature at midnight is per hour.

109
Example 3.10: Rate of Change of Profit
A toy company can sell electronic gaming systems at a price of
dollars per gaming system. The cost of manufacturing x systems is given by
dollars. Find the rate of change of profit when games are
produced. Should the toy company increase or decrease production?
Solution: The profit earned by producing x gaming systems is , where
is the revenue obtained from the sale of x games. Since the company can sell x
games at per game,

Consequently,

Therefore, evaluating the rate of change of profit gives

Since the rate of change of profit and , the company

should increase production.

3.5 A coffee shop determines that the daily profit on scones obtained by charging s
dollars per scone is . The coffee shop currently charges
per scone. Find , the rate of change of profit when the price is and
decide whether or not the coffee shop should consider raising or lowering its prices on
scones.
3.2 The Derivative as a Function
As we have seen, the derivative of a function at a given point gives us the rate of change
or slope of the tangent line to the function at that point. If we differentiate a position
function at a given time, we obtain the velocity at that time.
In this section we define the derivative function and learn a process for finding it.

110
Derivative Functions
The derivative function gives the derivative of a function at each point in the domain of
the original function for which the derivative is defined. We can formally define a
derivative function as follows.

Definition:
Let be a function. The derivative function, denoted by , is the function whose
domain consists of those values of such that the following limit exists:\

A function is said to be differentiable at if exists. More generally, a

function is said to be differentiable on if it is differentiable at every point in an open
set , and a differentiable function is one in which exists on its domain.
In the next few examples we use Equation 3.9 to find the derivative of a function.

Example 3.11: Finding the Derivative of a Square-Root Function

Find the derivative of .
Solution: Start directly with the definition of the derivative function. Use Equation 3.1.

Example 3.12: Finding the Derivative of a Quadratic Function

111
Find the derivative of the function .
Solution:
Follow the same procedure here, but without having to multiply by the conjugate.

3.6 Find the derivative of .

We use a variety of different notations to express the derivative of a function. In

Example 3.12 we showed that if , then . If we had
expressed this function in the form , we could have expressed the derivative

as or . We could have conveyed the same information by

writing

. Thus, for the function , each of the following notations

represents the derivative of :

In place of we may also use Use of the notation (called Leibniz

notation) is quite common in engineering and physics. To understand this notation better,
recall that the derivative of a function at a point is the limit of the slopes of secant lines as
the secant lines approach the tangent line. The slopes of these secant lines are often
expressed

112
in the form where is the difference in the values corresponding to the difference

in the values, which are expressed as (Figure 3.11). Thus the derivative, which can
be thought of as the instantaneous rate of change of with respect to , is expressed as

Figure 3.11: The derivative is expressed as

Graphing a Derivative
The graphs of two functions and , that f ′(x) gives the rate of change of a
function (or slope of the tangent line to ).

In Example 3.11 we found that for , . If we graph these functions

on the same axes, as in Figure 3.12, we can use the graphs to understand the relationship
between these two functions. First, we notice that is increasing over its entire
domain, which means that the slopes of its tangent lines at all points are positive.
Consequently, we expect for all values of in its domain. Furthermore, as

113
increases, the slopes of the tangent lines to are decreasing and we expect to see a
corresponding decrease in . We also observe that is undefined and that
, corresponding to a vertical tangent to at .

Figure 3.12 The derivative f ′(x) is positive

everywhere because the function is
increasing.

In Example 3.12 we found that for , . The graphs of

these functions are shown in Figure 3.13. Observe that is decreasing for . For
these same values of , . For values of , is increasing and
. Also, has a horizontal tangent at and .

Figure 3.13: The derivative where

the function is decreasing
and where is increasing.

114
 The derivative is zero where the function has a
horizontal tangent.
Example 3.13: Sketching a Derivative Using a Function
Use the following graph of to sketch a graph of .

Solution:
The solution is shown in the following graph. Observe that is increasing and
on – . Also, is decreasing and on and on
. Also note that has horizontal tangents at – and , and and
.

3.7 Sketch the graph of . On what interval is the graph of above the
x -axis?

Derivatives and Continuity

First, we consider the relationship between differentiability and continuity.
We will see that if a function is differentiable at a point, it must be continuous there;
however, a function that is continuous at a point need not be differentiable at that point.
In fact, a function may be continuous at a point and fail to be differentiable at the point
for one of several reasons.

Theorem 3.1: Differentiability Implies Continuity

115
Let be a function and be in its domain. If is differentiable at , then is
continuous at .
Proof:
If is differentiable at , then exists and

We want to show that is continuous at a by showing that .

Thus,

Therefore, since is defined and , we conclude that is

continuous at a. □
We have just proven that differentiability implies continuity, but now we consider
whether continuity implies differentiability. To determine an answer to this question, we
examine the function . This function is continuous everywhere; however,
is undefined. This observation leads us to believe that continuity does not imply
differentiability. Let’s explore further. For ,

This limit does not exist because

See Figure 3.14.

116
 Figure 3.14: The function is continuous
at 0 but is not differentiable at .

Let’s consider some additional situations in which a continuous function fails to be

differentiable. Consider the function
:

Thus does not exist. A quick look at the graph of clarifies the situation.
The function has a vertical tangent line at (Figure 3.15).

Figure 3.15: The function

has a vertical tangent at x = 0.
It is continuous
at 0 but is not differentiable at 0.

The function also has a derivative that exhibits interesting

behavior at . We see that

This limit does not exist, essentially because the slopes of the secant lines continuously
change direction as they approach zero (Figure 3.16).

117
 Figure 3.16 The function is not differentiable at 0.

In summary:
1. We observe that if a function is not continuous, it cannot be differentiable, since every
differentiable function must be continuous. However, if a function is continuous, it may
still fail to be differentiable.
2. We saw that failed to be differentiable at because the limit of the slopes
of the tangent lines on the left and right were not the same. Visually, this resulted in a
sharp corner on the graph of the function at . From this we conclude that in order to be
differentiable at a point, a function must be “smooth” at that point.
3. As we saw in the example of , a function fails to be differentiable at a point
where there is a vertical tangent line.

4. As we saw with a function may fail to be differentiable at

a point in more complicated ways as well.

Example 3.14: A Piecewise Function that is Continuous and Differentiable

A toy company wants to design a track for a toy car that starts out along a parabolic curve
and then converts to a straight line (Figure 3.17). The function that describes the track is
to have the form

where and are in inches. For the car to move smoothly along the track, the
function must be both continuous and differentiable at . Find values of and
that make
both continuous and differentiable.

Figure 3.17: For the car to move smoothly along the track,
the function must be both continuous and differentiable.

Solution:
For the function to be continuous at , . Thus, since

118
and , we must have . Equivalently, we have .
For the function to be differentiable at ,

must exist. Since is defined using different rules on the right and the left, we must
evaluate this limit from the right and the left and then set them equal to each other:

We also have

This gives us . Thus and .

3.8 Find values of and that make both continuous and

differentiable at .

Higher-Order Derivatives

119
The derivative of a function is itself a function, so we can find the derivative of a
derivative. For example, the derivative of a position function is the rate of change of
position, or velocity. The derivative of velocity is the rate of change of velocity, which is
acceleration. The new function obtained by differentiating the derivative is called the
second derivative.
Furthermore, we can continue to take derivatives to obtain the third derivative, fourth
derivative, and so on. Collectively, these are referred to as higher-order derivatives. The
notation for the higher-order derivatives of y = f (x) can be expressed in any of the
following forms:

It is interesting to note that the notation for may be viewed as an attempt to express

more compactly. Analogously,

Example 3.15: Finding a Second Derivative

For , find f ″(x).
Solution:
First find .

Next, find by taking the derivative of .

f ″(x) =

120
3.9 Find for .

Example 3.16: Finding Acceleration

The position of a particle along a coordinate axis at time (in seconds) is given by
(in meters). Find the function that describes its acceleration at time .
Solution:
Since and , we begin by finding the derivative of :

Next,

Thus, .

3.10 For , find a(t).

3.3 Differentiation Rules

The Basic Rules
The functions and where , is a positive integer are the building
blocks from which all polynomials and rational functions are constructed. To find
derivatives of polynomials and rational functions efficiently without resorting to the
limit definition of the derivative, we must first develop formulas for differentiating these
basic functions.

121
The Constant Rule
We first apply the limit definition of the derivative to find the derivative of the constant
function, . For this function, both and , so we obtain the
following result:

The rule for differentiating constant functions is called the constant rule. It states that the
derivative of a constant function is zero; that is, since a constant function is a horizontal
line, the slope, or the rate of change, of a constant function is .

Theorem 3.2: The Constant Rule

Let be a constant.

Alternatively, we may express this rule as

Example 3.17: Applying the Constant Rule

Find the derivative of .
Solution:
This is just a one-step application of the rule: .

The Power Rule

We have shown that

At this point, you might see a pattern beginning to develop for derivatives of the

form . We continue our examination of derivative formulas by differentiating

power functions of the form , where is a positive integer.

122
Example 3.18: Differentiating
Find .

Solution:

3.12 Find .

Theorem 3.3: The Power Rule

Let be a positive integer. If , then

Alternatively, we may express this rule as

Proof:
For where is a positive integer, we have

Since

we see that

123
Next, divide both sides by :

Finally,

Example 3.19: Applying the Power Rule

Find the derivative of the function by applying the power rule.
Solution:
Using the power rule with , we obtain .

The Sum, Difference, and Constant Multiple Rules

Theorem 3.4: Sum, Difference, and Constant Multiple Rules

Let and be differentiable functions and be a constant. Then each of the
following equations holds.

Sum Rule. The derivative of the sum of a function and a function is the same as the
sum of the derivative of and the derivative of .

that is, for

124
Difference Rule. The derivative of the difference of a function and a function is the
same as the difference of the derivative of and the derivative of :

that is, for

Constant Multiple Rule. The derivative of a constant k multiplied by a function f is the

same as the constant multiplied by the derivative:

that is, for

Example 3.20: Applying the Constant Multiple Rule

Find the derivative of and compare it to the derivative of .
Solution:
We use the power rule directly:

Since has derivative , we see that the derivative of is times

the derivative of . This relationship is illustrated in Figure 3.18.

Figure 3.18: The derivative of is times the derivative of .

125
Example 3.22: Finding the Equation of a Tangent Line
Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of at .
Solution: To find the equation of the tangent line, we need a point and a slope. To find
the point, compute

This gives us the point . Since the slope of the tangent line at 1 is , we must
first find . Using the definition of a derivative, we have

so the slope of the tangent line is . Using the point-slope formula, we see that
the equation of the tangent line is

Putting the equation of the line in slope-intercept form, we obtain

The Product Rule

Theorem 3.5: Product Rule
Let and be differentiable functions. Then

That is, if , then

This means that the derivative of a product of two functions is the derivative of the first
function times the second function plus the derivative of the second function times the
first function.

Example 3.24: Applying the Product Rule to Binomials

For , find by applying the product rule. Check the
result by first finding the product and then differentiating.
Solution: If we set and , then and
. Thus,

126
Simplifying, we have

To check, we see that and, consequently,

.
The Quotient Rule.
Theorem 3.6: The Quotient Rule
Let and be differentiable functions. Then

That is, if , then

Example 3.25: Applying the Quotient Rule

Use the quotient rule to find the derivative of .

Solution: Let and . Thus, and .

Substituting into the quotient rule, we have

Simplifying, we obtain

3.17 Find the derivative of .

Theorem 3.7: Extended Power Rule

If is a negative integer, then

Example 3.26: Using the Extended Power Rule

127
Find .

Solution: (do it)

.
.
.
3.18 Find the derivative of and using the extended power rule.

Combining Differentiation Rules

Example 3.28: Combining Differentiation Rules
For , find .
Solution: Finding this derivative requires the sum rule, the constant multiple rule, and the
product rule.

Example 3.29: Extending the Product Rule

For , express in terms of , and their
derivatives.
Solution:
We can think of the function as the product of the function and the
function . That is, . Thus,

128
Example 3.31: Determining Where a Function Has a Horizontal Tangent
Determine the values of x for which has a horizontal tangent
line.
Solution:
To find the values of x for which has a horizontal tangent line, we must solve,
. Since

we must solve . Thus we see that the function has horizontal tangent

lines at and as shown in the following graph.

Figure 3.19: This function has horizontal tangent

lines at and .

3.20 Find the values of for which the line tangent to the graph of
has a tangent line parallel to the line .

3.4 Derivatives as Rates of Change

In this section we look at some applications of the derivative by focusing on the
interpretation of the derivative as the rate of change of a function.
These applications include acceleration and velocity in physics, population growth
rates in biology, and marginal functions in economics.

Amount of Change Formula

One application for derivatives is to estimate an unknown value of a function at a point
by using a known value of a function at some given point together with its rate of change
at the given point. If is a function defined on an interval , then the

129
amount of change of over the interval is the change in the values of the function
over that interval and is given by

The average rate of change of the function over that same interval is the ratio of the
amount of change over that interval to the corresponding change in the values. It is
given by

As we already know, the instantaneous rate of change of at is its derivative

For small enough values of , . We can then solve for to get

the amount of change formula:

We can see in Figure 3.22, we are approximating by the y coordinate at

on the line tangent to at . Observe that the accuracy of this estimate depends
on the value of h as well as the value of .

Figure 3.22: The new value of a

changed quantity equals the original value
plus the rate of change times the
interval of change: .

Example 3.33: Estimating the Value of a Function

If and , estimate .
Solution:

130
Begin by finding, . We have . Thus,

Given and , estimate .

Motion along a Line

Definition:
Let be a function giving the position of an object at time .
The velocity of the object at time t is given by .
The speed of the object at time t is given by .
The acceleration of the object at t is given by .

Example 3.34: Comparing Instantaneous Velocity and Average Velocity

A ball is dropped from a height of . Its height above ground (in feet) seconds
later is given by .
a. What is the instantaneous velocity of the ball when it hits the
ground?
b. What is the average velocity during its fall?

Solution:
The first thing to do is determine how long it takes the ball to reach the ground. To do
this, set . Solving , we get , so it take seconds for the
ball to reach the ground.
a. The instantaneous velocity of the ball as it strikes the ground is . Since
, we obtain .
b. The average velocity of the ball during its fall is

131
Example 3.35: Interpreting the Relationship between v(t) and a(t)
A particle moves along a coordinate axis in the positive direction to the right. Its position
at time is given by . Find and and use these values to
answer the following questions.
a. Is the particle moving from left to right or from right to left at time ?
b. Is the particle speeding up or slowing down at time ?
Solution:
Begin by finding and . and .
Evaluating these functions at , we obtain and .
a. Because , the particle is moving from right to left.
b. Because and , velocity and acceleration are acting in opposite
directions. In other words, the particle is being accelerated in the direction opposite
the direction in which it is traveling, causing to decrease. The particle is
slowing down.

3.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Derivatives of the Sine and Cosine Functions

Theorem 3.8: The Derivatives of and

The derivative of the function is the and the derivative of the
function is the negative .

Theorem 3.9: Derivatives of , , , and

The derivatives of the remaining trigonometric functions are as follows:

132
We also recall the following trigonometric identity for the sine of the sum of two angles:

Now that we have gathered all the necessary equations and identities, we proceed with
the proof.

Figure 3.27: shows the relationship between the graph of and its derivative
. Notice that at the points where has a horizontal tangent, its
derivative takes on the value zero. We also see that where is
increasing, and where is decreasing,
.

133
 Figure 3.27 Where has a maximum or a
minimum, that is, where
has a horizontal tangent. These points are noted
with dots on the graphs.

Example 3.42: The Derivative of the Tangent Function

Find the derivative of .
Solution:
Start by expressing as the quotient of and :

Now apply the quotient rule to obtain

Simplifying, we obtain

Recognizing that , by the Pythagorean theorem, we now have

Finally, use the identity to obtain .

3.28 Find the derivative of .

Example 3.43: Finding the Equation of a Tangent Line

Find the equation of a line tangent to the graph of at .

Solution: To find the equation of the tangent line, we need a point and a slope at that
point. To find the point, compute

134
Thus the tangent line passes through the point . Next, find the slope by finding the

derivative of and evaluating it at :

and .

Using the point-slope equation of the line, we obtain –

or equivalently,

Example 3.44: Finding the Derivative of Trigonometric Functions

Find the derivative of .
Solution: To find this derivative, we must use both the sum rule and the product rule.
Using the sum rule, we find

In the first term, , and by applying the product rule to the

second term we obtain

Therefore, we have

3.29 Find the derivative of .

Higher-Order Derivatives
The higher-order derivatives of and follow a repeating pattern. We can find
any higher order derivative of and .
Example 3.45: Finding Higher-Order Derivatives of
Find the first four derivatives of .
Solution: Each step in the chain is straightforward:

135
Analysis: We can find any higher-order derivative by determining the step in the pattern
to which it corresponds. For example, every fourth derivative of equals ,

Example 3.46: Using the Pattern for Higher-Order Derivatives of

Find .

Solution: We can see right away that for the 74th derivative of sin x, 74 = 4(18) + 2, so

2.32 For y = sin x, find .

3.6 The Chain Rule

Rule: The Chain Rule ( derive)
Let and be functions. For all in the domain of for which is differentiable at
and is differentiable at , the derivative of the composite function

is given by

Alternatively, if is a function of , and is a function of , then

Rule: Power Rule for Composition of Functions

For all values of for which the derivative is defined, if

Then

136
Example 3.48: Using the Chain and Power Rules
Find the derivative of, .

Solution: First, rewrite

Applying the power rule with , we have .

Rewriting back to the original form gives us

3.34 Find the derivative of .

Example 3.49: Using the Chain and Power Rules with a Trigonometric Function
Find the derivative of, .
Solution:
First recall that . Applying the power rule with ,
we obtain

Example 3.50: Finding the Equation of a Tangent Line

Find the equation of a line tangent to the graph of at .

Solution:
Because we are finding an equation of a line, we need a point. The -coordinate of the
point is . To find the -coordinate, substitute into .

Since , the point is .

For the slope, we need . To find , first we rewrite and

apply the power rule to obtain

By substituting , we have. Therefore, the line has equation

.
Rewriting, the equation of the line is .

137
3.35 Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of at .

Example 3.51: Using the Chain Rule on a General Cosine Function

Find the derivative of .
Solution: (do it)
.

Example 3.52: Using the Chain Rule on a Cosine Function

Find the derivative of .
Solution: (do it)

Example 3.53: Using the Chain Rule on Another Trigonometric Function

Find the derivative of .
Solution:

Theorem 3.10: Using the Chain Rule with Trigonometric Functions

For all values of for which the derivative is defined,

138
Example 3.54: Combining the Chain Rule with the Product Rule
Find the derivative of .
Solution:
First apply the product rule, then apply the chain rule to each term of the product.

3.37 Find the derivative of

Rule: Chain Rule for a Composition of Three Functions

For all values of for which the function is differentiable, if

then

Example 3.55: Differentiating a Composite of Three Functions

Find the derivative of

Solution: First, rewrite as

Then apply the chain rule several times.

139
3.38 Find the derivative of .

Example 3.56: Using the Chain Rule in a Velocity Problem

A particle moves along a coordinate axis. Its position at time is given by

What is the velocity of the particle at time ?

Solution:
To find , the velocity of the particle at time , we must differentiate . Thus,
–
Substituting into , we obtain .

Example 3.57: Using the Chain Rule with Functional Values

Let . If , , and , find .
Solution:
Use the chain rule, then substitute.

Rule: Chain Rule Using Leibniz’s Notation

If is a function of , and is a function of , then

Example 3.58: Taking a Derivative Using Leibniz’s Notation, Example 1

Find the derivative of

140
Solution:
First, let . Thus, . Next, find and . Using the quotient rule,

and

Finally, we put it all together.

It is important to remember that, when using the Leibniz form of the chain rule, the final
answer must be expressed entirely in terms of the original variable given in the problem.

Example 3.59: Taking a Derivative Using Leibniz’s Notation, Example 2

Find the derivative of .
Solution:

3.41 Use Leibniz’s notation to find the derivative of . Make sure that the
final answer is expressed entirely in terms of the variable .

141
3.7 Derivatives of Inverse Functions
Theorem 3.11: Inverse Function Theorem
Let be a function that is both invertible and differentiable. Let be the
inverse of . For all satisfying, ,

Alternatively, if is the inverse of , then

Example 3.60: Applying the Inverse Function Theorem

Use the inverse function theorem to find the derivative of . Compare the

resulting derivative to that obtained by differentiating the function directly.

Solution:

142
The inverse of is . Since , begin by finding .

Thus,

Finally,

We can verify that this is the correct derivative by applying the quotient rule to to
obtain

3.42 Use the inverse function theorem to find the derivative of . Compare

the result obtained by differentiating directly.

Example 3.61: Applying the Inverse Function Theorem

Use the inverse function theorem to find the derivative of .
Solution:
The function is the inverse of the function . Since ,

begin by finding . Thus,

Finally,

3.43 Find the derivative of by applying the inverse function theorem.

Theorem 3.12: Extending the Power Rule to Rational Exponents

143
The power rule may be extended to rational exponents. That is, if is a positive integer,
then

Also, if is a positive integer and is an arbitrary integer, then

Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example 3.62: Applying the Power Rule to a Rational Power
Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of at .
Solution:
First find and evaluate it at . Since

the slope of the tangent line to the graph at is .

Substituting into the original function, we obtain, . Thus, the tangent line
passes through the point . Substituting into the point-slope formula for a line, we
obtain the tangent line

3.44 Find the derivative of .

Example 3.63: Derivative of the Inverse Sine Function

Use the inverse function theorem to find the derivative of .
Solution:

Since for in the interval – , is the inverse of , begin

by finding . Since

we see that

144
Analysis
To see that , consider the following argument. Set .
In this case, where – . We begin by considering the case where

. Since is an acute angle, we may construct a right triangle having acute

angle , a hypotenuse of length and the side opposite angle having length . From the
Pythagorean theorem, the side adjacent to angle has length . This triangle is
shown in Figure 3.29. Using the triangle, we see that .

Figure 3.29: Using a right triangle having acute angle , a hypotenuse of length , and
the
side opposite angle having length , we can see that .

In the case where – , we make the observation that and hence

Now if or , or , and since in either case and

, we have

Consequently, in all cases,

Example 3.64: Applying the Chain Rule to the Inverse Sine Function
Apply the chain rule to the formula derived in Example 3.61 to find the derivative of
and use this result to find the derivative of .
Solution:
Applying the chain rule to , we have

145
Now let , so . Substituting into the previous result, we obtain

3.45 Use the inverse function theorem to find the derivative of .

Theorem 3.13: Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example 3.65: Applying Differentiation Formulas to an Inverse Tangent Function

Find the derivative of .
Solution: Let , so . Substituting into Equation 3.24, we obtain

Simplifying, we have

146
Example 3.66: Applying Differentiation Formulas to an Inverse Sine Function
Find the derivative of .
Solution: ( do it )

3.46 Find the derivative of .

Example 3.67: Applying the Inverse Tangent Function

The position of a particle at time t is given by for . Find the

velocity of the particle at time .

Solution:
Begin by differentiating in order to find . Thus,

Simplifying, we have

Thus, .

3.47 Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of at .

3.8 Implicit Differentiation

If the dependent variable is a function of the independent variable , we express in
terms
of . If this is the case, we say that y is an explicit function of x. When we write the
equation , we are defining explicitly in terms of .

For example, the functions

which are illustrated in Figure 3.30, are just three of the many functions defined
implicitly by the equation

147
 Figure 3.30 The equation defines many functions implicitly.
If we want to find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of at the point
, we could evaluate the derivative of the function at . On the
other hand, if we want the slope of the tangent line at the point , we could use the
derivative of . However, it is not always easy to solve for a function
defined implicitly by an equation.

Problem-Solving Strategy: Implicit Differentiation

To perform implicit differentiation on an equation that defines a function implicitly in
terms of a variable , use the following steps:

1. Take the derivative of both sides of the equation. Keep in mind that is a

function of . , because we must use the

chain rule to differentiate with respect to .

148
 2. Rewrite the equation so that all terms containing are on the left and all terms

that do not contain are on the right.

3. Factor out on the left.

4. Solve for by dividing both sides of the equation by an appropriate algebraic

expression.

Example 3.68: Using Implicit Differentiation

Assuming that is defined implicitly by the equation, find .

Solution: Follow the steps in the problem-solving strategy.

Analysis: Note that the resulting expression for is in terms of both the independent

variable and the dependent variable, .

Example 3.69: Using Implicit Differentiation and the Product Rule

Assuming that y is defined implicitly by the equation, , find .

149
Solution:

Example 3.70: Using Implicit Differentiation to Find a Second Derivative

Find if .

Solution:
In Example 3.68, we showed that . We can take the derivative of both sides of

this equation to find .

At this point we have found an expression for . If we choose, we can simplify the

expression further by recalling that and making this substitution in the

numerator to obtain

150
Example 3.71: Finding a Tangent Line to a Circle
Find the equation of the line tangent to the curve at the point .
Solution: Although we could find this equation without using implicit differentiation,

using that method makes it much easier. In Example 3.68, we found .

The slope of the tangent line is found by substituting into this expression.

Consequently, the slope of the tangent line is Using the point

and the slope in the point-slope equation of the line, we obtain the equation

– (Figure 3.31).

Figure 3.31 The line – is tangent to at the point .

Example 3.72: Finding the Equation of the Tangent Line to a Curve

Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of at the point

(Figure 3.32). This curve is known as the folium (or leaf) of Descartes.

151
 Figure 3.32 Finding the tangent line to the folium of

Descartes at .

Solution:
Begin by finding, .

3.49 Find the equation of the line tangent to the hyperbola at the point
.

3.9 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

The value of lies somewhere between and . The function is called the
natural exponential function. Its inverse, is called the natural
logarithmic function.

Theorem 3.14: Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function

Let be the natural exponential function. Then .

152
In general,

Example 3.74: Derivative of an Exponential Function

Find the derivative of .
Solution:
Using the derivative formula and the chain rule,

Example 3.75: Combining Differentiation Rules

Find the derivative of .

Solution:
Use the derivative of the natural exponential function, the quotient rule, and the chain
rule.

3.50 Find the derivative of .

Theorem 3.15: The Derivative of the Natural Logarithmic Function

If and , then

More generally, let be a differentiable function. For all values of for which
, the derivative of is given by

153
Example 3.77: Taking a Derivative of a Natural Logarithm
Find the derivative of, .
Solution: Use Equation 3.31 directly.

Example 3.78: Using Properties of Logarithms in a Derivative

Find the derivative of, .

Solution: At first glance, taking this derivative appears rather complicated. However, by
using the properties of logarithms prior to finding the derivative, we can make the
problem much simpler.

3.52 Differentiate: .
Theorem 3.16: Derivatives of General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Let , , and let be a differentiable function.
i. If, , then

More generally, if , then for all values of for which

,

ii. If , then

More generally, if , then

Example 3.79: Applying Derivative Formulas

Find the derivative of

154
Solution: Use the quotient rule and Derivatives of General Exponential and
Logarithmic Functions.

Example 3.80: Finding the Slope of a Tangent Line

Find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of at .

Solution: To find the slope, we must evaluate at . Using Equation 3.33, we see

that

Logarithmic Differentiation
Problem-Solving Strategy: Using Logarithmic Differentiation
1. To differentiate using logarithmic differentiation, take the natural
logarithm of both sides of the equation to obtain .
2. Use properties of logarithms to expand as much as possible.

3. Differentiate both sides of the equation. On the left we will have .

4. Multiply both sides of the equation by y to solve for .

5. Replace by .

Example 3.81: Using Logarithmic Differentiation

Find the derivative of .
Solution: Use logarithmic differentiation to find this derivative.

155
Example 3.82: Using Logarithmic Differentiation
Find the derivative of

Solution: This problem really makes use of the properties of logarithms and the
differentiation rules given in this chapter.

Example 3.83: Extending the Power Rule

Find the derivative of where is an arbitrary real number.
Solution: The process is the same as in Example 3.82, though with fewer complications.

156
4.8 L’Hopital’s Rule
4.8.1 Recognize when to apply L’Hôpital’s rule.
4.8.2 Identify indeterminate forms produced by quotients, products, subtractions,
and powers, and apply L’Hôpital’s rule in each case.
4.8.3 Describe the relative growth rates of functions.

Applying L’Hopital’s Rule

L’Hopital’s rule can be used to evaluate limits involving the quotient of two functions.
Consider

If and , then

However, what happens if and ? We call this one of

the indeterminate forms, of type .

The idea behind L’Hopital’s rule can be explained using local linear approximations.
Consider two differentiable functions and such that
and such that for near , we can write

and

Therefore,

157
Figure 4.71 If , then the ratio is approximately equal to

the ratio of their linear approximations near .

Since is differentiable at , then is continuous at , and therefore

. Similarly, .
If we also assume that and are continuous at , then and
. Using these ideas, we conclude that

Note that the assumption that and are continuous at and can be

loosened. We state L’Hopital’s rule formally for the indeterminate form . Also note that

the notation does not mean we are actually dividing zero by zero. Rather, we are using

the notation to represent a quotient of limits, each of which is zero.

Theorem 4.12: L’Hopital’s Rule (0/0 Case)

Suppose and are differentiable functions over an open interval containing , except
possibly at . If and , then

Assuming the limit on the right exists or is or . This result also holds if we are
considering one-sided limits, or if and .

Proof. We provide a proof of this theorem in the special case when , , , and are all
continuous over an open interval containing . In that case, since
and and are continuous at , it follows that .
Therefore,

158
Note that L’Hopital’s rule states we can calculate the limit of a quotient by considering

the limit of the quotient of the derivatives . It is important to realize that we are not

calculating the derivative of the quotient, .

Example 4.38 Applying L’Hopital’s Rule (0/0 Case)

Evaluate each of the following limits by applying L’Hopital’s rule.

Solution
a. Since the numerator and the denominator , we can apply
L’Hopital’s rule to evaluate this limit. We have

159
b. As x → 1, the numerator and the denominator . Therefore, we
can apply L’Hopital’s rule. We obtain

c. As , the numerator and the denominator . Therefore, we

can apply L’Hopital’s rule. We obtain

d. As , both the numerator and denominator approach zero. Therefore, we can

apply L’Hopital’s rule. We obtain

Since the numerator and denominator of this new quotient both approach zero as ,
we apply L’Hopital’s rule again. In doing so, we see that

Therefore, we conclude that

160
We can also use L’Hopital’s rule to evaluate limits of quotients in which

and . Limits of this form are classified as indeterminate forms of type .

Again, note that we are not actually dividing by . Since is not a real number, that
is impossible; rather, is used to represent a quotient of limits, each of which is or

Theorem 4.13: L’Hopital’s Rule ( Case)

Suppose and are differentiable functions over an open interval containing , except
possibly at . Suppose (or ) and (or ). Then,

assuming the limit on the right exists or is or . This result also holds if the limit is
infinite, if or , or the limit is one-sided.

Example 4.39: Applying L’Hopital’s Rule (∞/∞ Case)

Evaluate each of the following limits by applying L’Hopital’s rule.

Solution
a. Since and are first-degree polynomials with positive leading
coefficients,
and . Therefore, we apply L’Hopital’s rule and
obtain

161
Note that this limit can also be calculated without invoking L’Hopital’s rule. Earlier in
the chapter we showed how to evaluate such a limit by dividing the numerator and
denominator by the highest power of in the denominator. In doing so, we saw that

L’Hopital’s rule provides us with an alternative means of evaluating this type of limit.

b. Here, and . Therefore, we can apply

L’Hopital’s rule and obtain

Now as , . Therefore, the first term in the denominator is approaching

zero and the second term is getting really large. In such a case, anything can happen with
the product. Therefore, we cannot make any conclusion yet. To evaluate the limit, we use
the definition of to write

Now and , so we apply L’Hopital’s rule again. We

find

We conclude that

Example 4.40: When L’Hopital’s Rule Does Not Apply

Consider

Show that the limit cannot be evaluated by applying L’Hopital’s rule.

162
Solution
Because the limits of the numerator and denominator are not both zero and are not both
infinite, we cannot apply L’Hopital’s rule. If we try to do so, we get

and

At which point we would conclude erroneously that

However, since and , we actually have

We can conclude that

Example 4.41: Indeterminate Form of Type

163
Example 4.42: Indeterminate Form of Type

164
Example 4.43: Indeterminate Form of Type ∞0

Example 4.44: Indeterminate Form of Type 00

Solution
Let

165
or

166
Example 4.45: Comparing the Growth Rates of , x2, and ex

Solution

Chapter Five

5.1 Approximating Areas

5.2 The Definite Integral

5.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
5.4 Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem
5.5 Substitution
5.6 Integration of Rational Expressions by Partial Fractions
5.7 Integration of functions by parts
5.1 Approximating Areas
5.1.1 Use sigma (summation) notation to calculate sums and powers of integers.
5.1.2 Use the sum of rectangular areas to approximate the area under a curve.
5.1.3 Use Riemann sums to approximate area.

Sigma (Summation) Notation

167
Example 5.1: Using Sigma Notation to find the following
a. Write in sigma notation and evaluate the sum of terms for .
b. Write the sum in sigma notation:

Solution:
a. Write

b. The denominator of each term is a perfect square. Using sigma notation, this sum
can be written as

5.1. Write in sigma notation and evaluate the sum of terms for .

Rule: Sums and Powers of Integers

1. The sum of integers is given by

2. The sum of consecutive integers squared is given by

3. The sum of consecutive integers cubed is given by

168
Example 5.2: Evaluation Using Sigma Notation
Write using sigma notation and evaluate:
a. The sum of the terms for .
b. The sum of the terms for .
Solution:
a. Multiplying out , we can break the expression into three terms.

b. Use sigma notation:

5.2. Find the sum of the values of for .

Approximating Area
Let be a continuous, nonnegative function defined on the closed interval . We
want to approximate the area bounded by above, the -axis below, the line
on the left, and the line on the right (Figure 5.2).

Figure 5.2: An area (shaded region) bounded

by the curve at top, the x-axis at bottom,
the line to the left, and the line at
right.

169
Definition: A set of points for with

which divides the interval into subintervals of the form

is called a partition of . If the subintervals all have the same width, the set of points
forms a regular partition of the interval .

Rule: Left-Endpoint Approximation

On each subinterval (for ), construct a rectangle with width
and height equal to , which is the function value at the left endpoint of the
subinterval. Then the area of this rectangle is . Adding the areas of all these
rectangles, we get an approximate value for (Figure 5.3). We use the notation to
denote that this is a left-endpoint approximation of using subintervals.

Figure 5.3: In the left-endpoint approximation of

area under
a curve, the height of each rectangle is
determined
by the function value at the left of each
subinterval.

Rule: Right-Endpoint Approximation

170
Construct a rectangle on each sub-interval , only this time the height of the
rectangle is determined by the function value at the right endpoint of the
subinterval. Then, the area of each rectangle is and the approximation for is
given by

The notation indicates this is a right-endpoint approximation for (Figure 5.4).

Figure 5.4 In the right-endpoint

approximation of area under
a curve, the height of each rectangle is
determined by the
function value at the right of each
subinterval. Note that the
right-endpoint approximation differs from
the left-endpoint
approximation in Figure 5.3.

Example 5.4: Approximating the Area Under a Curve

Use both left-endpoint and right-endpoint approximations to approximate the area under
the curve of on the interval ; use .
Solution:
First, divide the interval into equal subintervals , . This is

the width of each rectangle. The intervals

are shown in Figure 5.6. Using a left-endpoint approximation, the heights are

Then,

171
 Figure 5.6 The graph shows the left- endpoint
approximation of the area
under
from to .

The right-endpoint approximation is shown in Figure 5.7. The intervals are the same,
, but now use the right endpoint to calculate the height of the rectangles. We
have

Figure 5.7: The graph shows the right-endpoint

approximation of the area under
from to .

The left-endpoint approximation is ; the right-endpoint approximation is .

Forming Riemann Sums

So far we have been using rectangles to approximate the area under a curve. The heights
of these rectangles have been determined by evaluating the function at either the right or
left endpoints of the subinterval . In reality, there is no reason to restrict
evaluation of the function to one of these two points only. We could evaluate the function

172
at any point in the subinterval , and use as the height of our rectangle.
This gives us an estimate for the area of the form

A sum of this form is called a Riemann sum, named for the 19th-century mathematician
Bernhard Riemann, who developed the idea.

Definition: Let be defined on a closed interval and let be a regular partition

of . Let be the width of each subinterval and for each , let be any
point in . A Riemann sum is defined for as

Definition: Let be a continuous, nonnegative function on an interval , and let

be a Riemann sum for . Then, the area under the curve on is given
by

5.2 | The Definite Integral

5.2.1 State the definition of the definite integral.
5.2.2 Explain the terms integrand, limits of integration, and variable of
integration.
5.2.3 Explain when a function is integrable.
5.2.4 Describe the relationship between the definite integral and net area.
5.2.5 Use geometry and the properties of definite integrals to evaluate them.
5.2.6 Calculate the average value of a function.

Definition: If is a function defined on an interval , the definite integral of

from to is given by

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provided the limit exists. If this limit exists, the function f (x) is said to be integrable on
, or is an integrable function.

Theorem 5.1: Continuous Functions Are Integrable

If is continuous on , then is integrable on .

Example 5.8: Using Geometric Formulas to Calculate Definite Integrals

Use the formula for the area of a circle to evaluate

Solution: The function describes a semicircle with radius, . To find

we want to find the area under the curve over the interval . The formula for the area
of a circle is . The area of a semicircle is just one-half the area of a circle, or

The shaded area in Figure 5.16

covers one-half of the semicircle, or Thus,

Figure 5.16 The value of the integral of the

function over
the interval is the area of the shaded
region.

174
5.8. Use the formula for the area of a trapezoid to evaluate

Properties of the Definite Integral

Rule: Properties of the Definite Integral

If the limits of integration are the same, the integral is just a line & contains no area.

If the limits are reversed, then place a negative sign in front of the integral.

The integral of a sum is the sum of the integrals.

The integral of a difference is the difference of the integrals.

for constant c. The integral of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the
constant multiplied by
the integral of the function.

Although this formula normally applies when is between and , the formula holds for
all values of , , and , provided is integrable on the largest interval.
Example 5.11: Using the Properties of the Definite Integral
Use the properties of the definite integral to express the definite integral of
over the interval as the sum of three definite integrals.
Solution: Using integral notation, we have

175
We apply properties and to get

5.11. Use the properties of the definite integral to express the definite integral of
over the interval as the sum of four definite integrals.

Example 5.12: Using the Properties of the Definite Integral

If it is known that

5.12. If it is known that

176
Average Value of a Function
Definition: Let be continuous over the interval . Then the average value of
the function (or ) on is given by

Example 5.14: Finding the Average Value of a Linear Function

Find the average value of over the interval .
Solution: First, graph the function on the stated interval, as shown in Figure 5.25

Figure 5.25 The graph shows the area under

the function over .

The region is a trapezoid lying on its side, so we can use the area formula for a trapezoid
, where represents height, and and represent the two parallel sides.

Then,

Thus the average value of the function is

5.13. Find the average value of over the interval .

177
Theorem 5.3: The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals
If is continuous over an interval , then there is at least one point
such that

This formula can also be stated as

Example 5.15: Finding the Average Value of a Function

Find the average value of the function over the interval and find
such that equals the average value of the function over .
Solution:
The formula states the mean value of is given by

We can see in Figure 5.26 that the function represents a straight line and forms a right
triangle bounded by the x- and y-axes. The area of the triangle is

We have

The average value is found by multiplying the area by . Thus, the average

value of the function is .

Set the average value equal to and solve for .

At , .

178
 Figure 5.26: By the Mean Value Theorem, the
continuous function
takes on its average value at at least once over a
closed interval.

5.14. Find the average value of the function over the interval and find
such that equals the average value of the function over .

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 1: Integrals and Anti-derivatives

Theorem 5.4: Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1
If is continuous over an interval , and the function is defined by

then, over .

Example 5.17: Finding a Derivative with the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1 to find the derivative of

Solution:
According to the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, the derivative is given by

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2: The Evaluation Theorem

Theorem 5.5: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2
If is continuous over the interval and is any anti-derivative of , then

179
Example 5.20: Evaluating an Integral with the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Use The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 to evaluate

Solution: Recall the power rule for Anti-derivatives:

Use this rule to find the anti-derivative of the function and then apply the theorem. We
have

Figure 5.28 The evaluation of a definite

integral can produce
a negative value, even though area is always
positive.

Integrating Even and Odd Functions

Rule: Integrals of Even and Odd Functions
For continuous even functions such that ,

180
For continuous odd functions such that ,

Example 5.28: Integrating an Even Function

Integrate the even function

and verify that the integration formula for even functions holds.
Solution:

To verify the integration formula for even functions, we can calculate the integral from
to and double it, then check to make sure we get the same answer.

Since , we have verified the formula for even functions in this particular

example.

181
Figure 5.35 Graph (a) shows the positive area between the curve and the x-axis, whereas
graph (b) shows the negative area between the curve and the x-axis. Both views show the
symmetry about the y-axis.

Example 5.29: Integrating an Odd Function

Evaluate the definite integral of the odd function over the interval .
Solution: The graph is shown in Figure 5.36. We can see the symmetry about the origin
by the positive area above the x-axis over , and the negative area below the x-axis
over . We have

Figure 5.36 The graph shows areas between a curve and the x-axis for an odd function.

5.24: Integrate the function

182
5.5 | Substitution
5.5.1 Use substitution to evaluate indefinite integrals.
5.5.2 Use substitution to evaluate definite integrals.
Theorem 5.7: Substitution with Indefinite Integrals
Let , , where is continuous over an interval, let be continuous over
the corresponding range of , and let be an anti-derivative of . Then,

Proof:
Let , and be as specified in the theorem. Then

Integrating both sides with respect to , we see that

If we now substitute , and , we get

Problem-Solving Strategy: Integration by Substitution

1. Look carefully at the integrand and select an expression within the integrand to
set equal to . Let’s select , such that is also part of the integrand.
2. Substitute and , into the integral.
3. We should now be able to evaluate the integral with respect to . If the integral can’t
be evaluated we need to go back and select a different expression to use as .

183
4. Evaluate the integral in terms of .
5. Write the result in terms of and the expression .

Example 5.30: Using Substitution to Find an Anti-derivative

Use substitution to find the anti-derivative of

Solution: The first step is to choose an expression for . We choose .

Because then , and we already have in the integrand. Write the integral in
terms of :

Remember that is the derivative of the expression chosen for , regardless of what is
inside the integrand. Now we can evaluate the integral with respect to :

Analysis:
We can check our answer by taking the derivative of the result of integration. We should
obtain the integrand. Picking a value for of , we let .

We have

so

This is exactly the expression we started with inside the integrand.

5.25. Use substitution to find the anti-derivative of

184
Example 5.31: Using Substitution with Alteration

Use substitution to find the anti-derivative of

Solution:
Rewrite the integral as . Let and . Now we
have a problem because and the original expression has only . We have
to alter our expression for or the integral in will be twice as large as it should be. If

we multiply both sides of the equation by we can solve this

problem. Thus,

Write the integral in terms of u, but pull the outside the integration symbol:

Integrate the expression in u:

5.26. Use substitution to find the anti-derivative of

Example 5.32: Using Substitution with Integrals of Trigonometric Functions

Use substitution to evaluate the integral

Solution: We know the derivative of is – , so we set . Then

. Substituting into the integral, we have

Evaluating the integral, we get

185
Putting the answer back in terms of , we get

5.27. Use substitution to evaluate the integral

Example 5.33: Finding an Anti-derivative Using u-Substitution

Use substitution to find the anti-derivative of

Solution: If we let , then . But this does not account for the in the
numerator of the integrand. We need to express in terms of . If , then
. Now we can rewrite the integral in terms of :

Then we integrate in the usual way, replace with the original expression, and factor and
simplify the result.
Thus,

5.28. Use substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral

Substitution for Definite Integrals

Theorem 5.8: Substitution with Definite Integrals
Let and let be continuous over an interval , and let be continuous
over the range of . Then,

186
Example 5.34: Using Substitution to Evaluate a Definite Integral
Use substitution to evaluate

Solution: Let , so . Since the original function includes one

factor of and , multiply both sides of the equation by . Then,

To adjust the limits of integration, note that when , , and when

, . Then

Evaluating this expression, we get

5.29: Use substitution to evaluate the definite integral

Example 5.35: Using Substitution with an Exponential Function

Use substitution to evaluate

187
Solution: Let . Then, . To adjust the limits of integration, we
note that when , , and when , . So our substitution gives

5.29: Use substitution to evaluate the definite integral

Example 5.36: Using Substitution to Evaluate a Trigonometric Integral

Use substitution to evaluate

Solution: Let us first use a trigonometric identity to rewrite the integral. The trig identity

allows us to rewrite the integral as

Then,

We can evaluate the first integral as it is, but we need to make a substitution to evaluate
the second integral. Let . Then, , or . Also, when ,

, and when , . Expressing the second integral in terms of , we have

5.6: Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

188
 5.6.1 Integrate functions involving exponential functions.
5.6.2 Integrate functions involving logarithmic functions.
Integrals of Exponential Functions
The exponential function is perhaps the most efficient function in terms of the operations
of calculus. The exponential function, , is its own derivative and its own integral.
Rule: Integrals of Exponential Functions
Exponential functions can be integrated using the following formulas.

Example 5.38: Square Root of an Exponential Function

Find the anti-derivative of the exponential function .
Solution: First rewrite the problem using a rational exponent:

Using substitution, choose . Then, . We have (Figure 5.37)

Then

5.32: Find the anti-derivative of, .

Example 5.39: Using Substitution with an Exponential Function

Use substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral

Solution: Here we choose to let u equal the expression in the exponent on e. Let
and . Again, is off by a constant multiplier; the original function
contains a factor of , not . Multiply both sides of the

189
equation by so that the integrand in u equals the integrand in . Thus,

Integrate the expression in u and then substitute the original expression in back into the
integral:

5.33: Evaluate the indefinite integral

Example 5.41: Evaluating a definite integral involving an Exponential Function

Evaluate the definite integral

Solution: (Do it… .)

5.34: Evaluate the indefinite integral

Example 5.44: Evaluating a Definite Integral Using Substitution

Evaluate the definite integral using substitution:

Solution: This problem requires some rewriting to simplify applying the properties. First,
rewrite the exponent on as a power of , then bring the in the denominator up to the
numerator using a negative exponent. We have

190
Let , the exponent on . Then

Bringing the negative sign outside the integral sign, the problem now reads

Next, change the limits of integration:

Notice that now the limits begin with the larger number, meaning we must multiply by
and interchange the limits. Thus,

5.37: Evaluate the definite integral using substitution

Integrals Involving Logarithmic Functions

Rule: Integration Formulas Involving Logarithmic Functions
The following formulas can be used to evaluate integrals involving logarithmic functions.

Example 5.45: Finding an Anti-derivative Involving

Find the anti-derivative of the function, .

Solution: First factor the outside the integral symbol. Then use the rule. Thus,

191
5.38: Find the anti-derivative of .

Example 5.46: Finding an Anti-derivative of a Rational Function

Find the anti-derivative of

Solution: This can be rewritten as

Use substitution. Let , then . Alter by factoring out the

. Thus,

Rewrite the integrand in :

Then we have

Example 5.47: Finding an Anti-derivative of a Logarithmic Function

Find the anti-derivative of the log function .
Solution: Follow the format in the formula listed in the rule on integration formulas
involving logarithmic functions. Based on this format, we have

5.39: Find the anti-derivative of .

Integrals that Result in Inverse Sine Functions

Rule: Integration Formulas Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions

192
The following integration formulas yield inverse trigonometric functions:
1.

Example 5.49: Evaluating a Definite Integral Using Inverse Trigonometric

Functions
Evaluate the definite integral

Solution: We can go directly to the formula for the anti-derivative in the rule on
integration formulas resulting in inverse trigonometric functions, and then evaluate the
definite integral. We have

5.40: Find the Anti-derivative of

Example 5.50: Finding an Anti-derivative Involving an Inverse Trigonometric

Function
Evaluate the integral

Solution: Substitute . Then and we have

Applying the formula with , we obtain

193
5.41: Find the indefinite integral using an inverse trigonometric function and substitution
for

Example 5.51: Evaluating a Definite Integral

Evaluate the definite integral

Solution: The format of the problem matches the inverse sine formula. Thus,

Integrals Resulting in Other Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example 5.52: Finding an Anti-derivative Involving the Inverse Tangent Function
Find an anti-derivative of

Solution: Comparing this problem with the formulas stated in the rule on integration
formulas resulting in inverse trigonometric functions, the integrand looks similar to the
formula for . So we use substitution, letting , then and

. Then, we have

5.42: Use substitution to find the anti-derivative of

Example 5.53: Applying the Integration Formulas

Find the anti-derivative of

194
Solution: Apply the formula with . Then,

5.43: Find the anti-derivative of

5.44: Evaluate the definite integral

5.6 Integration of Rational Expressions by Partial Fractions

Introduction: We start with a few definitions. A rational expression is formed when a
polynomial is divided by another polynomial. In a proper rational expression the
degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator. In an improper
rational expression the degree of the numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of
the denominator. This set of notes is given in three parts. Part A is an explanation of how
to decompose a proper rational expression into a sum of simpler fractions. Part B
explains Integration by Partial Fractions of proper rational expressions. Part C explains
Integration by Partial Fractions of improper rational expressions. Each part includes
detailed examples and a set of exercises.

PART A: Partial Fraction Decomposition

In mathematics we often combine two or more rational expressions into one.

Occasionally, however, the reverse procedure is necessary. The problem is to take a

fraction whose denominator is a product of factors, and split it into a sum of simpler
fractions. There is more than one way to do this. For the types of expressions we are
dealing with the method illustrated here is probably the easiest to apply and understand
(no system of equations to solve).

195
Case 1: The denominator is a product of distinct linear factors.
For each distinct factor the sum of partial fractions includes a term of the form,

Example 5.6.1 Rewrite as a sum of simpler fractions.

Solution: First write the fraction as

Multiply both sides by the common denominator to get

In this linear equation we can substitute any x-values to solve for and . However, the
process is simpler if we choose those values which make a factor zero
.
Substitute in the linear equation.

Substitute in the linear equation.

Therefore, the partial fraction decomposition is

Example 5.6.2 Rewrite the following as a sum of simpler fractions.

Case 2: The denominator is a product of linear factors, some of which are repeated
For each repeated linear factor, , the sum of partial fractions includes terms
of the Form

Example 5.6.3 Rewrite

196
as a sum of simpler fractions.
Solution: First write the fraction as

Multiply both sides by

Substitute

There is no other factor to make zero, so we choose an easy x-value to work with.
Substitute

The partial fraction decomposition is

Example 5.6.4: Rewrite

as a sum of simpler fractions.

Case 3: The denominator has one or more distinct, irreducible quadratic factors.
For each distinct factor the sum of partial fractions includes a term

Example 5.6.5 Rewrite

as a sum of simpler fractions.

Solution: First write the fraction as

Multiply by

197
Substitute,
Substitute,
Substitute,

The partial fraction decomposition is

Example 5.6.6 Rewrite the following as a sum of simpler fractions.

PART B: Integration of proper Rational Expressions by Partial Fractions

In this part the student is expected to understand partial fraction decomposition as
explained in Part A. The student is also expected to be able to perform elementary
integrations (by substitution or by inspection) of the following types.

Example 5.6.7 Find the indefinite integral.

Solution:

Example 5.6.8 Find the indefinite integral.

Solution:

198
Example 5.6.9 Find the indefinite integral.

Solution:

Example 5.6.10 Find the indefinite integral.

Solution:

PART C:
Integration of improper Rational Expressions by Partial Fractions
The prerequisite skills of Part B are also required in Part C. Furthermore, the student is
expected to be able to use long division to decompose an improper rational expression.
In each indefinite integral of Part C the improper rational expression must be rewritten as
a polynomial plus proper rational. In most cases the resulting proper rational can then be
further simplified by decomposition into a sum of partial fractions. The details of the long
division and partial fraction decomposition are left to the student.

Example 5.6.11 Find the indefinite integral.

Solution:

199
Example 5.6.12: Find the indefinite integral.

Solution:

Example 5.6.13: Find the indefinite integral.

Solution:

5.7 Integration of functions by parts

From the derivative of two functions and we obtain that:

Take the integral of both sides:

Therefore,

I. Guidelines for Selecting and :

(There are always exceptions, but these are generally helpful.)
“ ” Choose ‘ ’ to be the function that comes first in this list:
L: Logarithmic Function
I: Inverse Trig Function
A: Algebraic Function

200
 T: Trig Function
E: Exponential Function

Example 5.7.1:

Since is a logarithmic function and is an algebraic function, let:

Example 5.7.2: Find the following Integral, using by parts:

Solution:
Let (Logarithmic Function)
(Trig Function [L comes before T in LIATE])

201
Example 5.7.3: Find the following Integral, using by parts:

Solution: At first it appears that integration by parts does not apply, but let:
(Inverse Trig Function)
(Algebraic Function)

II. Alternative General Guidelines for Choosing and :

A. Let be the most complicated portion of the integrand that can be “easily’
integrated.
B. Let be that portion of the integrand whose derivative is a “simpler” function
than itself.

Example 5.7.4: Find the following Integral, using by parts:

Solution: Since both of these are algebraic functions, the LIATE Rule of Thumb is not
helpful. Applying Part (A) of the alternative guidelines above, we see that is the
“most complicated part of the integrand that can easily be integrated.” Therefore:

( remaining factor in integrand)

202
III. Using repeated Applications of Integration by Parts:
Sometimes integration by parts must be repeated to obtain an answer.
Note: DO NOT switch choices for and in successive applications.

Example 5.7.5: Find the following Integral, using by parts:

Solution:
(Algebraic Function)
(Trig Function)

Second application of integration by parts:

(Algebraic function) (Making “same” choices for and )

203
 (Trig function)

Note: After each application of integration by parts, watch for the appearance of a
constant multiple of the original integral.

Example 5.7.6: Find the following Integral, using by parts:

Solution:
(Trig function)
(Exponential function)

Second application of integration by parts:

(Trig function) (Making “same” choices for and )
(Exponential function)

Note appearance of original integral on right side of equation. Move to left side and solve
for integral as follows:

204
Practice Problems:

1. 2.

3. 4.
5. 6.
7. 8.

9. 10.

205