EA 430 Structural Instability

Andrew Wisdom Zulu

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

School of Engineering,
The copperbelt University,
Kitwe Zambia.

OCTOBER 2021
 Introduction
A large proportion of an aircraft’s structure comprises thin webs stiffened
by slender longerons or stringers.
Both are susceptible to failure by buckling at a buckling stress or critical
stress, which is frequently below the limit of proportionality and seldom
appreciably above the yield stress of the material.
Clearly, for this type of structure, buckling is the most critical mode of
failure so that the prediction of buckling loads of columns, thin plates and
stiffened panels is extremely important in aircraft design.
Two types of structural instability arise: primary and secondary. The
former involves the complete element, there being no change in cross-
sectional area while the wavelength of the buckle is of the same order as
the length of the element.
In the latter mode, changes in cross-sectional area occur and the wave-
length of the buckle is of the order of the cross-sectional dimensions of
the element.
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 Euler buckling of columns I
The first significant contribution to the theory of the buckling of columns
was made as early as 1744 by Euler.
Our initial discussion is therefore a presentation of the Euler theory for
the small elastic deflection of perfect columns.
It is common experience that if an increasing axial compressive load is
applied to a slender column there is a value of the load at which the
column will suddenly bow or buckle in some unpredetermined direction.
If the perfect column of figure 1 is subjected to a compressive load P,
only shortening of the column occurs no matter what the value of P.
However, if the column is displaced a small amount by a lateral load F
then, at values of P below the critical or buckling load, PCR , removal of F
results in a return of the column to its undisturbed position, indicating a
state of stable equilibrium.
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 Euler buckling of columns II

Figure: 1 Definition of buckling load for a perfect column

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 Euler buckling of columns III

Figure: 2 Determination of buckling load for a pin-ended column.

Consider the pin-ended column AB of figure 2.We assume that it is in the

displaced state of neutral equilibrium associated with buckling so that the
compressive load P has attained the critical value PCR .
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 Euler buckling of columns IV
Simple bending theory (see Lecture 2) gives

d 2v
EI 2 = −M
dz
Or
d 2v
EI = −PCR v (1)
dz 2
so that the differential equation of bending of the column is

d 2v PCR
2
+ v=0 (2)
dz EI
The differential Eq. (2) has the solution

v = A cos µz + B sin µz (3)

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 Euler buckling of columns V
where µ2 = PCR /EI and A and B are unknown constants. The boundary
conditions for this particular case are v = 0 at z = 0 and l. Thus A = 0
and
B sin µl = 0
For a non-trivial solution (i.e. v , 0) then

sin µl = 0 or µl = nπ where n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

giving
PCR l 2
= n2 π2
EI
or
n2 π2 EImin
PCR = (4)
l2
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 Euler buckling of columns VI
The smallest value of buckling load, in other words the smallest value of P
which can maintain the column in a neutral equilibrium state, is obtained
by substituting n = 1 in Eq. (4). Hence

π2 EI
PCR = (5)
l2
Other values of PCR corresponding to n = 2, 3, . . . ,

4π2 EI 9π2 EI
PCR = , , ...
l2 l2
These higher values of buckling load cause more complex modes of
buckling such as those shown in figure 3.

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 Euler buckling of columns VII
The different shapes may be produced by applying external restraints to
a very slender column at the points of contraflexure to prevent lateral
movement.

Figure: 3 Buckling loads for different buckling modes of a pin-ended column.

The critical stress, σCR , corresponding to PCR , is, from Eq. (5)

PCR n2 π2 EImin π2 E
σCR = = ⇒ σCR = (6)
A l2A (l /r )2
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 Euler buckling of columns VIII
We introduce r 2 = IminA
which is the radius of gyration.
The term l /r is known as the slenderness ratio of the column. For a
column that is not doubly symmetrical, r is the least radius of gyration of
the cross-section since the column will bend about an axis about which
the flexural rigidity EI is least. Alternatively, if buckling is prevented in all
but one plane then EI is the flexural rigidity in that plane.
Equations (5) and (6) may be written in the form

π2 EI
PCR = (7)
le2
and
π2 E
σCR = (8)
(le /r )2
where le is the effective length of the column.
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 Euler buckling of columns IX
This is the length of a pin-ended column that would have the same critical
load as that of a column of length l, but with different end conditions.
Each PCR corresponds to a unique mode of deformation. So the problem
can be characterized as an eigenvalue problem where the bulking loads
are eigenvalues and their corresponding deformation modes are eigen
functions.
Table 1 gives the solution in terms of effective length for columns having
a variety of end conditions.
In addition, the boundary conditions referred to the coordinate axes of
Fig. 2 are quoted.
Suppose that the lateral load F in Fig. 1 is removed. Since the column is
perfectly straight, homogeneous and loaded exactly along its axis, it will
suffer only axial compression as P is increased.
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 Euler buckling of columns X

This situation, theoretically, would continue until yielding of the material

of the column occurred. However, as we have seen, for values of P below
PCR the column is in stable equilibrium whereas for P > PCR the column
is unstable.
A plot of load against lateral deflection at mid-height would therefore have
the form shown in Fig. 4 where, at the point P = PCR , it is theoretically
possible for the column to take one of three deflection paths.
If disturbed, the column would buckle in either of two lateral directions;
the point at which this possible branching occurs is called a bifurcation
point.

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 Euler buckling of columns XI

further bifurcation points occur at the higher values of PCR i.e

4π2 EI 9π2 EI
!
PCR = , ,...
l2 l2
.

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 Euler buckling of columns XII

Figure: 4 Behaviour of a perfect pin-ended column

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Effective length for columns having a variety of end
conditions.

Ends le /l Boundary conditions

Both pinned 1.0 v = 0 at z = 0 and l
Both fixed 0.5 v = 0 at z = 0 and z = l, dv /dz = 0 at z = l
One fixed, the other free 2.0 v = 0 and dv /dz = 0 at z = 0
One fixed, the other pinned 0.6998 dv /dz = 0 at z = 0, v = 0 at z = l and z = 0

Table: 1

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 Stability analysis using energy methods M8.5 I

The fact that the total potential energy of an elastic body possesses a
stationary value in an equilibrium state may be used to investigate the
neutral equilibrium of a buckled column.
In particular, the energy method is extremely useful when the deflected
form of the buckled column is unknown and has to be ‘guessed’.
Consider the pin-ended column shown in its buckled position in Fig. 5.
The internal or strain energy U of the column is assumed to be produced
by bending action alone and is given by the well known expression
l
M2
Z
U= dz (9)
0 EI

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 Stability analysis using energy methods M8.5 II

Figure: 5 Shortening of a column due to buckling

or alternatively, since EId 2 v /dz 2 = −M

l !2
d 2v
Z
EI
U= dz (10)
2 0 dz 2

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 Stability analysis using energy methods M8.5 III
The potential energy V of the buckling load PCR , referred to the straight
position of the column as the datum, is then

V = −PCR δ

where δ is the axial movement of PCR caused by the bending of the col-
umn from its initially straight position. It can be shown that δ is given
by
!2
1 l dv
Z
δ= dz
2 0 dz
giving
Z l !2
PCR dv
V =− dz (11)
2 0 dz
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 Stability analysis using energy methods M8.5 IV
The total potential energy of the column in the neutral equilibrium of its
buckled state is therefore
l l !2
M2
Z Z
PCR dv
U+V = d− dz (12)
0 EI 2 0 dz

or, using the alternative form of U from Eq. (10)

l !2 l !2
d 2v
Z Z
EI PCR dv
U+V = dz − dz (13)
2 0 dz 2 2 0 dz

From Chapter 7 of the course textbook it can be seen that the exact
solutions of plate bending problems are obtainable by energy methods
when the deflected shape of the plate is known.

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 Stability analysis using energy methods M8.5 V
An identical situation exists in the determination of critical loads for col-
umn and thin plate buckling modes. For the pin-ended column under
discussion a deflected form of
∞
X nπz
v= An sin (14)
n =1
l

satisfies the boundary conditions of

!2 !2
d 2v d 2v
(v )z =0 = (v )z =l = 0 =
dz 2 z =0 dz 2 z =l

and is capable, within the limits for which it is valid and if suitable values
for the constant coefficients An are chosen, of representing any continu-
ous curve.We are therefore in a position to find PCR exactly.
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 Stability analysis using energy methods M8.5 VI
Substituting Eq. (14) into Eq. (13) gives

∞
Z l  4 X 2
EI π  2 nπz 
U+V =  n An sin  dz
2 0 l  n =1
l 
∞
Z l  2 X 2
PCR π  nπz 
−  nAn cos  dz (15)
2 0 l  n=1
l 

The product terms in both integrals of Eq. (15) disappear on integration,

leaving only integrated values of the squared terms. Thus
∞ ∞
π4 EI X 4 π2 PCR X
U+V = n An2 − n2 An2 (16)
4l 3 n=1
4l n=1

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Stability analysis using energy methods M8.5 VII
Differentiating equation 16 wrt An and setting the results equal to zero
gives
d(U + V ) π4 EI n4 An π2 PCR n2 An
= − =0
dAn 2l 3 2l
from which
π2 EI n2
PCR = as before
l2
We see that each term in Eq. (14) represents a particular deflected shape
with a corresponding critical load.
Suppose that the deflection curve of a particular column is unknown or
extremely complicated. We then assume a reasonable shape which sat-
isfies, as far as possible, the end conditions of the column and the pattern
of the deflected shape (Rayleigh–Ritz method).

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Stability analysis using energy methods M8.5 VIII

Figure: 6 Buckling load for a built-in column by the energy method

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 Stability analysis using energy methods M8.5 IX
Generally, the assumed shape is in the form of a finite series involving a
series of unknown constants and assumed functions of z. Let us suppose
that v is given by

v = A1 z + A2 z 2 + A3 z 3
v 0 = A1 + 2A2 z + 3A3 z 3
v 00 = 2A2 + 6A3 z

Putting the boundary conditions for the above assumption yield

v (0) = 0 ok! (automatically)

0
v (0) = 0 ⇒ A1 = 0, (No linear contribution)
v ”(l ) = 0 2A2 + 6A3 l = 0 ⇒ A2 = −3A3 l
v0
v (l ) = v0 ⇒ − 3A3 l 3 + A3 l 3 = v0 ⇒ A3 = 2
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2l June 20, 2022 23 / 66
 Stability analysis using energy methods M8.5 X

Substitution in Eq. (12) results in an expression for total potential energy

in terms of the critical load and the coefficients A1 , A2 and A3 as the
unknowns.
Assigning stationary values to the total potential energy with respect to
A1 , A2 and A3 in turn produces three simultaneous equations from which
the ratios A1 /A2 , A1 /A3 and the critical load are determined.
As a simple illustration consider the column shown in its buckled state in
Fig. 6. An approximate shape may be deduced from the deflected shape
of a tip-loaded cantilever. Thus

v0 z 2
v= (3l − z )
2l 3

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 Stability analysis using energy methods M8.5 XI
The bending moment at any section is M = PCR (v0 − v )

3v0 z 3 v0 z 3 3z 3 z3
" # !
2 2 2 2
M = PCR v0 v0 − + = P v
CR 0 1 − +
2l 2 2l 3 2l 2 2l 3

Substitution for M and v in Eq. (12) gives

2 !2 !3
PCR v02 l
3z 3 z3 l
Z Z
PCR 3v0
U+V = 1− 2 + 3 dz − z 2 (2l − z )2 dz
2EI 0 2l 2l 2 0 2l 3

Integrating and substituting the limits we have

2
17 PCR v02 l 3 v2
U+V = − PCR 0
35 2EI 5 l
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Stability analysis using energy methods M8.5 XII
Hence
2
d(U + V ) 17 PCR v0 l 6PCR v0
= − =0
dv0 35 EI 5l
from which
42EI EI
PCR = = 2 . 471 (∼ 1% error)
17l 2 l2
This value of critical load compares with the exact value (see Table 1)
of π2 EI/4l 2 = 2.467EI/l 2 ; the error, in this case, is seen to be extremely
small.
Approximate values of critical load obtained by the energy method are
always greater than the correct values. The explanation lies in the fact
that an assumed deflected shape implies the application of constraints in
order to force the column to take up an artificial shape.

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 Plate Buckling M9.1 I

A plate with two free edges and two loaded edges simply supported be-
haves very similarly to Euler beam.
If on the other hand the two unloaded edges are also simply supported,
the load carrying capacity will remain in the bucked state (post bucked).
This is actively used in design of aircraft etc.
For a thin plate with a > b, from previous analysis {Simply supported edges}
the deflected shape may be represented by the infinite double trigono-
metrical series
∞ X ∞
X mπx n πx
w= Amn sin sin
m=1 n=1
a b
Also, the total potential energy of the plate is,

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 Plate Buckling M9.1 II

Figure: 7 Buckling of a thin flat plate

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 Plate Buckling M9.1 III
 
a b  ∂2 w ∂2 w 2
Z Z !
1  
U+V = D  + 2
2 0 b  ∂x 2

 ∂y
 !2   !2 
 ∂2 w ∂2 w ∂ 2
w   ∂w 
− 2(1 − ν)  2

−   − Nx dxdy (17)

∂x ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y    ∂x 

The integration of Eq. (17) on substituting for w is similar to those inte-

grations carried out before. Thus
∞ ∞ !2 ∞ X
∞
π4 abD X X 2 m2 n2 π2 b X
U+V = Amn + − Nx m2 Amn
2
(18)
8 m=1 n=1
a2 b2 8a m =1 n =1

The total potential energy of the plate has a stationary value in the neutral
equilibrium of its buckled state (i.e. Nx = Nx ,CR ).
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 Plate Buckling M9.1 IV

Therefore, differentiating Eq. (18) with respect to each unknown coeffi-

cient Amn we have
!2
∂(U + V ) π4 abD m2 n2 π2 b
= Amn 2 + 2 − Nx ,CR m2 Amn
∂Amn 4 a b 4a

and for a non-trivial solution

!2
1 m2 n2
Nx ,CR =π a D 2 2 + 2
2 2
(19)
m a b

Different combinations of m and n correspond to different buckling modes,

i.e different numbers of half waves in the x and y −directions.

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 Plate Buckling M9.1 V
Since the plate is not loaded in the y −direction, it is fair to assume n = 1
for all solution of interest. Thus we may write Eq. (19) as
!#2
a m2
"
1
Nx ,CR =π D 2
2
+ 2
m a b
or
k π2 D
Nx ,CR = (20)
b2
where the plate buckling coefficient k is given by the minimum value of
!
mb a
k = + (21)
a mb

for a given value of a /b.

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 Plate Buckling M9.1 VI

To determine the minimum value of k for a given value of a /b we plot

k as a function of a /b for different values of m as shown by the dotted
curves in Fig. 8.
The minimum value of k is obtained from the lower envelope of the curves
shown solid in the figure.
It can be seen that m varies with the ratio a /b and that k and the buckling
load are a minimum when k = 4 at values of a /b = 1, 2, 3, . . . As a /b
becomes large k approaches 4 so that long narrow plates tend to buckle
into a series of squares.

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 Plate Buckling M9.1 VII
The transition from one buckling mode to the next may be found by equat-
ing values of k for the m and m + 1 curves. Hence
mb a (m + 1)b a
+ = +
a mb a (m + 1)b
giving
a
q
= m(m + 1)
b
√
Substituting
√ m = 1, we have a /b = 2 = 1.414, and for m = 2, a /b =
6 = 2.45 and so on. For a given value of a /b the critical stress, σCR =
Nx ,CR /t, is found from Eqs (20) i.e.

k π2 E t
 2
σCR = (22)
12(1 − ν ) b
2

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 Plate Buckling M9.1 VIII

Figure: 8 Buckling coefficient k for simply supported plates.

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 Local buckling M9.4 I
We distinguished in the introductory remarks to this topic between pri-
mary and secondary (or local) instability. The latter form of buckling usu-
ally occurs in the flanges and webs of thin-walled columns having an
effective slenderness ratio, le /r < 20.
For le /r > 80 this type of column is susceptible to primary instability. In
the intermediate range of le /r between 20 and 80, buckling occurs by a
combination of both primary and secondary modes.
Thin-walled columns are encountered in aircraft structures in the shape
of longitudinal stiffeners, which are normally fabricated by extrusion pro-
cesses or by forming from a flat sheet.
A variety of cross-sections are employed although each is usually com-
posed of flat plate elements arranged to form angle, channel, Z or ‘top
hat’ sections, as shown in Fig. 8.
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 Local buckling M9.4 II
In local instability the flanges and webs buckle like plates with a resulting
change in the cross-section of the column. The wavelength of the buckle
is of the order of the widths of the plate elements and the corresponding
critical stress is generally independent of the length of the column when
the length is equal to or greater than three times the width of the largest
plate element in the column cross-section.
For a plate which is simply supported on three sides with one edge free
and has a /b > 3. Hence,
 t 2
σCR = 0.388E (ν = 0.3)
b
It must be appreciated that the calculation of local buckling stresses is
generally complicated with no particular method gaining universal accep-
tance, much of the information available being experimental.
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 Local buckling M9.4 III

Figure: 9 (a) Extruded angle; (b) formed channel; (c) extruded Z; (d) formed ‘top
hat’.

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 Example
Calculate the ultimate local buckling stress for the non-symmetric L −profile
in the figure below.
a
The profile is made of an Aluminium alloy with σ0,2 = 250 MPa.
b How large does the local buckling stress become if the profile instead is
made of steel with σs = 400 MPa? Both materials are elastic-plastic with
ν = 0.3.

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 Torsional Buckling M8.6 I

In some instances thin-walled columns of open cross-section do not buckle

in bending as predicted by the Euler theory but twist without bending, or
bend and twist simultaneously, producing flexural–torsional buckling.
The solution of this type of problem relies on the theory presented for the
torsion of open section beams subjected to warping (axial) restraint.
Initially, however, we shall establish a useful analogy between the bend-
ing of a beam and the behaviour of a pin-ended column.
The bending equation for a simply supported beam carrying a uniformly
distributed load of intensity wy and having Cx and Cy as principal cen-
troidal axes is
d4 v
EIxx 4 = wy (23)
dz

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 Torsional Buckling M8.6 II
Also, the equation for the buckling of a pin-ended column about the Cx
axis is (see Eq. (1))
d 2v
EIxx 2 = −PCR v (24)
dz
Differentiating Eq. (24) twice with respect to z gives

d 4v d 2v
EIxx 4 = −PCR 2 (25)
dz dz
Comparing Eqs (23) and (25) we see that the behaviour of the column
may be obtained by considering it as a simply supported beam carrying
a uniformly distributed load of intensity wy given by

d 2v
wy = −PCR (26)
dz 2
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 Torsional Buckling M8.6 III
Similarly, for buckling about the Cy axis

d 2u
wx = −PCR (27)
dz 2
The general equation for the torsion of a thin-walled beam, we have
 
d 4 θ  P  d 2 θ
EΓ 4
−  GJ − I0  2 = 0 (28)
dz A dz

 |{z}
|{z} St venant
Vlasov

d2θ
This is a Fourth order DE in θ and 2nd DE in dz 2
. Here

2 2
I0 = Ixx + Iyy + A (xsc + ysc )

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 Torsional Buckling M8.6 IV
is the polar second moment of area of the column about the shear centre
S. And I
Γ= 4AR2 · tds

And AR = AR0 − AR0

We can rearrange 28 into the form

d2 d 2 θ d 2θ
! !
PCR ,θ
EΓ 2 + I0 − GJ =0
dz dz 2 A dz 2

d2θ
and has solution dz 2
= A sin µz + B cos µz, giving
PCR ,(θ)
− GJ
µ =
2 A
(29)
EΓ
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 Torsional Buckling M8.6 V

If the column is free to rotate about the x and y axes at its ends, Mx =
My = 0 at z = 0 and z = L , and

d 2v d 2u
= = 0 at z = 0 and z = L
dz 2 dz 2
Further, if the ends of the column are free to warp we obtain

d 2θ
= 0 at z = 0 and z = L
dz 2

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 Torsional Buckling M8.6 VI
An assumed buckled shape given by
πz πz πz
u = A1 sin v = A2 sin θ = A3 sin (30)
L L L
in which A1 , A2 and A3 are unknown constants, satisfies the above bound-
ary conditions. Substituting for u, v and θ from Eqs (30) in the previous
equation gives

π2 EIxx
! 
P− A2 − Pxsc A3 = 0



2

L 



π EIyy
2 ! 



P− − = (31)

2
A 1 Py sc A 3 0
L





π EΓ
2
! 
I0



Pysc A1 − Pxsc A2 − + GJ − P A = 0


2 3 
L A

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 Torsional Buckling M8.6 VII

Here L is the true length and not the effective length

For non-zero values of A1 , A2 and A3 the determinant of Eqs (31) must
equal zero, i.e.

π2 EIxx
0 P− L2
−Pxsc
π2 EIyy
P− L2
0 Pysc =0
I0 π2 E Γ
Pysc −Pxsc A
P − L2
− GJ

The roots of the cubic equation formed by the expansion of the deter-
minant provides us with the lowest buckling load for combined flexu-
ral/torshional buckling.

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 Torsional Buckling M8.6 VIII
If for instance xsc = 0 (symmetry around the y −axis) the determinant get
reduced and we get
π2 EIyy
 
P − Pysc 
 L2  = 0
I0 π2 E Γ
Pysc A
P − L2
− GJ

and corresponding if ysc and xsc , 0.

In the case where the shear centre of the column and the centroid of
area coincide, i.e. the column has a doubly symmetrical cross-section,
xsc = ysc = 0 we get
d2 v
EIxx 2 = −Pv (32)
dz
d2 u
EIyy = −Pu (33)
dz 2
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 Torsional Buckling M8.6 IX
d4 θ P d2 θ
!
E Γ 4 GJ − I0 =0 (34)
dz A dz 2
Equations (32), (33) and (34), are uncoupled and provide three separate
values of buckling load.
Thus, Eqs (32) and (33) give values for the Euler buckling loads about
the x and y axes respectively, while Eq. (34) gives the axial load which
would produce pure torsional buckling; clearly the buckling load of the
column is the lowest of these values.
For the column whose buckled shape is defined by Eqs (30), substitution
for v , u and θ in Eqs (32), (33) and (34), respectively gives

π2 EIxx π2 EIyy π2 E Γ
!
A
PCR (xx ) = PCR (yy ) = PCR (θ) = GJ + (35)
L2 L2 I0 L2

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 Example 8.3 I

A thin-walled pin-ended column is 2m long and has the cross-section shown

in Fig. 10. If the ends of the column are free to warp determine the lowest
value of axial load which will cause buckling and specify the buckling mode.
Take E = 75, 000 N/mm2 and G = 21, 000 N/mm2 .

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 Example 8.3 II

Figure: 10 Column section of Example 8.3

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 Example 8.4 I

A column of length 1m has the cross-section shown in Fig. 11. If the ends of
the column are pinned and free to warp, calculate its buckling load; Take
E = 70000 N/mm2 , G = 30000 N/mm2 .

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 Example 8.4 II

Figure: 11 Column section of Example 8.4

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 Beam buckling with Initial imperfections M8.3 I
Look at an initially slightly bent, simply supported beam with the defor-
mation deformed shape v0 , when an axial load P is applied, the beam
bends to the shape v
In this case the bending moment at any point is proportional to the change
in curvature of the column from its initial bent position. Thus

d2 v d2 v0
!
EI − = −Pv (36)
dz 2 dz 2

which, on rearranging, becomes

d2 v d2 v0
+ λ2
v = (37)
dz 2 dz 2

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 Beam buckling with Initial imperfections M8.3 II

Figure: 12 Initially bent column

where λ2 = P /EI.

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 Beam buckling with Initial imperfections M8.3 III

The final deflected shape, v, of the column depends upon the form of its
unloaded shape, v0 . Assuming that
∞
X n πz
v0 = An sin (38)
n=1
l

and substituting in Eq. (37) we have

∞
d2 v π2 X 2 n πz
2
+ λ 2
v = − 2
n An sin (39)
dz l n =1 l

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 Beam buckling with Initial imperfections M8.3 IV
The general solution of this differential equation is
∞
X n2 An nπz
v = B cos λz + D sin λz + sin
n=1
n2 − α l

where B and D are constants of integration and α = λ2 l 2 /π2 .

The boundary conditions are v = 0 at z = 0 and l, giving B = D = 0
whence
∞
X n2 An n πz
v= sin (40)
n=1
n −α
2 l
An alternative form for α is

Pl 2 P
α= =
π EI
2 PCR
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 Beam buckling with Initial imperfections M8.3 V

Thus α is always less than one and approaches unity when P approaches
PCR so that the first term in Eq. (40) usually dominates the series.
A good approximation, therefore, for deflection when the axial load is in
the region of the critical load is

A1 πz
v= sin (41)
1−α l
or at the centre of the column where z = l /2

A1
v= (42)
1 − P /PCR

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 Beam buckling with Initial imperfections M8.3 VI

in which A1 is seen to be the initial central deflection. If central deflections

δ(= v − A1 ) are measured from the initially bowed position of the column
then from Eq. (42) we obtain

A1
− A1 = δ
1 − P /PCR

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 Inelastic buckling I

We have shown that the critical stress, Eq. (8), depends only on the
elastic modulus of the material of the column and the slenderness ratio
l/r.
For a given material the critical stress increases as the slenderness ratio
decreases; i.e. as the column becomes shorter and thicker.
A point is then reached when the critical stress is greater than the yield
stress of the material so that Eq. (8) is no longer applicable.
It was assumed in the derivation of Eq. (8) that the stresses in the column
remained within the elastic range of the material so that the modulus of
elasticity E (= d σ/d ) was constant.
Above the elastic limit dσ/d depends upon the value of stress and
whether the stress is increasing or decreasing.

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 Inelastic buckling II

Thus, in Fig. 13 the elastic modulus at the point A is the tangent modulus
Et if the stress is increasing but E if the stress is decreasing.
Consider a column having a plane of symmetry and subjected to a com-
pressive load P such that the direct stress in the column P /A is above
the elastic limit.
If the column is given a small deflection, v, in its plane of symmetry, then
the stress on the concave side increases while the stress on the convex
side decreases.

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 Inelastic buckling III

Figure: 13 Critical stress–slenderness

ratio for a column Figure: 14 Elastic moduli for a material
stressed above the elastic limit

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 Inelastic buckling IV

Figure: 15 Determination of reduced elastic modulus

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 Inelastic buckling V
In the cross-section of the column shown in Fig. 15(a) the compressive
stress decreases in the area A1 and increases in the area A2 , while the
stress on the line nn is unchanged.
Since these changes take place outside the elastic limit of the material,
we see, from our remarks in the previous paragraph, that the modulus of
elasticity of the material in the area A1 is E while that in A2 is Et .
The homogeneous column now behaves as if it were non-homogeneous,
with the result that the stress distribution is changed to the form shown
in Fig. 15(b); the linearity of the distribution follows from an assumption
that plane sections remain plane.
As the axial load is unchanged by the disturbance
Z d1 Z d2
σx dA = σv dA (43)
0 0
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 Inelastic buckling VI
Also, P is applied through the centroid of each end section a distance e
from nn so that
Z d1 Z d2
σx (y1 + e )dA + σv (y2 − e )dA = −Pv (44)
0 0

From Fig. 15(b)

σ1 σ2
σx = y1 σv = y2 (45)
d1 d2
The angle between two close, initially parallel, sections of the column
is equal to the change in slope d2 v/dz 2 of the column between the two
sections. This, in turn, must be equal to the angle δφ in the strain diagram
of Fig. 15(c). Hence
d2 v σ1 σ2
2
= = (46)
dz Ed1 Et d2
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 Inelastic buckling VII

and Eq. (43) becomes, from Eqs (45) and (46)

d1 d2
d2 v d2 v
Z Z
E 2 y1 dA − Et 2 y2 dA = 0 (47)
dz 0 dz 0

Further, in a similar manner, from Eq. (44) we get

d1 d2
d2 v
Z Z !
E y1 dA + Et y2 dA
dz 2 0 0
d1 d2
d2 v
Z Z !
+e 2 E y1 dA − Et y2 dA = −Pv (48)
dz 0 0

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 Inelastic buckling VIII
The second term on the left-hand side of Eq. (48) is zero from Eq. (47).
Therefore we have
d2 v
(EI1 + Et I2 ) = −Pv (49)
dz 2
in which Z d1 Z d2
I1 = y1 dA and I2 = y2 dA
0 0

are the second moments of area about nn of the convex and concave
sides of the column respectively. Putting

Er I = EI1 + Et I2

or
I1 I2
Er = E + Et (50)
I I
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 Inelastic buckling IX
where Er is known as the reduced modulus, gives

d2 v
Er I 2 + Pv = 0
dz
Comparing this with Eq. (2) we see that if P is the critical load PCR then

π2 Er I
PCR = (51)
le2

and
π2 Er
σCR = (52)
(le /r )2
The above method for predicting critical loads and stresses outside the
elastic range is known as the reduced modulus theory.
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