Induction Technology REPORTS

Use of thermochemical data in

inductive melting
by Erwin Dötsch

Minimizing the energy consumed during inductive melting of metal alloys is an ongoing concern for plant construc-
tors and operators. Surprisingly enough, little thought is given to the potential provided by the enthalpy of the melt
in question. It is demonstrated below that the composition of the input materials has a considerable influence on the
heat content of alloy melts and therefore on their energy consumption. Enthalpies for different input materials can be
derived from tabular thermochemical data and these can be used in inductive melting. This particularly applies to the
production of cast iron melts made from scrap steel and various silicon carriers and also to brass melts made from cop-
per and zinc as feed components compared to input materials made of brass.

T
he heat content (i. e. the specific enthalpy of the melt) At first glance, the specific enthalpy value may not seem
is assumed when calculating the energy consumed to be amenable to influence. In what follows, it is shown
during inductive melting of metals. For example, it is that an appropriate selection of input materials drawing
385 kWh/t for melting 1 t of cast iron to 1,480 °C, as shown on thermochemical data can also be used to optimize
in Fig. 1 [1]. The end energy requirement is then determined this baseline value for the energy required to melt metal
by the efficiency of the system and any technical process alloys. In this context, the feeding and melting processes
action taken until the melt is tapped. Plant constructors and deployed in modern, convertor-fed induction furnaces
operators constantly work to improve furnace efficiency and with weight-controlled loading of the charging vehicle
the process engineering in order to minimize the energy (Fig. 2) and the tapping of the entire melt charge (Fig. 3)
consumed. The potential here can be recognized from the are important factors in the targeted adjustment of the
relatively broad spectrum of consumption values in iron composition and sequence of the iron materials and addi-
foundries, which range from 570 kWh/t to over 700 kWh/t. tives to be melted.

Enthalpy of cast iron 385 kWh/t

Plant efficiency 75–70 %

Energy requirement for melting 515–550 kWh/t

Energy requirement including

570–700 kWh/t
preparing until pouring

Fig. 1: Energy requirement for inductive melting of cast iron [1]

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K. Hack has shown using a chromium-alloyed steel as an

example [3]. The heat balance is derived by reading off the
enthalpy value of the respective substance at the relevant
temperature from the tables, multiplied by the associated
amount of the substance in weight ratios and entered into
the balance sum with the correct algebraic sign, as is done
below to determine the enthalpy of cast iron.

SPECIFIC ENTHALPY OF CAST IRON

In order to calculate the specific enthalpy ∆H for cast iron,
an idealized three substance system Fe-C-Si is assumed. The
enthalpies H required for the three components Fe, C and Si,
the two alloying materials FeSi and SiC and of a ductile cast
iron NCI are stated in the tables of Hack [3] in dependence on
temperature. Starting with the values of 25 °C at room tem-
perature and of 1,500 °C melt temperature, the heat balance
Fig. 2: Loading of a charging vehicle by magnet on crane [1] for melting cast iron NCI with 3.7 % C and 1.8 % Si is as follows:

0.945 • H(Fe, 25) + 0.037 • H(C,25) + 0.018 • H(Si, 25) = 1 • H(NCI,1500)

By definition, the pure substances have an enthalpy value

of 0 at room temperature, whilst the tabular value H(NCI,
1500) contains not only the specific heat, but also all heats
of transformation and of reaction. Thus for melting NCI
with the pure substances, the energy requirement ∆H is:

∆H = - 0.037 • 0 – 0.945 • 0 – 0.08 • 0 + 132.68 = 132.68

kJ/100 g,
or with 1 kJ/100 g = 2.78 kWh/t
∆H = 369 kWh/t.

It is assumed for the technical melting process that NCI is

melted from scrap steel, idealized as pure iron, graphite as
pure carbon and ferrosilicon FeSi (75). The heat balance /
energy requirement is then:

Fig. 3: Tapping a 19-t induction crucible furnace [1] 0.939 • H(Fe, 25) + 0.024 • H(FeSi, 25) + 0.037 • H(C, 25) = 1 • H(NCI, 1500),
∆H = - 0.024 • (-32.68) + 132.68 = 133.5 kJ/100 g = 371 kWh/t.

ENTHALPY OF METAL ALLOYS AS A HEAT If silicon carbide (SiC) is used for siliconizing instead of FeSi,
BALANCE the heat balance / energy requirement is as follows:
The enthalpy of alloy melts is made up of the specific heats
of each of the materials in solid and liquid states, their heats 0.945 • H(Fe, 25) + 0.036 • H(SiC, 25) + 0.019 • H(C, 25) = 1 • H(NCI, 1500),
of transformation and of melting and also of exothermic or ∆H = - 0.036 • (-182.61) + 132.68 = 139.3 kJ/100 g = 387
endothermic dissolving reactions. There have been tabular kWh/t.
compilations listing thermochemical data since the 1970s,
firstly for the pure materials, then also for alloys, which have Lastly, the energy required to melt recycling materials
enabled a quantitative description of technically relevant needs to be determined:
processes [2]. This applies just as much to stoichiometric 1 H(NCI, 25) = 1 H(NCI, 1500),
reactions as to heat balances. The energy required to melt ∆H = -1 • (-8.33) + 1 • 132.68 = 141 kJ/100 g = 392 kWh/t.
alloys can thus also be calculated from the tabular enthalpy
values, in that a heat balance is created in order to produce The results of these calculations are summarized in Table 1.
the alloy as a product made of different components, as These make clear that the heat content of cast iron melts

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 Induction Technology REPORTS

Table 1: S pecific enthalpy of cast iron with 3.7 % C and

1.8 % Si at 1,500 °C for different compositions of
input materials

Enthalpies of NCL with 3.7 % C and 1.8 % Si produced from:

Pure substances 369 kWh/t
Steel scrap, FeSi, Graphite 371 kWh/t
Steel scrap, SiC, Graphite 387 kWh/t
Returns 392 kWh/t

Max difference 21 kWh/t

With 70 % efficiency 30 kWh/t

greatly depends on the composition of the input materials.

One of the main influencing factors is the energy required to Fig. 4: S pecific enthalpy ∆H of cast iron at 1,500 °C for different Si-
dissolve silicon and carbon in the iron melt: silicon releases contents in dependence on the C-content [4]
energy, whilst energy is required for carbon. This is apparent
in the diagramme in Fig. 4, in which the specific enthalpies of
cast iron melts using the three pure components at a melting input materials, which were made up of 100 % recycling
temperature of 1,500 °C are shown for different Si-contents in material in the stated composition on the one hand, and
dependence on the C-content [4]. It can be recognized that of scrap steel, manganese, FeSi and carbon on the other.
the energy requirement rises with a higher C-content due to The energy required for melting recycled material was
the heat required to dissolve carbon, whereas it drops as the measured at 532 kWh/t, that for melting steel plus alloying
Si-content increases due to the positive heat of mixing. The materials at 494 kWh/t. If one takes a degree of efficiency
higher heat content of the cast iron in the selected example of 75 %, the resulting enthalpy values at 399 kWh/t for the
with 3.7 % C and 1.8 % Si of 392 kWh/t using the finished alloy recycled material and 370 kWh/t for the compound melt
compared to 369 kWh/t using the three pure components agree very well with the values calculated in Table 1.
shows that the positive effect gained from the released Si- The higher energy requirement during siliconizing with
heat of mixing more than compensates for the heat required SiC instead of FeSi is proved by the results of measurements
to dissolve carbon. published in a paper by Smith and Bullard [6]. The specific
This effect is nullified if SiC is used for siliconizing instead energy requirement when melting in a 1-t, 750 kW, 500 Hz
of FeSi, as is shown by the enthalpy values in Table 1. This induction furnace whilst alloying with SiC is 651 kWh/t
is because silicon is not an almost pure substance as is the compared to 552 and 554 kWh/t when FeSi is used.
case with FeSi, but is rather a compound which requires
additional energy to dissolve it during melting. CONSEQUENCES FOR PRACTICE
As stated above, a value of 385 kWh/t is assumed in prac-
MEASURED ENTHALPY VALUES tice for the heat content of cast iron melts at 1,480 °C; this
In order to check the results of the calculations shown in appears plausible in the context of the foregoing calcula-
Table 1, the heat contents of cast iron melts with 3.4 % C, tions, if one remembers that the percentage of recycled
1.9 % Si and 0.7 % Mn were determined at 1,500 °C in a 6-t, material used in iron foundries is generally up to 50 % and
3,550 kW, 250 Hz induction furnace [5]. Table 2 shows the siliconizing is usually done with SiC instead of with FeSi.
The reason for the latter is the positive influence that SiC-
Table 2: Data from melting trials in a 6-t, 3,550 kW, alloying has on the nuclear state of the melt [7]. Given
250 Hz crucible furnace [5] appropriate experience in the particular application, such
quality benefits are decisive because they outweigh the
Charge material Testrun X Testrun Y benefit of lower energy consumption. On the other hand,
Returns 250 6,000 kg taking a degree of furnace efficiency of 70 % with (392
St 30 5,634 kg – 371) / 0.7 = 30 kWh/t, the maximum difference in the
C - Type 0230 208 kg energy requirement for siliconizing with FeSi is so high
that this effect needs to be taken into account as far as
Mn 11 kg
possible when putting together the charge and in select-
FeSi 75 % 147 kg
ing the silicon carrier. Using cast iron scrap purchased on

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 REPORTS Induction Technology

Table 3: Enthalpies referred to the respective melting temperatures of different alloys, melted from recycled material and from the sing-
le components [1]

Alloy Melt temperature °C Enthalpy (return scrap) Enthalpy (components) Superheating enthalpy
kWh/t kWh/t kWh/(t · K)
G - X 20 Cr 14 (Fe 78,26 C 0,2 FeCr 21,54) 1,600 373 373 0.23
NCI (Fe 94,5 C 3,7 Si 1,8) 1,400 368 345 0.23
Alloyed cast iron (Fe 73 C 3 Si 2 Ni 22) 1,400 367 334 0.23
Ferrosilicon (Fe 25 Si 75) 1,400 621 530 0.26
Ferromanganese (Fe 25 Mn 75) 1,400 341 345 0.24
Brass (Cu 63 Zn 37) 1,000 149 128 0.14
Al alloys
(Al 90 Si 6 Cu 4) 700 320 311 0.31
(Al 92 Cu 5 Mg 2) 700 306 292 0.32
(Al 94 Zn 5 Mg 1) 700 305 302 0.32
(Al 95 Mg 5) 700 307 306 0.33
(Al 88 Si 12) 650 323 323 0.32

the market as the iron carrier instead of steel scrap is also thermochemical data in melting practice for aluminium
worth thinking about when seen from this aspect. and copper alloys. For example, the energy requirement
when melting brass from the components Cu and Zn is up
ENTHALPY VALUES OF DIFFERENT ALLOYS to 40 kWh/t lower than if brass materials are fed in.
The potential presented by enthalpy optimization can also
be exploited when melting aluminium and copper alloys. LITERATURE
Table 3 lists the specific enthalpies of some significant
alloys, referred to the respective melt temperature and [1] Dötsch, E.: Inductive Melting and Holding. 2nd edition. Essen:
the associated overheating enthalpies, which were melted Vulkan-Verlag, 2013
from recycled material on the one hand and from the single [2] Barin, I.; Knacke, O.: Kubaschewski, O.: Thermochemical prop-
components on the other [1]. The comparatively large dif- erties of inorganic substances. Supplement, Springer 1977
ference in the enthalpies for melting brass from recycled/
[3] Hack, K.: Stoffwerte von Metallen und Berechnungen von
scrap brass and for the mixture of copper and zinc amount- Wärmebilanzen. In: A. Starck, A. Mühlbauer and C. Kramer
ing to 21 kWh/t is particularly noticeable. If one remembers (eds.), Praxishandbuch der Thermoprozesstechnik. Volume II.
that the degree of furnace efficiency is around 55 % for Essen: Vulkan-Verlag, 2003, p. 11-17
this material, this results in a remarkable benefit in energy [4] Hack, K.: Personal communication
consumption of over 40 kWh/t when producing brass melts
[5] Bischof, S.: Personal communication
from the individual components. Such an advantage is
often not considered in practice. [6] Smith, L.; Bullard, H.W.: Best melting practices in medium fre-
quency coreless induction furnaces. The Foundryman (July
1995), p. 246-253
CONCLUSION
[7] Röhrig, K.: Konditionierung von Gusseisen. Gießerei-Praxis 4
In the attempts to minimize energy consumption during
(2009), p. 113-126
inductive melting of metal alloys, account also needs to be
taken of the potential offered by the specific enthalpy of
the alloy melts. Tabular thermochemical data demonstrate
that the composition of the input materials exercises a
considerable influence on the energy requirement. The AUTHOR
main factors here are primarily endothermic and exother-
mic processes of transformation and dissolution in the Dr.-Ing. Erwin Dötsch
alloying components, as is shown by the enthalpy values ABP Induction Systems GmbH
determined for cast iron melts. Siliconizing with FeSi instead Dortmund, Germany
of with SiC produces an energy benefit of u p to 25 kWh/t Tel.: +49 (0)231 / 997-2415
here. It is also recommendable to make use of the available [email protected]

54 heat processing 1-2017