MOVEMENT SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 03

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1 | Describe the structures and functions of the nervous system.

2 | Describe the structures and functions of the muscular system.

3 | Describe the structures and functions of the skeletal system.

4 | Name the different types of connective tissues and their unique functions.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 57

CHAPTER 03 | Movement Systems

The human body is organized in levels of increasing complexity. At the microscopic level,

there are subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, electrons), which make up atoms. Atoms

group together to form molecules. Molecules make up organelles, which are small cellular

structures that perform specific functions within the human cell. Cells aggregate into the

various tissues that make up organs and organ systems. Finally, the organ systems, as a
ORGAN SYSTEMS: collective, comprise the organism that is the human.
A group of organs working
together to perform
biological functions.
LEVEL
LEVEL EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
Atoms
Atoms Hydrogen
Hydrogen H
Chemical
Chemical
H H
Molecules
Molecules Water
Water O

Organelle Nucleus
Organelle Nucleus
Cellular
Cell
Cell
Cell Muscle
Musclecell
cell

Tissue Muscle
Muscletissue
tissue

Organ
Organ Heart

Heart

Organ System
Body System Muscular system

Muscular system

Organism
Organism Humanbeing
Human being

Figure 3.1 The Organizational Levels of the Human

Human movement happens when multiple organ systems work together in an interrelated way.

The body has 11 organ systems operating to keep us alive and healthy. Of those 11 systems,

the nervous system, muscular system, and skeletal system are the 3 most prominent organ

systems responsible for human movement. They execute specific functions in concert with

one another to create movement. The skeletal system provides most of the physical support

for the body, and the muscular system operates to make voluntary movements (playing the

piano, exercise) and involuntary movements (heartbeat, digestion) based on signals from the

nervous system.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 58

Of the three primary organ systems involved in human movement, the nervous system is the

most important—it is the command center of the body. All movement (for exercise, sport, and

daily activities) is dictated by the nervous system. Training adaptations and physical fitness

cannot be fully understood without knowledge of how the human nervous system generates,

propagates, and interprets neural signals. Therefore, it’s essential to understand and work to

develop this system of the body when designing training programs.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves and is responsible for

controlling the voluntary (conscious or deliberate) and involuntary (automatic) functions of the

body and the mind. The entire system is of an intricate network that controls and coordinates

many body movements and functions via chemical signaling.

Nervous tissue: plays a key role in the nervous system’s ability to sense, analyze and interpret NERVOUS TISSUE:
Tissue found in the brain,
information, and respond appropriately. There are three types of nervous tissue: spinal cord, and nerves that
coordinates body activities.
Neurons: responsible for transmitting signals to and from other neurons, muscles, or glands.

They communicate with chemical messengers across a synapse, or neural junction, which is NEURONS:
the site where the message is relayed from one neuron to the next. The most fundamental
component of the brain and
nervous system capable
of transmitting information
to and from other neurons,
muscles, or glands.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 59

CHAPTER 03 | Movement Systems

NEUROGLIA:
Cells in the brain and spinal
cord that form a supporting
structure for the neurons
and provide them with
insulation.
Figure 3.2 Neural Synapse

NEUROSECRETORY
Neuroglia: also known as glial cells, these are neural tissues that support, insulate, and
TISSUES:
Neurons that translate protect neurons.
neural signals into chemical
stimuli.
Neurosecretory tissues: translate neural signals into chemical stimuli. These tissues make

neurohormones, hormones produced and released by nerve cells, that are released into the
CELL BODY: bloodstream.
The core and central
structure of a neuron
containing a nucleus and A neuron or nerve cell is the most fundamental component of the brain and nervous system.
other specialized organelles
that aid in nervous system They are electrically excitable with the capability of transmitting information to and from
function.
other neurons, muscles, or gland cells. It is through these neurons that the human body can

receive sensory information from the outside world and communicate motor commands to
AXON:
The thin tail-like structure
our muscles for both voluntary and involuntary movements.
of a neuron that generates
and conducts nerve The three main components of a neuron are the cell body, axon, and dendrites. The cell body
impulses.
is the core of the neuron. It contains a nucleus, maintains the structure of the neuron, and

provides energy to drive actions. The axon is the thin tail-like structure that connects to the
DENDRITES:
Rootlike structures cell body of the neuron and conducts nerve impulses. Dendrites are the receiving part of the
branching out from the
cell body that receive and neuron. They are like roots that branch out from the cell body, receiving and processing
process signals from the
signals from the axons of other neurons.
axons of other neurons.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 60

Figure 3.3 Structures of a Neuron

Neurons are typically separated into one of three classifications based on their function:

sensory neurons, motor neurons, or interneurons. SENSORY NEURONS:

Nerve cells involved in
communicating tactile,
Sensory neurons send information to the brain and spinal cord in response to tactile (sense
auditory, or visual
of touch), auditory, or visual stimuli. Motor neurons receive information from the brain or information.

spinal cord to produce muscular contractions or activate glands. Interneurons connect

neurons to other neurons often communicating signals between motor and sensory neurons. MOTOR NEURONS:
Nerve cells that initiate
muscle contraction or
activate glands.

INTERNEURONS:
Nerve cells that connect
neurons to other neurons.

Figure 3.4 The Neuromuscular Connection

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 61

CHAPTER 03 | Movement Systems

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

CENTRAL NERVOUS
The nervous system is separated into two different divisions, the central nervous system
SYSTEM (CNS):
The part of the nervous (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal
system consisting of the
cord and is the control center of the body and mind. The CNS receives sensory input and
brain and spinal cord.
functions to organize, analyze, and process information. The PNS consists of all of the other

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS nervous tissue outside of the CNS, including all the cranial and spinal nerves that run

SYSTEM (PNS): throughout the body. The PNS is responsible for conveying motor commands, carrying sensory
The nerves and ganglia
information to the CNS and regulating involuntary functions.
(relay areas for nerve
signals) outside of the brain
and spinal cord. The Brain and Brain Stem

The human brain is composed of three main parts, the cerebrum, cerebellum, and the brain
CEREBRUM:
stem. The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, consists of two hemispheres, and is
The uppermost and
largest part of the brain generally responsible for receiving and processing sensory information and controlling the
consisting of a left and right
hemisphere; responsible body. The cerebral cortex is the outer portion of the cerebrum and is where most information
for receiving and processing
sensory information and processing happens. The cerebellum is positioned below the cerebrum and controls
controlling the body.
conscious motor coordination.

CEREBELLUM: The brain stem consists of the midbrain, pons, and the medulla oblongata. The midbrain plays
The region of the brain an important role in motor movement and the processing of auditory and visual information.
responsible for conscious
motor coordination. The pons links the medulla oblongata to the thalamus and helps control sleep, breathing,

facial expression and movement, and posture. The medulla oblongata plays a prominent role
BRAIN STEM: in involuntary functions like coughing, sneezing, and swallowing, along with functions of the
The trunk of the brain,
consisting of the medulla heart, and is located at the base of the brain stem.
oblongata, pons and
midbrain that continues The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres—the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere.
downward to form the
spinal cord. The right hemisphere controls movements on the left side of the body, and the opposite is

true for the left hemisphere. For example, if someone suffers an injury to one side of the
CEREBRAL CORTEX: brain, motor function on the opposite side will be affected. This “crossover” is known as
The part of the brain where
most neural integration decussation and occurs at the junction of the medulla oblongata, the lowest part of the brain
occurs.
stem, and the spinal cord.

MIDBRAIN: Although both hemispheres of the brain are distinct and associated with specific functions,
The brain region they are closely intertwined with each other to create the basis of how each individual moves,
responsible for motor
movement and processing thinks, and functions.
auditory and visual
information.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 62

 PONS:
The brain region responsible
Table 3.1 Brain Hemispheres and Functions for posture, facial movement,
and sleep.

LEFT HEMISPHERE RIGHT HEMISPHERE

Language Spatial perception

MEDULLA OBLONGATA:
The base of the brain stem,
responsible for involuntary
Logical processing Creativity functions like swallowing,
sneezing, and heart function.
Science and math Intuition

Controls muscles on right side Controls muscles on left side THALAMUS:

The brain region responsible
Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. for relaying sensory and
motor signals and regulating
consciousness.
The frontal lobe is at the front of the brain and is involved in motor control, emotion, and

language. The frontal lobe contains the motor cortex, which is responsible for the planning

and coordination of movement. The prefrontal cortex, responsible for problem-solving,

DECUSSATION:
The point of crossover of
impulsivity, attention, and language, is also located in the frontal lobe. the nervous system in
vertebrates located between
the medulla oblongata and
The parietal lobe is directly behind the frontal lobe and is involved in processing sensory the spinal cord.

information. It is home to the somatosensory cortex, which processes sensations like pain,

temperature, and touch. FRONTAL LOBE:

The brain lobe involved in motor
control, emotion, and language.

MOTOR CORTEX:
The region of the frontal
lobe that plans and
coordinates movement.

PREFRONTAL CORTEX:
The part of the frontal lobe
responsible for high-level
thinking and language.

PARIETAL LOBE:
The brain lobe involved
in processing sensory
information.

SOMATOSENSORY
CORTEX:
The region of the parietal lobe
responsible for processing
Figure 3.5 Lobes of the Human Brain sensations like pain,
temperature, and touch.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 63

CHAPTER 03 | Movement Systems

The temporal lobe of the brain is on the sides (literally meaning “near the temples”) and
TEMPORAL LOBE: processes hearing, memory, emotion, and some parts of language. The auditory cortex,
The lateral lobe of the brain
responsible for hearing, responsible for hearing, is located here.
memory, and emotion.
The last lobe is the occipital lobe, which is located at the very back of the brain. It contains

AUDITORY CORTEX: the visual cortex, responsible for processing visual information.
The region of the temporal
lobe responsible for
hearing.

OCCIPITAL LOBE:
The posterior lobe of the
brain responsible for vision.

VISUAL CORTEX:
The specific region of the
occipital lobe responsible
for sight and visual
perception.

Figure 3.6 The Regions of the Human Brain

HYPOTHALAMUS: The hypothalamus plays a key role in maintaining homeostasis, or the body’s
The region at the base of automatic tendency to maintain a constant internal body environment through various
the brain responsible for
maintaining homeostasis. processes, including pH (measure of acidity or alkalinity), temperature, blood glucose (blood

sugar) levels, and blood pressure.

HOMEOSTASIS:
A self-regulating process The Spinal Cord
by which the body
maintains the stability of The spinal cord is a tube of nervous tissue that extends from the brain to the bottom of the
its physiological processes
for the purpose of optimal spine. It is the connection point between the brain and the body—all nerve impulses travel
function.
through the spinal cord to and from the brain. The spinal cord is incredibly important and is

carefully protected by the vertebrae (bones of the spine), meninges (membranes that enclose
SPINAL CORD: the brain and spinal cord), and cerebrospinal fluid (fluid that acts as a cushion and protects
The neural tissue extending
from the medulla oblongata the brain and spinal cord).
to the lumbar region (lower
back) of the vertebral
column.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 64

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The second part of the nervous system is the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The PNS

is made up of nervous tissue that exists outside of the brain and spinal cord. Its primary

purpose is to connect the CNS to the rest of the body via the extensive network of nerves
CRANIAL NERVES:
that serve the limbs and organs of the body. The 12 sensory and motor
nerves extending directly
There are 12 cranial nerves—nerves extending directly from the brain—and 31 spinal nerves from the brain.

that extend from the CNS to the peripheral organs and muscles. The cranial and spinal

nerves serve two main functions: receiving sensory information along with sending and SPINAL NERVES:
Bundles of nerves
relaying motor and autonomic signals between the brain, spinal cord and the body. It’s connected to the spinal
cord carrying information
important to note that reflexes are not processed by the brain. Reflexes are involuntary toward the periphery.
reactions to a stimulus that is processed directly within the spinal cord.

Ganglia are structures containing collections of bodies of nerve cells. They act as a relay for

nerve signals, where nerves enter and deliver a signal while another nerve within the ganglia

receives the signal and moves that signal on from the ganglia to the next site.

Figure 3.7 Regions of the Spine

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 65

CHAPTER 03 | Movement Systems

Table 3.2 Spinal Nerves

NUMBER OF SPINAL NERVES

Cervical spine Thoracic spine Lumbar spine Sacral spine Coccyx

8 pairs 12 pairs 5 pairs 5 pairs 1 pair

EFFERENT NEURONS: The PNS is comprised of afferent and efferent neurons. The afferent neurons are sensory,
Motor neurons sending
information from the CNS sending information, or stimuli, from the body toward the CNS. Efferent neurons are motor
to the muscles to generate
movement. neurons responsible for carrying signals from the CNS to the muscles to generate movement.

TEST TIP!
AFFERENT NEURONS:
Sensory neurons sending Afferent signals Arrive at the CNS. Both afferent and arrive start with the letter A.
information from a stimulus
to the CNS.
Efferent signals Exit the CNS. Both efferent and exit begin with the letter E.

SOMATIC NERVOUS Voluntary and Involuntary Neural Control

SYSTEM:
The part of the nervous The PNS is divided into two divisions: the sensory division and the motor division. The motor
system in charge of
controlling voluntary
division further divides into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system,
movement. which control voluntary and involuntary movement. The somatic nervous system controls

voluntary movement, such as exercise, chewing, and waving. Involuntary movement, such as
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS cardiac function, breathing, and digestion, is controlled by the autonomic nervous system.
SYSTEM:
The part of the nervous The autonomic nervous system is further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic
system responsible for
systems.
involuntary functions and
movement.
The sympathetic nervous system is activated by stress-related activities and is often referred

to as the “fight-or-flight” system because it elevates heart rate and increases cellular
SYMPATHETIC
NERVOUS SYSTEM: metabolism (energy use). On the other hand, the parasympathetic nervous system is
The autonomic system associated with control of the body systems while at rest. The parasympathetic nervous
responsible for “fight-or-
flight.” system is often described as “rest and digest” as it slows the heart rate and controls

digestion.

PARASYMPATHETIC
NERVOUS SYSTEM:
The autonomic system
responsible for “rest and
digest.”

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 66

 Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Brain Spinal cord Motor Neurons Sensory Neurons

(Efferent) (Afferent)
Receives and processes Conducts signals to and
sensory information, from the brain, controls CNS to muscles Sensory organs
initiates responses, reflex activities and glands to CNS
stores memories,
generates thoughts and
emotions
Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System

Controls voluntary Controls involuntary

movements responses

Sympathetic Division Parasympathetic Division

“Fight-or-Flight” “Rest and Digest”

Figure 3.8 Divisions of the Nervous System

FUNCTIONS OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The CNS controls and regulates all systems of the body as well as fosters communication

among and between those systems.

INTERNAL STIMULI:
Sensory Impulses Sensory input from within
the body.
Millions of sensory receptors throughout the body are constantly perceiving and communicating

stimuli. Internal stimuli are changes happening inside the body, including changes in internal
EXTERNAL STIMULI:
temperature, pH (acidity or alkalinity), carbon dioxide concentration, or electrolyte levels. Sensory input from external
sources.
External stimuli, messages from outside the body, may include fluctuations in environmental

temperature, light, or sound. Collectively, the information the body receives for processing,
MECHANORECEPTORS:
whether internal or external, is called sensory input. Nervous system receptors
responding to mechanical
Sensory input from receptors known as mechanoreceptors transmit information via the stimuli such as sound or
touch.
somatic nervous system to control voluntary movement. Along with sensory input, the brain

must have a sense of body position as it moves. Perception or awareness of body movement
PROPRIOCEPTION:
and position in space is known as proprioception. Perception or awareness of
body movement or position.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 67

CHAPTER 03 | Movement Systems

Mechanoreceptors relay information concerning sensory stimuli such as touch, pressure,

MYELIN SHEATH: vibration, and skin tension to the CNS. There are three types of mechanoreceptors:
The insulation of neuron
axons, made of proteins • Tactile receptors: collect and communicate sensations of touch.
and fats, which propagates
neural impulses. • Proprioceptors: communicate the position of the body and movement.

• Baroreceptors: collect and communicate changes in blood pressure.

NERVE IMPULSES:
The myelin sheath around the axon of a neuron insulates the pathway (much like the
The electrical signals used
for nerve communication. insulation around electrical wire) and increases the speed at which impulses are sent and

received. Mechanoreceptors have large myelinated axons, and because of this myelination,
SENSORY the axons of mechanoreceptors are termed low-threshold axons. Low-threshold axons are
INTEGRATION: typically large, conduct faster, and are easier to stimulate electrically. In other words, they are
The way the brain works to
affect responses to neural sensitive to stimuli and send rapid feedback to the CNS. High-threshold axons, on the other
input.
hand, conduct more slowly and are less sensitive to electrical stimulus.

MOTOR UNIT: Integration of Sensory Input

A single motor neuron
and the muscle fibers it The input collected by receptors is translated into electrical signals or nerve impulses. The
controls.
brain interprets these impulses to perceive sensations, have thoughts, or form memories.

The brain makes decisions based on the sensory input it receives at every moment. The way
MOTOR UNIT POOL:
A group of motor units that the brain works to affect responses to neural input is known as sensory integration.
work together.
Motor Function
MECHANICAL WORK: When sensory input has been integrated by the CNS, efferent signals are sent to the tissues
The amount of energy
transferred by a force, of the body to, for example, generate a muscle contraction or secrete a hormone. These
the product of force and
distance.
actions are known as motor function.

Motor function includes both voluntary and involuntary muscle contractions. These
EXTRAFUSAL MUSCLE contractions occur in part because of the firing of a motor unit. A motor unit is a single motor
FIBERS:
neuron that corresponds to a group of contractable muscle fibers. A motor unit pool describes
The standard skeletal
muscle fibers involved in a group of motor units that work in conjunction to cause muscle action. When muscle
creating mechanical work.
contraction and, thus, mechanical work is created, the name given to the standard skeletal

muscle fibers is extrafusal muscle fibers. The neurons that innervate (supply with nerves)
ALPHA MOTOR
NEURONS: these fibers are called alpha motor neurons. These neurons originate in the brain stem and
Motor neurons originating in spinal cord and work specifically to initiate muscle contraction.
the brain stem and spinal
cord that initiate muscle
contraction.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 68

 Axon terminals at neuromuscular junctions
Spinal cord
Motor unit pool

{
Motor Motor
unit 1 unit 2

Nerve

Axon of
Motor neuron motor
cell bodies neuron

Muscle Muscle fibers

Figure 3.9 Motor Unit Function

EXCITATION-
The motor units and the skeletal muscles they innervate (supply with nerves) make up the
CONTRACTION
COUPLING:
structural elements that create movement. The physiological process they must go through
The physiological process
to turn an electrical impulse into a mechanical response is called excitation-contraction of converting a neural
impulse into a mechanical
coupling. A nerve impulse sent to skeletal muscle fibers is called an action potential. The response.

action potential causes an interaction between a motor neuron and its associated muscle

fibers. ACTION POTENTIAL:

An explosion of electrical
activity caused by a neural
The amplitude—or strength—of a nerve’s action potential is independent of the strength—or impulse.
magnitude—of the stimulus. This is referred to as the all-or-none principle. Any stimulus

above the neuron’s threshold will trigger the same action potential and propagate an electrical ALL-OR-NONE
signal. In other words, a nerve either fires or it does not. For example, performing a bicep curl PRINCIPLE:
The principle stating
with a 5-pound weight, an external stimulus, would initiate a response from the nervous the strength of a neural
electrical signal is
system to fire as many motor neurons needed to lift the 5-pound weight. If the 5-pound weight
independent of the
were to be exchanged for a 10-pound weight, the nervous system response would need to magnitude of the stimulus
so long as the neural
recruit additional motor neurons in order to lift the additional weight. All recruited motor threshold is achieved.

neurons fire at a maximal strength, regardless of the number recruited.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 69

CHAPTER 03 | Movement Systems

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Under the control of the motor neurons is the muscular system. There are more than

600 named muscles in the human body contributing to locomotion. They can only pull

via contraction and are often found in pairs or groups to allow for the dynamic movement

humans can create. These groupings of muscles can work together or in opposition to one

another. The speed and intensity of muscle contractions depend upon the type of muscle

fiber comprising each muscle.

TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE

There are three different types of muscle tissue: cardiac, smooth, and skeletal. All three vary

in their cellular structure, location, and function.

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

Cardiac muscle tissue (striated involuntary muscle tissue) composes the wall of the heart.
CARDIAC MUSCLE: It functions to contract the heart and pump blood throughout the body. Cardiac muscle cells
Striated involuntary muscle
tissue found in the heart. are often branched and fuse into one another. And their nuclei are more centered compared

to skeletal tissue. Fortunately, cardiac muscle tissue does not fatigue easily; the period of

rest in between contractions is all it needs. Even during periods of intense exercise, it is the

skeletal muscle tissue that fatigues first.

Smooth Muscle Tissue

Certain organs and organ systems in the body need to contract to push food or other

substances around the body. Smooth muscle, sometimes called visceral muscle, makes up
SMOOTH MUSCLE: most of these organs. The blood vessels, stomach, intestines, and bladder are all made of
Muscle tissue in the gut
and internal organs that is smooth muscle tissue. These muscle tissues contract slowly, operate involuntarily, and do
involuntarily controlled.
not fatigue easily.

Contractions of smooth muscle are triggered by hormones, neural signals from the autonomic

nervous system, and local factors. For example, humans do not have to think about pushing

food from the stomach to the large intestine; it happens automatically. In some cases,

stretching the muscle can trigger contraction.

SKELETAL MUSCLES: Skeletal Muscle Tissue

The voluntary muscles
attached to bones via Skeletal muscles are the most common muscle type in the human body. Skeletal muscle
tendons (thick fibrous
connective tissue) that tissue (striated voluntary muscle tissue) is found attached to bones, in extrinsic eyeball
produce human movement.
muscles, and in the upper third portion of the esophagus (tube that connects the throat to

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 70

the stomach). This tissue functions to move the bones and eyes. It also moves food during

the first part of swallowing. Skeletal muscle tissue is made up of long muscle cells (muscle
ACTIVITIES OF DAILY
fibers) that bear the unique characteristic of being multinucleate (containing many nuclei).
LIVING:
Characteristically, skeletal muscle tissue fatigues easily and cannot sustain prolonged The tasks usually
performed in the course of
maximal-effort contractions. a normal day in a person’s
life, such as eating,
toileting, dressing, bathing,
or brushing the teeth.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE:
Tissue that supports,
connects, or binds other
tissues or organs.

SARCOPLASM:
The cytoplasm of a muscle
fiber.

GLYCOGEN:
The stored form of glucose
found in the liver and
muscles.

Figure 3.10 Types of Muscle Tissue

MYOFIBRILS:
STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE Parallel filaments that form
muscle.
Skeletal muscle is what allows a person to move, exercise, and perform activities of daily

living. It is made of muscle tissue, connective tissue, nerve tissue, and vascular tissue.
MYOFILAMENTS:
Muscle fibers are the individual cells making up the muscle. The filaments of myofibrils
composed of actin and
myosin.
Most cells in the body are filled with a thick solution inside called cytoplasm; however, muscle

cells have sarcoplasm, which contains more oxygen-binding proteins and granules of stored

glycogen. Most of the sarcoplasm within muscle cells is made of myofibrils, cylindrical
ACTIN:
The thin filaments of
bundles consisting of two types of myofilaments: muscle myofilaments where
myosin bind to contract
muscles.
1. Actin filaments have a thin diameter and are made of spirals of actin protein.

2. Myosin filaments have a thick diameter and are made of several hundred molecules
MYOSIN:
of myosin protein. The thick filaments of
myofilaments with a fibrous
head, neck, and tail that
bind to actin.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 71

CHAPTER 03 | Movement Systems

Myofibrils are organized like a chain. Each link in the chain is a contractile unit called a
SARCOMERE: sarcomere. The length of a muscle fiber depends upon the length of a sarcomere and the
The contractile unit of
muscle tissue. position of the thick and thin filaments. The boundary at either end of the sarcomere is the

Z line. Actin attaches to the Z line, and it is at the Z line that force transmission occurs.
Z LINE:
The lateral boundary of
the sarcomere where the
myofilament actin attaches.

Figure 3.11 The Sarcomere of Skeletal Muscle

A skeletal muscle can have hundreds or thousands of muscle fibers. Fibers are bundled together

with connective tissue to give support and structure. Each individual muscle fiber is covered by a
connective tissue called the endomysium. The endomysium helps to create the appropriate
ENDOMYSIUM: environment for the chemical exchange required for muscle contraction. At the molecular level,
The connective tissue
covering each muscle fiber. calcium, sodium, and potassium are exchanged for muscle contraction. Capillaries and nerves

also exist in the endomysium to deliver nutrients and remove waste products.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 72

 EPIMYSIUM:
Fibrous elastic tissue that
surrounds a muscle.

FASCICULI:
Bundles of muscle fibers;
the singular is “fascicle.”

PERIMYSIUM:
The connective tissue that
covers a bundle of muscle
fibers.

Figure 3.12 The Structure of Skeletal Muscle TENDON:

A strong, fibrous cord made
of collagen that attaches
The epimysium is a fibrous elastic tissue that surrounds a muscle. Within the muscle there muscle to bone.

are bundles of muscle fibers called fasciculi. These bundles are made up of up to 150

individual muscle fibers and are surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called the
PERIOSTEUM:
A dense layer of vascular
perimysium. connective tissue
enveloping the bones
except at the surfaces of
Each connective tissue within the muscle body meets at the site of connection between the the joints.
muscle and tendon, called the myotendinous junction. From here, the tendon extends to the

bone for attachment to the periosteum. NEUROMUSCULAR

JUNCTION:
SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION The space between a motor
neuron and muscle fiber.
For the musculature of the musculoskeletal system to contract, it must receive a signal from

the CNS. These signals (action potentials) travel along the nervous system and eventually
NEUROTRANSMITTER:
connect with muscles via motor neurons. The motor neurons meet with the muscle cell at a A chemical messenger
that transmits messages
synapse called the neuromuscular junction, and a unique neurotransmitter called between neurons or from
acetylcholine is released. neurons to muscles.

ACETYLCHOLINE:
The neurotransmitter
released by an action
potential at the
neuromuscular junction.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 73

CHAPTER 03 | Movement Systems

Figure 3.13 Motor Neuron

Acetylcholine attaches to receptors on the outside of the muscle fiber, which starts a multistep

chemical reaction, releasing calcium into the muscle cells of the fibers. The presence of

calcium and adenosine triphosphate, or ATP (the main energy molecule in cells), is the driving

factor for the binding of actin and myosin for muscle contraction.

1. Brain sends out electrical signal

Brain
2. Signal travels through the spinal cord
3. To the spinal nerves
4. To the motor neurons
5. Resulting in the propagation of
Spinal cord
an electrical current through the
muscle fiber
Spinal nerves 6. Electrical signal triggers the release
of calcium inside the muscle fiber
Motor neurons 7. The released calcium binds to the
contractile protein ACTIN
8. This permits its interaction with the
MYOSIN contractile protein
9. ATP provides the energy that permits the
“walking” of MYOSIN across the ACTIN
10. This pulling action of the MYOSIN
across the ACTIN results in the
shortening of the muscle fiber during
MUSCLE CONTRACTION.

Figure 3.14 Muscle Contraction

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 74

An electrical impulse, or action potential, stimulates the release of calcium into the muscle

cell, which binds to the actin filaments. This allows interaction and binding with myosin. The

myosin can now pull on the actin to begin shortening the muscle. Through a series of

contractions, the myosin head pulls across the actin filament, the filaments slide past each

other, and this results in muscle contraction. This is known as the sliding-filament theory of

muscle contraction. The action potential is a limiting factor, which means when the impulse SLIDING-FILAMENT
subsides, so does muscular contraction.
THEORY:
The interaction of actin
and myosin that describes
the process of muscle
contraction.

Figure 3.15 Sliding Muscle Filaments

TYPES OF MUSCLE FIBERS

There are two categories of skeletal muscle fibers with different energy needs, capabilities,

and purposes in human movement. These two categories are slow-twitch muscle fibers and

fast-twitch muscle fibers. The activity, and the intensity of the activity, determines which

muscle fiber type is utilized most.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 75

CHAPTER 03 | Movement Systems

Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers

Slow-twitch or type I fibers have a lot of mitochondria, the component of a cell that is most
TYPE I FIBERS:
noted for energy production and sometimes referred to as “the powerhouse of the cell,” and
Slow-twitch, fatigue-
resistant muscle fibers with a high concentration of myoglobin (an oxygen-storing protein in muscle) and other oxygen-
high mitochondrial density.
metabolizing enzymes. Slow-twitch muscle fibers derive energy from aerobic metabolism

(energy made in the presence of oxygen) and are ideal for endurance and low-intensity
MITOCHONDRIA:
An organelle with a double activities of longer duration. Often called oxidative fibers, type I fibers contract relatively
membrane and many folds
inside responsible for slowly, and are highly fatigue resistant.
generating the chemical
energy needed for Fast-Twitch Muscle Fibers
biochemical reactions.

Fast-twitch fibers contract quickly and with greater force than slow-twitch fibers. Fast-twitch

muscle fibers are further divided into type IIa fibers and type IIx fibers. They are selectively
TYPE IIA FIBERS: recruited for high-intensity activities requiring strength and power. Type IIa fibers fatigue
Fast-twitch, moderately
fatigable muscle fibers with relatively quickly but have a moderate mitochondrial density, meaning they can contract
moderate mitochondrial
density. through most intermittent athletic activity and recover well. They derive energy from anaerobic

metabolism (energy made without the presence of oxygen), do not require oxygen to function,

TYPE IIX FIBERS: and are ideal fibers for longer bouts of anaerobic movement.
Fast-twitch, fast-fatigable
muscle fibers with low Type IIx muscle fibers are also fast-twitch fibers that fire with great power and strength.
mitochondrial density.
Known as super fibers, these type II fibers fatigue slightly faster than IIa fibers. Type IIx fibers

have a much lower capillary density (giving them a white color versus the pink color of the

type IIa fibers) and a low mitochondrial density, which contributes to their high fatigue rate.

Individuals who participate in endurance activities generally have more type I muscle fibers,

while those who participate in power and intermittent sports have more type II muscle fibers.

Table 3.3 Sports and Muscle-Fiber Recruitment

TYPE I MUSCLE FIBER TYPE II MUSCLE FIBER

DOMINANT ATHLETES DOMINANT ATHLETES

Cross-country runners Weightlifters

Triathletes Gymnasts

Distance swimmers Baseball players

Cyclists Paddle sport players

Nordic skiers Wrestlers

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 76

Size Principle of Motor Recruitment

The force (strength or energy) output of a muscle is related to the stimulus it receives.

Different muscle fibers have different liability to recruitment. This liability refers to how easily

and quickly muscle fibers can be recruited. The higher the liability, the more likely a muscle

fiber will fire more easily and quickly when compared to a lower liability muscle fiber. Type I

fibers, also known as slow-twitch fibers (i.e., the smaller slower fibers) have high liability to

recruitment, while type IIa and IIx, also known as fast-twitch fibers (i.e., larger, faster fibers)

have a moderate liability. The size principle of fiber recruitment (also called the Henneman

principle) states that fibers with a high level of liability are recruited first and that those with SIZE PRINCIPLE OF
lower levels of liability are recruited last. According to the size principle, motor units are
FIBER RECRUITMENT:
Principle stating that
recruited in order according to their recruitment thresholds and firing rates. In other words, motor units are recruited
in order according to their
motor units will be recruited in order from smallest and slowest firing rate to largest and recruitment thresholds and
firing rates.
fastest firing rate. Since most muscles contain a range of type I and type II fibers, force

production can be very low or very high. Therefore, to get to a high-threshold motor unit, all

the motor units below it must be sequentially recruited first. Picking up the phone versus

curling a 75-pound dumbbell exemplifies this principle. The lower-threshold motor units are

recruited to pick up the phone. In order to pick up the 75-pound dumbbell, the higher-threshold

motor units must be recruited in addition to the low-threshold motor units.

FUSIFORM MUSCLE:
Spindle-shaped muscle.

MUSCLE FIBER ARRANGEMENT

CONVERGENT
The arrangement of skeletal muscle fibers, or the direction in which they run, influences the
MUSCLE:
action they have on the skeleton and the movement they create. Muscle fibers converging
from a broad origin (fixed
point where the muscle
Fusiform muscle are spindle-shaped with a large muscle belly like the biceps muscle, while
attaches closest to the
convergent muscle (also called triangular muscle) is broad on one end with fibers converging torso) to a single tendon
of insertion (fixed point
and narrowing on the other end, like the pectoralis major (chest). Circular muscle surrounds where the muscle attaches
furthest from the torso).
external openings of the body, which are sometimes referred to as sphincters.

CIRCULAR MUSCLE:
Muscle fibers surrounding
an opening in the body.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 77

CHAPTER 03 | Movement Systems

Parallel: Fascicles parallel to longitudinal

axis of muscle; terminate at either end in
flat tendons.
Example: Stylohyoid

Multipennate: Fascicles attach obliquely

PARALLEL MUSCLE: from many directions to several tendons.

Example: Deltoid
Muscle fibers running
parallel to the axis of the Fusiform: Fascicles nearly parallel to
muscle. longitudinal axis of muscle; terminate in
flat tendons; muscle tapers toward tendons
where diameter is less than at belly.

PENNATE MUSCLES:
Example: Biceps brachii
Unipennate: Fascicles are arranged on
Muscles with fascicles only one side of tendon.
that attach obliquely Example: Flexor pollicis longus
(diagonally).

PENNIFORM:
Muscle fibers that run
diagonally in respect to the
tendon similar to a feather. Bipennate: Fascicles are arranged on

Convergent: Fascicles spread over broad area both sides of centrally positioned tendon.

coverage at thick central tendon; gives muscle Example: Soleus

UNIPENNATE MUSCLE: triangular appearance.
Muscle fibers extending Example: Pectoralis
from one side of a central
tendon.
Figure 3.16 Patterns of Muscle Fiber Arrangement

BIPENNATE MUSCLE: Parallel muscle fibers run parallel along the axis of the muscle, like the sartorius, a long
Muscle fibers extending
muscle in the thigh. There are also several forms of pennate muscles that attach to a central
from both sides of a central
tendon. tendon at an oblique (diagonal) angle. Some fibers are penniform and run diagonally in

respect to the tendon that runs through its fibers. This arrangement allows for high force
MULTIPENNATE production and muscles that produce great power. Unipennate muscle has muscle fibers
MUSCLE: that only attach on one side of the central tendon. Bipennate muscle has muscle fibers
Muscle fibers extending
from both sides of multiple extending from both sides of the central tendon in a feather-like pattern. Finally, multipennate
central tendons.
muscle has multiple central tendons with muscle fibers extending from each in both directions.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 78

MUSCLE ACTIONS
MUSCLE ACTIONS:
The muscles of the human body are capable of three types of muscle actions: concentric, Force production by a
muscle that can result in
eccentric, and isometric. These are often referred to as muscle actions instead of types of
a change of length (i.e.,
contractions simply because the definition of a contraction does not apply to eccentric and shortening or lengthening)
or no length change at all.
isometric contractions. Concentric muscle action is an overall shortening of a muscle as it

is producing tension (acceleration of a movement), while eccentric muscle action is the

CONCENTRIC MUSCLE
overall lengthening of a muscle as it is producing tension (deceleration of a movement). An ACTION:
isometric muscle action results in no change in length of a muscle as it produces tension When the length of a
muscle shortens as tension
(stabilization of a movement). In order of strength, from strongest to weakest, these is produced.

contractions are eccentric, isometric, and concentric.

ECCENTRIC MUSCLE
ACTION:
When the length of a
muscle increases as
tension is produced.

ISOMETRIC MUSCLE
ACTION:
When the length of a
muscle remains constant
as tension is produced.

Eccentric Concentric
(lengthening) (shortening)

Figure 3.17 Types of Muscle Actions

Muscle tissue has a built-in mechanism that can amplify the concentric muscle action—the

stretch-shortening cycle (SSC). Because of the SSC, muscle tissue can load and release force
STRETCH-SHORTENING
through the elastic properties of the soft tissue - this is like the energy a rubber band can release CYCLE (SSC):
when quickly stretched and released. There are three phases to the SSC. First is the eccentric or The cycling between the
eccentric (stretch) action
loading phase, followed by the amortization phase (transition phase) and then immediately of a muscle and the
concentric (shortening)
followed by the concentric phase. When given the right stimulus, skeletal muscle can gain the action of the same muscle.

ability to take advantage of the additional energy created in the loading phase (stretching the

rubber band) and release it in the concentric phase. The SSC contributes greatly to explosive

movement like jumping, and it can be enhanced with the proper plyometric training.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 79

CHAPTER 03 | Movement Systems

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The last major organ system involved in human movement is the skeletal system. Structure

and support for the human body come from the skeleton and its 206 individual bones. These

bones provide a framework for the attachment of muscle tissue, which generates the joint
JOINT: movement required for locomotion.
An articulation between two
bones in the body.
In a fetus, bones begin to form around six weeks gestation, and portions of the skeleton do

not stop growing until around 25 years of age. Throughout the lifespan, bones gain and lose

density in response to the demands placed on the body, aging, and nutrition.

AXIAL SKELETON:
The bones of the head,
trunk, and vertebrae.

Figure 3.18 Skeletal System of the Human Body

APPENDICULAR
SKELETON: THE AXIAL SKELETON
The bones of the shoulder The human skeleton is divided into two parts: the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
girdle, pelvic girdle, and
limbs. The axial skeleton has 80 bones, including the bones of the skull, spine, and ribs.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 80

Figure 3.19 Appendicular Skeleton and Axial Skeleton

Table 3.3 The Bones of the Axial Skeleton

SKULL

Parietal (2) Temporal (2) Frontal (1)

Occipital (1)

AUDITORY OSSICLES (SMALL BONES OF THE EARS)

Malleus (2) Incus (2) Stapes (2)

FACIAL

Maxilla (2) Zygomatic (2) Mandible (1)

Nasal (2) Platine (2) Inferior nasal concha (2)

Lacrimal (2) Vomer (1)

VERTEBRAL COLUMN

Cervical vertebrae (7) Thoracic vertebrae (12) Lumbar vertebrae (5)

Sacrum (1) Coccyx (1)

THORACIC CAGE

Sternum (1) True ribs (7) False ribs (5)

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 81

CHAPTER 03 | Movement Systems

THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON

There are 126 bones that make up the appendicular skeleton. They include the bones of the

shoulder girdle, pelvic girdle, and limbs.

Table 3.4 The Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton

SHOULDER GIRDLE

Clavicle (2) Scapula (2)

PELVIC GIRDLE

Hip bones (ilium, ischium, pubis) (3) Sacrum (1)

Coccyx (1)

UPPER EXTREMITY

Humerus (2) Radius (2) Ulna (2)

Carpals (16) Metacarpals (10) Phalanges (28)

LOWER EXTREMITY

Femur (2) Tibia (2) Fibula (2)

Patella (2) Tarsals (14) Metatarsals (10)

Phalanges (28)

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 82

Figure 3.20 Full Human Skeleton

CATEGORIES AND FUNCTIONS OF BONE

The skeletal system plays several important roles within the body. Bones provide support and

protection for organs, produce blood cells, store and release minerals and lipids, and provide leverage

for movement. There are five types of bone in the human skeleton, each with its own specific function:

1. Flat bones protect the internal organs and provide a large surface area for muscles

to attach. They are somewhat flat and thin but may be curved, as in the ribs.

2. Short bones in the body are cube-shaped and provide stability and a limited

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 83

CHAPTER 03 | Movement Systems

amount of movement. Examples include the carpals (bones in the wrist) and

tarsals (bones in the ankle).

3. Long bones support body weight and facilitate movement. The long bones are

longer than they are wide, a cylinder shape. Examples include the femur (thigh

bone), the tibia and fibula (bones of the lower leg), and the humerus (upper arm

bone between the elbow and shoulder)

4. Sesamoid bones are small and round. Found in the joints and within tendons,

they reinforce and protect tendons from stress and wear and tear. The patella

(kneecap) is an example of a sesamoid bone.

5. Irregular bones serve a variety of purposes, including protecting vital organs. They

have complex shapes, like the vertebrae.

radius and ulna

Long bone Sesamoid bone

patella
femur (kneecap)

Short bone

carpals

Flat bone
tarsals

sternum

Irregular
bone
scapula

Figure 3.21 Bone Classifications

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 84

Table 3.5 Human Bones: Shape, Structure, and Function

SESAMOID IRREGULAR
FLAT BONES SHORT BONES LONG BONES
BONES BONES

Protect organs Provide stability and Support body Reinforce and Protect organs
and provide a limited movement weight and facilitate protect tendons
Function large surface movement from stress and
area for muscles wear
to attach

Somewhat flat Cube-shaped Cylindrical, longer Small and Complex and

Shape and thin but may than they are wide round irregular
be curved

Skull Wrist Lower extremity Knee joint Spinal column

Occipital Scaphoid Tibia Patella Vertebrae
Parietal Lunate Fibula Pelvis
Musculotendon
Frontal Triquetral Femur Pubis
Nasal Hamate Metatarsals Flexor tendon Ilium
Lacrimal Pisiform Phalanges of foot Ischium
Vomer Capitate
Upper extremity Flexor tendon of
Trapezoid
Thoracic cage Humerus thumb
Trapezium
Sternum Radius
Location Carpals
Ribs Ulna
and name
Clavicle Ankles/Feet Metacarpals
Calcaneus Phalanges
Pelvis
Talus
Coxal
Navicular
Shoulder Cuboid
Scapula Lateral cuneiform
Intermediate
cuneiform
Medial cuneiform
Tarsals

BONE STRUCTURE
BONE MARROW:
Bone is composed of 50 to 70 percent minerals, 20 to 40 percent organic matrix, 5 to 10 The soft, spongelike tissue
in the center of most bones
percent water, and less than 3 percent lipids (fats). The way bone is structured allows it to containing stem cells of
red or white blood cells or
provide support and protection as well as store calcium and bone marrow.
platelets.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 85

CHAPTER 03 | Movement Systems

Bone marrow, the spongy tissue in bones, is either red or yellow. Red bone marrow holds

stem cells that develop into red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, which aid in

blood clotting. Yellow marrow stores fat cells for energy. Cancellous bone is also known as
CANCELLOUS BONE: spongy bone. Spongy bone, however, is not as flexible as the name implies. Rather, this type
The meshwork of spongy
tissue (trabeculae) of of bone has open spaces that may house bone marrow. Cancellous bone also supports
mature adult bone, typically
found at the core of shifts in weight distribution.
vertebral bones and the
ends of the long bones.

Figure 3.22 Anatomy of Bone

The next layer of bone is dense, porous compact bone. Also called cortical bone, compact
COMPACT BONE:
A denser material, also bone is made of calcium and minerals and can withstand compressive forces. The fibers in
known as cortical bone,
compact bone are arranged in a honeycomb pattern, which allows nerves and blood vessels
making up the hard
structure of the skeleton. to pass through the honeycomb and supply the bone with oxygen and nutrients. Lastly,

covering each bone everywhere except the joints is the periosteum. This is a vascular

connective tissue responsible for repairing, protecting, and growing bones.

OSTEOGENESIS:
The process of bone
formation or remodeling. BONE FORMATION
Bone formation is a constant process. Throughout life, old bone is continually replaced with

new bone. This process of bone remodeling or formation is called osteogenesis. Cells called

osteoblasts play a significant role in this process by depositing new bone material.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 86

Some changes in bone are caused by acute trauma like a break or fracture. Myositis
ossificans occur when bone tissue forms within a muscle or other soft body tissue as a result
MYOSITIS OSSIFICANS:
A condition when bone
of a traumatic injury. However, it is not only trauma or injury that can cause bone remodeling. tissue forms within a
muscle or other soft tissue
During human growth, bone can be formed as a replacement of connective tissue or to as a result of trauma or
replace cartilage based on when and where the formation occurs in the body. Exercise is also injury.

considered a stressor and can affect how bone reacts. The added loads and resistance from
regular exercise can help to increase bone mass and density in humans. This bone adaptation CARTILAGE:
Firm, flexible connective
is explained by Wolff’s law, which states that changes in form and function of a bone will be tissue that pads and
adaptive to the loads placed upon it. In other words, strength training helps to build stronger protects joints and
structural components of
bones. the body.

JOINTS IN THE HUMAN BODY WOLFF’S LAW:

The explanation for bone
One additional and crucial component of human movement is the articulation point between
adaptations as a result of
two bones—a joint. The joints in the body are what allow movement to occur. Joints are the loads placed on them.

classified by the type of tissue they contain: fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial.

Fibrous joints are connected by dense connective tissue made of collagen. They allow for
FIBROUS JOINTS:
very little movement. Fibrous joints can be further divided into three types: Joints with fibrous
connective tissue joining
1. Sutures or synarthrodial joints: This type of joint is found in the skull. During birth, two bones that allow for
very little movement.
sutures are flexible to allow the baby to pass through the birth canal, and they
become more rigid with age.

2. Syndesmoses: found between some long bones like the tibia and fibula.

3. Gomphosis joints: attach teeth to the sockets of the maxilla and mandible.

Figure 3.23 The Sutures of the Skull

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 87

CHAPTER 03 | Movement Systems

Cartilaginous joints are joined by either fibrocartilage, the most rigid and strong cartilage, or
CARTILAGINOUS hyaline cartilage, which is softer and more widespread. Cartilaginous joints are slightly
JOINTS: movable and are further divided into primary and secondary joints:
Moderately movable joints
made of fibrocartilage or
hyaline cartilage. 1. Primary: epiphyseal (growth) plates

2. Secondary: intervertebral discs (layers of cartilage between vertebrae)

SYNOVIAL JOINTS:
Fluid-filled joints found
between bones that move
against one another.

NON-SYNOVIAL
Figure 3.24 Cartilaginous Joints: Intervertebral Discs (Blue)
JOINTS:
Joints that lack a fluid
junction. The most common and movable joints in the human body are synovial joints, also known as

diarthrodial joints. Non-synovial joints, or synarthroses, are fibrous and cartilaginous and do

ARTICULAR CAPSULE: not allow for much movement. This allows them to provide greater structural integrity. In
The envelope surrounding a
synovial joints, bones are separated by a synovial joint cavity made of dense, irregular
synovial joint.
connective tissue. The outside of the cavity, known as the articular capsule, is part of the

periosteum. The cavities are filled with synovial fluid to reduce friction and form a film over
SYNOVIAL FLUID:
A viscous fluid found in the joint surfaces, and they are lined by a synovial membrane.
cavities of synovial joints.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 88

 Bone
Muscle

Synovium

Synovial fluid

Cartilage

Tendon

Capsule Tendon sheath

(ligaments) lined by synovium

Figure 3.25 The Synovial Joint of the Knee

CLASSIFICATIONS OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS

Synovial joints permit movement and are categorized by the type of movement they allow,

known as arthrokinematics. Synovial joints are classified into six categories:

ARTHROKINEMATICS:
1. Ball-and-socket joint: Also known as an enarthrodial joint, this joint allows a wide The broad term meaning
joint motion that can be
range of movement in many directions. Examples are the shoulder and hip joints. used in reference to all joint
motions.
2. Saddle joint: The sellar or saddle joints are like ball-and-socket joints but cannot

rotate. Examples include the trapezium and the first metacarpal joint (joint between

the thumb and wrist).

3. Hinge joint: The hinge joints include the elbows, ankles, and knee joints. They

allow a wide range of movement in one plane (direction).

4. Gliding joint: The arthrodial or gliding joints of the body include the tarsals and

metatarsal of the foot. In these joints, two flat bones press up against each other.

5. Pivot joint: Trochoidal or pivot joints rotate around a long axis (line that runs

parallel to the joint). The radioulnar joint of the forearm is a pivot joint.

6. Condyloid joint: Also known as an ellipsoid joint, these joints move in two

directions—one direction primarily with a small range in another direction. Rotation

is not allowed in these joints. The radiocarpal joint at the wrist is a prime example.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 89

CHAPTER 03 | Movement Systems

Pivot Joint
Ball and Socket Joint

Hinge Joint

Saddle Joint Ellipsoid Joint

Gliding Joint

Figure 3.26 Types of Joints

OTHER JOINT CATEGORIES

The relative location of a joint can classify it into one of three other categories: proximal,

middle, and distal. Proximal joints, meaning closest to the midline of the body, are the

foundation for the legs and arms. Examples include the shoulder and hip. Middle joints are

generally hinge joints with a motion primarily moving forward and backward like the knee.

Lastly, distal joints, or those joints that are farther from the midline of the body, create a
CLOSE-PACKED JOINT
variety of intricate movements. The wrist is an example of a dynamic distal joint.
POSITION:
The most stable joint
position, when the JOINT POSITION
connective tissue is taut
and neighboring bones have The movability of joints makes them dynamically stable or unstable. The position where
the most contact.
bones make contact with one another is referred to as a joint position. In a close-packed

joint position, a joint is the most stable, connective tissue is taut, and the articulating bones
LOOSE-PACKED JOINT
have the greatest area of contact with one another. Full extension of the knee puts the knee
POSITION:
The less stable joint joint in a close-packed position. Loose-packed joint position describes any possible joint
position represented by any
position other than the closed-packed position. This is often during movement when the joint
other joint position other
than close-packed. capsule is lax and neighboring bones are not aligned.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 90

TENDONS
Tendons connect muscle to bone and serve as a mechanical bridge to transmit the force
created by muscle contraction. When the muscle shortens or contracts, the tendon transfers
that force to the bone at an attachment site. The angle and length of attachment of the
tendon to the bone affect how the muscle acts on the affected bone.

Tendons are strong, relatively inflexible, and can withstand the force generated by heavy loads
without being injured. For example, the flexor tendons of the foot can support a load of more
than eight times one’s body weight. A muscle alone could not withstand the same amount
of tension.
GOLGI TENDON
Receptors in the joints, muscles, and tendons provide information to the brain regarding the ORGAN:
The proprioceptive sensory
location in space and speed and force of movement. To prevent injury, tendons contain a
organ that senses muscle
proprioceptive sensory organ called the Golgi tendon organ. This organ responds to changes tension in a tendon and
inhibits muscle action.
in muscle tension. It prevents the overstretching or tearing of a muscle by sensing the rate
and force of muscle tension and inhibits muscle action in the same muscle through a
feedback loop. This differs from the proprioceptive sensory organ within muscle fibers called
FEEDBACK LOOP:
The return of a system’s
the muscle spindle, which detects the rate and force of muscle stretch but promotes muscle output as input for a future
action.
contraction instead of inhibiting it. However, these sensory organs work closely together

controlling flexibility and muscle control.

MUSCLE SPINDLE:
The proprioceptive sensory
organ that senses muscle
stretch in a muscle and
Sensory neuron from Spinal column promotes muscle action.
Golgi tendon organ Dorsal root
Dorsal root
ganglion
Golgi tendon
organ
Alpha motor neuron
Spinal nerve
Ventral root
Muscle Inhibitory
interneuron

Tendon

Figure 3.27 Feedback Loop

Tendons appear in many different shapes and sizes in the body, based on their function. Long,

thin tendons help with fine motor skills like writing, while short, wide tendons help with power

and endurance movements.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 91

CHAPTER 03 | Movement Systems

LIGAMENTS
Ligaments are tough bands made of collagen and elastin connecting bone to bone, forming
LIGAMENTS: joints. They help prevent excessive movement within a joint that may cause damage. The
Short bands of tough but
flexible fibrous connective knees, ankles, elbows, and shoulders are all supported by ligaments. If a ligament is injured,
tissue connecting two
bones or cartilages or torn, or disconnected, the associated joint will become highly unstable.
holding together a joint.
The location of a ligament can be extrinsic, intrinsic, or capsular with respect to the joints.

ELASTIN: The knee joint can serve as an example, given it contains all three types of ligaments:
A highly elastic connective
tissue allowing many 1. Extrinsic ligament: This type of ligament is located on the outside of the joint. An
tissues to retain their
shape. example is the lateral collateral ligament (LCL), which resists abnormal movement

away from the midline, termed varus stress.

VARUS: 2. Intrinsic ligament: the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and posterior cruciate
An abnormal joint
movement away from the ligament (PCL) are situated inside the knee joint to resist anterior and posterior
midline of the body (i.e.,
(forward and backward) movement of the tibia, respectively.
bowlegged).
3. Capsular ligament: The medial collateral ligament (MCL) is a capsular ligament,

JOINT CAPSULE: so called because it is continuous with the joint capsule. It resists valgus stress
A thin, strong layer at the knee by keeping the joint approximated.
of connective tissue
containing synovial fluid in
freely moving joints.

VALGUS:
An abnormal joint
movement toward the
midline of the body (i.e.,
knock-kneed).

Figure 3.28 The Ligaments of the Knee

Overall, tendons and ligaments are imperative for protecting the body during the demands

of a sport. They absorb energy during activities like jumping and cutting and are designed

to withstand tension. Both tendons and ligaments can only exert a pulling force, and their

tensile strength can be improved with proper training.

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 92

CARTILAGE
PERICHONDRIUM:
Cartilage resists compressive forces, makes bones more resilient, and offers support and
The connective tissue
flexibility in some areas. There are no nerves or blood vessels in cartilage, making cartilage enveloping cartilage
everywhere except at a joint.
injury recovery a long, arduous process. Removal of waste and absorption of nutrients from
and within the tissue happens via diffusion with surrounding tissues.
ARTICULAR
Like bone, cartilage is covered by a specialized fibrous tissue. The perichondrium has an CARTILAGE:
A form of hyaline cartilage
inner layer that forms chondroblasts, which are cells that play a role in making new cartilage, located on the joint surface
and an outer layer with fibroblasts, which are cells that produce collagen for growth. of bones.

Articular cartilage is a connective tissue covering the end of long bones and provides smooth
NOCICEPTORS:
bone-on-bone contact in freely moving joints. When the cartilage is degraded or lost from Pain-sensitive nerve endings.
overuse or aging, bone-on-bone contact results in pain and stiffness at the joint.

The periosteum and endosteum coverings of bone contain pain-sensitive nerve endings
HYALINE CARTILAGE:
A transparent cartilage found
called nociceptors. Since joint motion should not be painful, articular cartilage covers the on most joint surfaces and
in the respiratory tract, which
ends of moving bones to block the pain signal and reduce compressive stress. contains no nerves or blood
vessels.
All cartilage is made up of dense collagen fibers embedded in a firm, gelatinous substance.
This gives it the consistency of plastic to provide tensile strength while still being more pliable
FIBROCARTILAGE:
than bone. There are three types of cartilage in the body: An elastic and tough tissue
containing type I and type II
collagen.
1. Hyaline cartilage: This deformable but elastic type of cartilage is the most
widespread. It is found in the nose, trachea, larynx, bronchi, and the ends of ribs
as well as at the ends of bones in the form of articular cartilage. MENISCUS:
A form of fibrocartilage
2. Fibrocartilage: This tough tissue is found in the intervertebral discs and at the present in the knee,
wrist, acromioclavicular,
insertions of tendons and ligaments. It also forms the lateral or medial meniscus sternoclavicular, and
in the knee. temporomandibular joints.

3. Elastic cartilage: This is the most pliable form of cartilage. It gives shape to the

external ear, the auditory tube of the middle ear, and the epiglottis.
ELASTIC CARTILAGE:
Flexible cartilage present in
the outer ear, inner ear, and
epiglottis.

EPIGLOTTIS:
A piece of elastic cartilage
in the throat that opens
during breathing and closes
during swallowing.

Cartilage

Figure 3.29 Cartilage

ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 93