Educational Measurement and Evaluation (6505)

Assignment No.1
Student Name: SHAKEEL AHMED Tutor Name: SAJJAD HUSSAIN
Program: M.ED STE Semester: Autumn 2019
Roll No: BY652899 Region: D.G. Khan
Mobile No: 03002724548 E.mail: [email protected]

Q No.1 Write down the distinctive features of Islamic society and compare the
contemporary society with ideal Islamic society.

Answer:

The Islamic Society and Its Characteristics

The Islamic Society is unique in its structure, composition and its characteristics. These
characteristics are depicted from the Quran and Hadith. The following is a partial list of the
characteristics of an Islamic society:

1. Enjoining what is good

2. Forbidding what is bad

3. Faith in Allah

These three characteristics are summarized in the Quran in Surah Al-'Imran (The Family of
'Imran). "You are the best of peoples, evolved for mankind, enjoining what is right, forbidding
what is wrong and believing in God" (3:110).

4. The fourth characteristic of the Islamic Society is based on Moderation, and it is an Ummah of
moderation. This concept of community of moderation is explained in the Quran very nicely. In
Surah-Al-Baqarah (The Cow), Allah says, "Thus have we made of you an Ummah justly
balanced, that you might be witnesses over the nations, and the Apostle a witness over
yourselves,"(2:143).

5. The fifth characteristic of the Islamic Society is one Ummah. This concept of being one
Muslim community is explained nicely in the Quran. In Surah Al-Anbiya (The Prophets), Allah
says:

"Verily, this brotherhood of yours is a single brotherhood, and I am your lord and cherisher:
Therefore serve me (and no other)" (21:92).

This concept of being one Ummah is explained nicely in Surah Al-Mu'minun (the believers)
Allah says:
"And verily this brotherhood of yours is a single brotherhood, and I am your lord and cherisher:
therefore fear me (and no other) (25:52)

6. Another characteristic of the Islamic Society is based on the concept of Consultation. Allah
designated a whole Surah in the Quran under the title of Consultation. In Surah Ash-Shura
(Consultation) Allah says: "And who (conduct) their affairs by mutual consultation; who spend
out of what we bestow on them for sustenance," (42-38).

7. Another characteristic is that of Brotherhood. The Islamic society is built on the concept of
brotherhood. Muslims are ordained to have the feelings and application of concept of
brotherhood. In this regard, the Quran states in Surah Al-Hujurat (The Inner Apartments) the
following:

"The believers are but on single brotherhood." (49:10).

This concept of brotherhood is explained in the Hadith of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh)which
has been narrated by Al-Nu'man Bin Basheer that prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said: "The
similitude of the believers in their kindness, mercy, affection and compassion toward one
another, is like a body, when one organ ails, the whole body is drafted to take care of the
problem."

8. Another important characteristic of the Islamic society is that it is built on the concept of
Taqwa. This word "Taqwa" may be defined to mean self-discipline, self control, self-restraint,
self evaluation and self education. In this regard Allah demanded from the Muslims who are the
members of the Islamic Society to have Taqwa. In this regard, the Quran states in Surah Al-
Imran. "O you who believe! Fear God as He should be feared, and die not except in a state of
Islam," (2:102)

This concept of Taqwa was explained by one of the companions of the Prophet to mean: "Taqwa
is the respect (fear) of the Almighty, the doing by what was revealed, the acceptance of whatever
little you receive, and the preparation to depart from this world."

9. Another characteristic of this Ummah of Islam is being an International one. Islam merged all
nationalities altogether into one Ummah. Islam transcended all types of nationalities, languages,
and ethnic backgrounds and hence established an international community committed to the
concept of La Ilaha Illallah and Muhammad Rasulullah. This type of international community is
being demonstrated during the daily prayers, the Friday congregational prayers, during the two
feasts and especially during the time of Hajj Pilgrimage). It should be mentioned here that Allah
reminded the Muslims that they are made out of different nationalities. The Quran states in Surah
Al-Huiurat the following: "O mankind! We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a
female, and made you into nations and tribes, that you may know each other(not that you may
despise each other). Verily the most honored of you in the site of God is (he who is) the most
righteous of you. and God has full knowledge and is well acquainted (with all things)," (49:13)
10. Another characteristic is the reciprocal responsibility of the individual and the Ummah. The
individual is to strive to help and protect the community. On the other hand the community is to
take care of the welfare of the individuals. The concepts of Zakat, charity (Sadaqah) and interest
free loans (Qard hasana) are among the financial reciprocal responsibilities of the community
and the individuals toward one another.

11. The concept of Advice is another characteristic of Islamic Society. Prophet Mohammad
(pbuh) said narrated by Abu Ruqaiyah Tamim BinAwss Al Dari that the Prophet (pbuh)said:
"The Religion is Advice. We asked: for whom? He said: for Allah, for his book, for his
messengers, for the Imams of the Muslims, and for the rest of the Muslim Ummah." Reported by
Muslim.

12. The concept of leadership is another characteristic of the Muslim Ummah. Muslims are
commanded to appoint a leader. They are ordained to obey him as long as he is applying the
rules of Allah; and as long as he is serving them by him self. Allah says in the Quran in Surah
An-Nisa' (The Women): "O you who believe! Obey God and obey the Apostle, and those
charged with authority among you. If ye differ in anything among yourselves refer it to God and
His Apostle, if you do believe in God and the last day, that is best," (4:59)

Prophet Mohammad (pbuh) said: "There is 110 obedience to any creature while disobeying the
Creator." Reported by Ahmad and Al-Hakim.

It should be pointed out here that the leader is riot infallible. The concept of "The Infallible
Imam" does not exist in Islam. The only infallible are the Prophets themselves.

13. One important characteristic of the Islamic Society is the concept of Jihad. Jihad is to be for
the sake of Allah, i.e. to apply rules and regulations of Allah, and for the pleasure of Allah. Jihad
is meant also to defend the land of Islam and to defend the Muslims themselves. Allah says in
Surah-Al-Baqarah: "Fight in the cause of God those who fight you, but do not transgress limits:
for God loves not transgressors." ( :190). Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said "If any community
leaves Jihad behind them, Allah is to prevail punishment on them."

The above mentioned characteristics are by no means all the ones that the Islamic Society is
privileged with. However, if Muslims of today do adhere to such characteristics and apply them
in their daily lives, many of their daily problems will be solved.

We hope and pray that Muslims abide by the teachings of Islam so as to receive the blessings of
Allah in this world, and the bliss of Paradise.

Islam and modernity is a topic of discussion in contemporary sociology of religion. The history
of Islam chronicles different interpretations and approaches. Modernity is a complex and
multidimensional phenomenon rather than a unified and coherent one. It has historically had
different schools of thought moving in many directions.[1]
In the 18th century Europe was undergoing major transformations as the new ideas of the
Enlightenment, which stressed the importance of science, rationality, and human reason, and the
new technologies of the Industrial Revolution swept across Europe, giving Europeans great
power and influence. In the last quarter of the 18th century, the gap widened between the
technical skills of some western and northern European countries and those of the rest of the
world.[2]

The rise of modern Europe coincided with what many scholars refer to as the decline of
the Ottoman Empire, which by the 18th century was facing political, military, and economic
breakdown.[3] While prior to the 18th century the Ottomans had regarded themselves to be either
of superior or, by the mid-18th century, of equal strength to Europe, by the end of the 18th
century the power relationship between the Ottoman Empire and Europe began to shift in
Europe's favor.[4]

French occupation of the Ottoman Empire[edit]

In 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte's army occupied the Ottoman province of Egypt and killed roughly
3000 Egyptians. Although the occupation was only three years, followed by lingering hostility to
the French, the experience ultimately exposed the Egyptian people to Enlightenment ideas and
Europe's new technology.[5]

Ottoman scholars in Europe[edit]

The exposure to European power and ideas would later inspire the new governor of
Egypt, Muhammad Ali, to draw on this technology to modernize Egypt, setting an example for
the rest of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman government began to open embassies and send
officials to study in Europe. This created conditions for the "gradual formation of a group of
reformers with a certain knowledge of the modern world and a conviction that the empire must
belong to it or perish".[6] One of the scholars sent by Muhammad Ali to Europe in 1826
was Rifa'a Rafi' al-Tahtawi. The five years he spent in Paris left a permanent mark on him. After
his return to Egypt he wrote about his impressions of France and translated numerous European
works into Arabic. Tahtawi was impressed with Europe's technological and scientific
advancement and political philosophy.[7] Having studied Islamic Law, he argued that "it was
necessary to adapt the Sharia to new circumstances" and that there was not much difference
between "the principles of Islamic law and those principles of 'natural law' on which the codes of
modern Europe were based".[8]

Like Tahtawi, Khayr al-Din was also sent to Paris where he spent four years. After his return
from Europe he wrote a book in which he argued that the only way to strengthen the Muslim
States was by borrowing ideas and institutions from Europe, and that this did not contradict the
spirit of the Sharia.[9]

Modernization reforms in the Ottoman Empire[edit]

In the period between 1839 and 1876 the Ottoman government began instituting large-scale
reforms as a way to modernize and strengthen the empire.[clarification needed] Known as the Tanzimat,
many of these reforms involved adopting successful European practices that were considered
antithetical to conservative Muslims.[10] In addition to military and administrative reforms,
Ottoman rulers implemented reforms in the sphere of education, law, and the economy. This
included new universities and changes in curricula, as well new economic systems and
institutions. There were also European-inspired changes to law that restricted Islamic law to
family affairs such as marriage and inheritance.[11]

The Ottoman Empire was the first[citation needed] Muslim country where modernity surfaced, with
major shifts in scientific and legal thought.[12] In 1834, Ishak Efendi published Mecmua-i Ulum-i
Riyaziye, a four volume text introducing many modern scientific concepts to the Muslim
world. Kudsi Efendi also published Asrar al-Malakut in 1846 in an attempt to
reconcile Copernican astronomy with Islam. The first modern Turkish chemistry text was
published in 1848, and the first modern Biology text in 1865.[13]

Eventually, the Turks adopted the metric system in 1869. These shifts in scientific thought
coincided with Tanzimat, a reform policy undertaken by the Sultans of the Ottoman Empire that
was inspired by French civil law. This reform confined sharia to family law.[12] The key figure in
the Turkish modernist movement was Namik Kemal, the editor of a journal called Freedom. His
goal was to promote freedom of the press, the separation of powers, equality before the law,
scientific freedom, and a reconciliation between parliamentary democracy and the Qur'an.[12]

The Greater Muslim world

The influence of modernism in the Muslim world resulted in a cultural revival.[14] Dramatic plays
became more common, as did newspapers. Notable European works were analyzed and
translated.

Legal reform was attempted in Egypt, Tunisia, the Ottoman Empire, and Iran, and in some cases
these reforms were adopted.[15] Efforts were made to restrict the power of government. Polygamy
was ended in India.[16] Azerbaijan granted suffrage to women in 1918 (before several European
countries).[16]

At the recommendations of reform-minded Islamic scholars, western sciences were taught in

new schools.[15] Much of this had to do with the intellectual appeal of social Darwinism, since it
led to the conclusion that an old-fashioned Muslim society could not compete in the modern
world.[15]

In 19th century Iran, Mirza Malkom Khan arrived after being educated in Paris. He created a
newspaper called Qanun, where he advocated the separation of powers, secular law, and a bill of
rights.[13] Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, who was politically active in the Islamic world and published
the pamphlet "Al-'Urwa al-Wuthqà" during a brief spell in France, proclaiming that Europe had
become successful due to its laws and its science. He became critical of other Muslim scholars
for stifling scientific thought,[17] and hoped to encourage scientific inquiry in the Muslim world.

Islamic Modernism

Modernism impacted interpretations of Islam. One movement was Islamic Modernism, which
was both an attempt to provide an Islamic response to the challenges presented by European
colonial expansion, and an effort to reinvigorate and reform Islam from within as a way to
counter the perceived weakness and decline of Muslim societies in the 19th and early 20th
centuries. It called for "a 'reformation' or reinterpretation (ijtihad) of Islam", and emerged in the
Muslim world from Egypt to Southeast Asia.[11]

Islamic modernists argued that Islam and modernity were compatible and "asserted the need to
reinterpret and reapply the principles and ideals of Islam to formulate new responses to the
political, scientific, and cultural challenges of the West and of modern life". [11] The reforms they
proposed challenged the status quo maintained by the conservative Muslims scholars (ulama),
who saw the established law as the ideal order that had to be followed and upheld the doctrine
of taqlid (imitation / blind following). Islamic modernists saw the resistance to change on the
part of the conservative ulama as a major cause for the problems the Muslim community was
facing as well as its inability to counter western hegemony.

Modernists

Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1838–1897) is regarded as one of the pioneers of Islamic modernism.
He believed that Islam was compatible with science and reason and that in order to counter
European power the Muslim world had to embrace progress.[18]

Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905) was a disciple and collaborator of al-Afghani. He was even
more influential than his master and is often referred to as the founder of Islamic modernism.
Abduh was born and raised in Egypt and was a scholar of Islam (alim). He taught at al-
Azhar and other institutions and in 1899 became Mufti of Egypt. Abduh believed that the Islamic
world was suffering from an inner decay and was in need of a revival.[19] Asserting that "Islam
could be the moral basis of a modern and progressive society",[20] he was critical of
both secularists and the conservative ulama. He called for a legal reform and the reinterpretation
(ijtihad) of Islamic law according to modern conditions. While critical of the West, he believed
that it was necessary to borrow or assimilate what was good from it.[21] Abduh became a leading
judge in Egypt after political activities in Paris as al-Afghani's assistant. He pushed for secular
law, religious reform, and education for girls.[17] He hoped that Egypt would ultimately become a
free republic, much like how France had transformed from an absolute monarchy.[14]

Muhammad Rashid Rida (1869–1935) also became active in the Egyptian modernization
movement as Abduh's disciple, although he was born and educated in Syria. Al-Manar was his
journal, through which he initially advocated greater openness to science and foreign influence.
[14]
He also stated that sharia was relatively silent about agriculture, industry, and trade, and that
these areas of knowledge needed renewal.[14] He would eventually evolve to conservative
positions close to Wahhabism. Qasim Amin was another reformer in Egypt and Abduh's disciple
who was heavily concerned with the rights of women.

Khayr al-Din al-Tunisi was similarly educated in Paris around the same time. He surveyed the
political systems of 21 European countries in an effort to reform Tunisia.[13]

Notable Modernists on the Indian subcontinent include Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817–1898)
and Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938) in the Indian subcontinent (the latter was also the conceiver
of the modern state of Pakistan). Like al-Afghani and Abduh, they rejected the doctrine of taqlid
and asserted the need for Islam to be reinterpreted according to modern conditions.[11]
Other Modernists include Mahmud Tarzi of Afghanistan, Chiragh Ali of India, Ahmad
Dahlan of Java, and Wang Jingzhai of China.[13]

Although Islamic modernists were subject to the criticism that the reforms they promoted
amounted to westernizing Islam, their legacy was significant and their thought influenced future
generations of reformers.[11]

ISLAM’S STRUGGLE FOR ACCEPTANCE IN THE WEST

Muslims’ compatibility with Western cultural values taps into the broader question of how they
have adapted to conditions historically in all their respective host nations. The Islamic world
consists of diverse ethnic, cultural, and geographic populations, and faces the challenge of
uniting diverse national cultures.

There are thirty countries, mainly in Asia and Africa, with a total population of about 900
million, in which Muslims have an overall majority; many more countries have sizable Muslim
minorities. The total Muslim world population is close to 1.5 billion, one-quarter of the total
world population (Hoogvelt, 1997).

The Muslim population has grown rapidly in Europe and North America in the past two decades.
There is a growing Islamic presence in the United States, although it is concentrated primarily in
a dozen major urban centers (El-Badry, 1994). At the close of the twentieth century, there were
approximately thirty-five million Muslims in Europe and North America, with about 1,250
mosques and Islamic centers in the United States.

Adaptation of Islamic peoples into a secular society depends on their resourcefulness. In the
recent analysis of Islam in diaspora, there is evidence of a “tentative ascent” into Western society
(Haddad, 1991; Esposito, 1992; Haddad and Smith, 1993; Lebor, 1997; Haddad & Esposito,
1998; and Haddad, 1997). Arabs in general find acculturation to be somewhat more difficult than
other immigrants, especially those who are more distinctly identified as Muslims (Gordon, 1964;
Tavakoliyadzi, 1981; Naff, 1983; Abou, 1997; and Faragallah, Schumm & Webb, 1997.)

THE CHALLENGE OF ISLAMIC UNIVERSALISM

More than two decades ago, Edward Said (1978) argued that Western values were dominating
the Arab and Islamic worlds by a curious twist of global consumerism: Arabs exchanged their oil
in the open world marketplace for a foreign and antagonistic Western culture. Said argued, “The
Arab and Islamic world remains a second-order power in terms of the production of [global]
culture, knowledge, and scholarship” (p. 323).

Muslim adherents disagree about the power of Western values to secularize Islamic culture.
Traditionalists argue either for severance of Islamic nations with Western institutions, or for
globalization of Islamic values. Among a new class of Muslim neo-fundamentalists—a group
Oliver Roy (1994) calls lumpen intelligentsia or “Islamic new intellectuals”— there is concerted
effort to counter Western science and ideology with equivalent concepts drawn from the Koran
and Hadith or Sunnah, the most widely accepted authoritarian guides to the Islamic canon.
DEMONIZATION OF MUSLIMS IN WESTERN MEDIA
Muslims are critical of Western media because of their invasiveness. Within Arab nations with
controlled borders, the deluge of messages and images conveyed by communication technologies
from around the world is perceived as a “cultural invasion” (Ghaffari-Farhangi, 1999). As
Ahmed (1992) assessed, the average Muslim is “as disgusted as he is confused with his own
sense of impotence in shaping reality around him; he can no longer challenge what is real or
unreal, no longer separate reality from the illusion of the media” (p. 3).

Others have observed the struggle to develop a comprehensive theory for mass communication
to compete with Western theories of communication (Hussain, 1986; Pasha, 1993; El-Affendi,
1993; and Al-Hajji, 1998). It is not widely appreciated, however, that very few efforts have been
advanced—West or East—pertaining to the role of media in acculturation of ethnic groups (Kim,
1988, 1995; Korzenny & Ting-Toomey, 1992).

POLITICAL ACTION TO FIGHT NEGATIVE PORTRAYALS

Islamic resistance to offending media portrayals is also achieved by increasingly well-organized
political groups. Among the advocacy groups organized to protest negative stereotyping in media
are the American-Arab Affairs Council, American Arab Anti-discrimination Committee, and the
Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR).

CAIR has organized twenty local chapters in major American and Canadian cities to train
volunteers as monitors of local media programs and to report ethnic-religious slurs. In turn CAIR
publishes national “action alerts” about media problems, such as topics on radio talk shows,
magazine articles, and books.

In its response to the movie The Siege, CAIR distributed hundreds of “community response kits”
to challenge the unfair portrayal of negative Arab stereotypes. CAIR suggested, “There are two
kinds of Islam in America, Hollywood’s version and the real thing. We are inviting moviegoers
to local mosque open houses so they may learn more about the reality of the American Muslim
community” (CAIR Action Alert No. 191, 5 Nov 1998).

SPEAKING FOR ISLAMIC VALUES

The diversity of the American Muslim community is a distinct obstacle to effective organized
political and social action. One factor that contributes to this diversity is the absence of a cultural
leader or spokesperson, one clearly identified as a defender of Islamic values and worldview in
the mainstream media. Among the media personalities who are variously identified as
representative of the Islam cultural tradition are numerous professional athletes who have
changed their names (i.e., boxer Muhammad Ali).2
One of the famous “cross-over” Islamic personalities recognized by both popular Western
culture and traditional Islam is former singer-songwriter “Cat” Stevens, who is a respected leader
in Britain’s Islamic community. A popular recording artist and folk singer in the late 1960s and
early 1970s, Stevens changed his name to Yusuf Islam in 1977, after his conversion to the
Islamic faith. A written account of his religious conversion outlines his emerging awareness of
the incompatibility of his religious convictions with Western cultural identity:

I wanted to be a big star. All those things I saw in the films and on the media took hold of me,
and perhaps I thought this was my God. I decided then that this was the life for me; to make a lot
of money, have a great life. Now my examples were the pop stars. I started making songs. So,
what happened was I became very famous. I was still a teenager, my name and photo were
splashed in all the media. They made me larger than life, so I wanted to live larger than life, and
the only way to do that was to be intoxicated with liquor and drugs (Islam, 1999).

ELECTRONIC MEDIA AND THE ISLAMIC LIFEWORLD

In order to maintain their identity, Muslim individuals and groups, similar to other minority
groups in Western society, have created different types of cultural and communicative strategies
to main their dual cultural citizenship. Muslims have employed cultural and communicative
strategies to balance their dual cultural citizenship. Through these strategies, they maintain a
lifeworld that reinvigorates the religious, cultural, and social heritage with Islam. So it happens
that through these processes of communication and interaction, group formation and mutual
solidarity (i.e., “cultural enclaves”) are formed (Gallab, 1997).

The development of new electronic media have made global pathways even more feasible for the
Islamic lifeworld, opening the realization to many adherents that Islam can maintain its spiritual
center and still extend its geographic reach. To the degree Islamic leaders are committed to
globalization, it is clear that they are fearful and apprehensive about the Western colonization of
their life world, in Habermas’ terms. Through colonization of the electronic pathways, Western
values can intervene into the religious sphere, which depends on communicative action and
dialogical discourse.

Regional Differences

Attitudes toward Islamic law vary significantly by region. Support for making sharia the law of
the land is highest in South Asia (median of 84%). Medians of at least six-in-ten Muslims in sub-
Saharan Africa (64%), the Middle East-North Africa region (74%) and Southeast Asia (77%)
also favor enshrining sharia as official law. But in two regions, far fewer Muslims say Islamic
law should be endorsed by their governments: Southern and Eastern Europe (18%) and Central
Asia (12%).

Within regions, support for enshrining sharia as official law is particularly high in some
countries with predominantly Muslim populations, such as Afghanistan and Iraq.1 But support
for sharia is not limited to countries where Muslims make up a majority of the population. In
sub-Saharan Africa, for example, Muslims constitute less than a fifth of the population in
Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Kenya, Liberia, Mozambique and
Uganda; yet in each of these countries, at least half of Muslims (52%-74%) say they want sharia
to be the official law of the land.
Conversely, in some countries where Muslims make up more than 90% of the population,
relatively few want their government to codify Islamic law; this is the case in Tajikistan (27%),
Turkey (12%) and Azerbaijan (8%).

Distinct legal and political cultures may help to explain the differing levels of support for sharia.
Many of the countries surveyed in Central Asia and Southern and Eastern Europe share a history
of separating religion and the state. The policies of modern Turkey’s founding father, Mustafa
Kemal Ataturk, for example, emphasized the creation of a secular government; other countries in
these two regions experienced decades of secularization under communist rule. By contrast,
governments in many of the countries surveyed in South Asia and the Middle East-North Africa
region have officially embraced Islam.

Sharia
Sharia, or Islamic law, offers moral and legal guidance for nearly all aspects of life – from
marriage and divorce, to inheritance and contracts, to criminal punishments. Sharia, in its
broadest definition, refers to the ethical principles set down in Islam’s holy book (the Quran) and
examples of actions by the Prophet Muhammad (sunna). The Islamic jurisprudence that comes
out of the human exercise of codifying and interpreting these principles is known as fiqh.
Muslim scholars and jurists continue to debate the boundary between sharia and fiqh as well as
other aspects of Islamic law.

Religious Commitment and Support for Sharia

The survey finds that religious devotion also shapes attitudes toward sharia.8 In many countries,
Muslims with higher levels of religious commitment are more likely to support sharia. In Russia,
for example, Muslims who say they pray several times a day are 37 percentage points more
likely to support making sharia official law than Muslims who say they pray less frequently.
Similarly, in Lebanon, the Palestinian territories and Tunisia, Muslims who say they pray several
times a day are at least 25 percentage points more supportive of enshrining sharia as official law
than are less observant Muslims.

Age, Gender, Education and Support for Sharia

Across the countries surveyed, support for making sharia the official law of the land generally
varies little by age, gender or education. In the few countries where support for Islamic law
varies significantly by age, older Muslims tend to favor enshrining sharia as the law of the land
more than younger Muslims do. This is particularly true in the Middle East-North Africa region,
where Muslims ages 35 and older are more likely than those 18-34 to back sharia in Lebanon
(+22 percentage points), Jordan (+12), Tunisia (+12) and the Palestinian territories (+10).

In only two countries are men significantly more likely than women to favor enshrining sharia as
official law: Pakistan (+16 percentage points) and Russia (+9). In most countries, Muslims with
a secondary degree or higher (i.e., graduates of a high school, technical institute or college) are
about as likely as those with less education to support Islamic law.
Muslims Who Favor Making Sharia Official Law

When Muslims around the world say they want sharia to be the law of the land, what role do they
envision for religious law in their country? First, many, but by no means all, supporters of sharia
believe the law of Islam should apply only to Muslims. In addition, those who favor Islamic law
tend to be most comfortable with its application to questions of family and property.9 In some
regions, fewer back the imposition of severe punishments in criminal cases, such as cutting off
the hands of thieves – an area of sharia known in Arabic as hudud (see Glossary). But in South
Asia and the Middle East and North Africa, medians of more than half back both severe criminal
punishments and the death penalty for Muslims who renounce their faith.

Faith and Morality

Regardless of whether they support making sharia the official law of the land, Muslims around
the world overwhelmingly agree that in order for a person to be moral, he or she must believe in
God. Muslims across all the regions surveyed also generally agree that certain behaviors – such
as suicide, homosexuality and consuming alcohol – are morally unacceptable. However,
Muslims are less unified when it comes to the morality of divorce, birth control and polygamy.
Even Muslims who want to enshrine sharia as the official law of the land do not always line up
on the same side of these issues.

The survey asked Muslims if it is necessary to believe in God to be moral and have good values.
For the majority of Muslims, the answer is a clear yes. Median percentages of roughly seven-in-
ten or more in Central Asia (69%), sub-Saharan Africa (70%), South Asia (87%), the Middle
East-North Africa region (91%) and Southeast Asia (94%) agree that morality begins with faith
in God. In Southern and Eastern Europe, where secular traditions tend to be strongest, a median
of 61% agree that being moral and having good values depend on belief in God.10 In only two of
the 38 countries where the question was asked – Albania (45%) and Kazakhstan (41%) – do
fewer than half of Muslims link morality to faith in God. (The question was not asked in
Afghanistan.)
Muslims around the world also share similar views about the immorality of some behaviors. For
example, across the six regions surveyed, median percentages of roughly eight-in-ten or more
consistently say prostitution, homosexuality and suicide are morally wrong. Medians of at least
60% also condemn sex outside marriage, drinking alcohol, abortion and euthanasia.

Women’s Rights

Muslims’ attitudes toward women’s rights are mixed. In most parts of the world, Muslims say
that a woman should be able to decide whether to wear a veil. Yet when it comes to private life,
most Muslims say a wife should always obey her husband. There is considerable disagreement
over whether a wife should be able to initiate a divorce and whether a daughter should be able to
receive an inheritance equal to a son’s.
Across five of the six major regions included in the study, majorities of Muslims in most
countries say a woman should be able to decide for herself whether to wear a veil in public.
Medians of roughly seven-in-ten or more take this view in Southern and Eastern Europe (88%),
Southeast Asia (79%) and Central Asia (73%). But fewer say women should have this right in
South Asia (56%) and the Middle East-North Africa region (53%). Sub-Saharan Africa is the
only region where a median of less than half (40%) think a woman should be able to decide for
herself whether to wear a veil. (For more details on views toward veiling, see Women and
Veiling in Chapter 4: Women In Society.)
Although many Muslims endorse a woman’s right to choose how she appears in public,
overwhelming majorities in most regions say a wife should always obey her husband. Medians
of more than eight-in-ten Muslims express this view in Southeast Asia (93%), South Asia (88%),
and the Middle East and North Africa (87%). Even in Central Asia, a region characterized by
relatively low levels of religious observance and strong support for a woman’s right to decide
whether to wear a veil, seven-in-ten Muslims agree that a wife should carry out her husband’s
wishes.11 Only in Southern and Eastern Europe do fewer than half (median of 43%) share this
view.

Differences in Views by Gender

Overall, the survey finds that Muslim women are often, but not always, more supportive of
women’s rights.12 For example, in about half of the 39 countries surveyed, women are more
likely than men to say that a woman should decide for herself whether to wear a veil in public.
Yet in the remaining countries, women are just as likely as men to say that the question of
veiling should not be left to individual women. When it comes to divorce and equal inheritance,
there are even fewer countries where Muslim women are significantly more supportive of
women’s rights than are Muslim men.

Extremism Widely Rejected

Muslims around the world strongly reject violence in the name of Islam. Asked specifically
about suicide bombing, clear majorities in most countries say such acts are rarely or never
justified as a means of defending Islam from its enemies.

In most countries where the question was asked, roughly three-quarters or more Muslims reject
suicide bombing and other forms of violence against civilians. And in most countries, the
prevailing view is that such acts are never justified as a means of defending Islam from its
enemies. Yet there are some countries in which substantial minorities think violence against
civilians is at least sometimes justified. This view is particularly widespread among Muslims in
the Palestinian territories (40%), Afghanistan (39%), Egypt (29%) and Bangladesh (26%).

Few See Tensions Over Religious Differences

Although many Muslims are concerned about Islamic extremist groups, relatively few think
tensions between more and less observant Muslims pose a major problem for their country.
Similarly, most do not see Sunni-Shia hostilities as a major problem. And when asked
specifically about relations between Muslims and Christians, majorities in most countries see
little hostility between members of the two faiths.

Muslims in Southern and Eastern Europe and those in Central Asia are not as likely as those in
other regions to describe tensions between more religious and less religious Muslims as a very
big problem in their country (regional medians of 10% and 6%, respectively). Slightly more
Muslims in South Asia (21%) and Southeast Asia (18%) see intra-faith differences as a major
problem. In the Middle East and North Africa, a median of one-in-four say tensions between
more and less devout Muslims is a pressing issue in their country.

Democracy and Religious Freedom

Most Muslims around the world express support for democracy, and most say it is a good thing
when others are very free to practice their religion. At the same time, many Muslims want
religious leaders to have at least some influence in political matters.

Given a choice between a leader with a strong hand or a democratic system of government, most
Muslims choose democracy. Regional medians of roughly six-in-ten or more support democracy
in sub-Saharan Africa (72%), Southeast Asia (64%) and Southern and Eastern Europe (58%),
while slightly fewer agree in the Middle East and North Africa (55%) and Central Asia (52%).
Muslims in South Asia are the most skeptical of democratic government (a median of 45% say
they support democracy).

A majority of Muslims in most countries surveyed say they are “very free” to practice their
religion. The only countries where fewer than half of Muslims say they are very free to practice
their faith are Iraq (48%), Egypt (46%) and Uzbekistan (39%).

The survey also asked Muslims whether people of other faiths in their country are very free,
somewhat free, not too free or not at all free to practice their religion; a follow-up question asked
Muslims whether they consider this “a good thing” or “a bad thing.” In 31 of the 38 countries
where the question was asked, majorities of Muslims say people of other faiths can practice their
religion very freely. (The question was not asked in Afghanistan.) And of those who share this
assessment, overwhelming majorities consider it a good thing. This includes median percentages
of more than nine-in-ten in South Asia (97%), Southern and Eastern Europe (95%), sub-Saharan
Africa (94%), Southeast Asia (93%) and Central Asia (92%). In the Middle East-North Africa
region, nearly as many (85%) share this view.

There are a few countries where 10% or more of Muslims say non-Muslims are either “not too
free” or “not at all free” to practice their faith. These include Egypt (18%), Turkey (14%), Iraq
(13%), Djibouti (11%), Tajikistan (11%) and the Palestinian territories (10%). Very few
Muslims in these countries call this lack of religious freedom “a good thing.” Egypt is the only
country in which more than one-tenth (12%) of the total Muslim population says it is a good
thing that non-Muslims are not free to practice their faith.
Islam and Politics

While Muslims widely embrace democracy and religious freedom, many also want religion to
play a prominent role in politics. Medians of at least six-in-ten in Southeast Asia (79%), South
Asia (69%), and the Middle East and North Africa (65%) say religious leaders should have at
least some influence over political matters. This includes medians of at least a quarter across
these three regions who would like to see religious leaders exert a large influence on politics.
Muslims in the other two regions where the question was asked are less comfortable with the
merger of politics and faith. Fewer than three-in-ten Muslims in Central Asia (28%) and
Southern and Eastern Europe (22%) say religious leaders should wield influence in political
matters. And among these, less than one-in-ten think religion should have a large influence.
Devout Muslims tend to be more supportive of religious leaders playing a role in politics. In a
number of countries, particularly in the Middle East and North Africa but also in Southern and
Eastern Europe, Muslims who pray several times a day are more likely than those who pray less
frequently to say religious leaders should have at least some influence on political matters. At a
country level, this gap is especially wide in Lebanon, where Muslims who pray several times a
day are nearly four times more likely than other Muslims (51% vs. 13%) to say religious leaders
should play a role in politics.

Islam and Contemporary Society

Most Muslims are comfortable practicing their faith in the contemporary world. Relatively few
feel there is an inherent conflict between being religiously devout and living in a modern society,
and the prevailing view in most countries surveyed is that there is no inherent conflict between
religion and science. However, most Muslims think Western music, movies and television pose a
threat to morality in their country – even though, on a personal level, substantial percentages say
they enjoy Western entertainment.

Western Pop Culture

Western music, movies and television have become a fixture of contemporary society in many
parts of the world. The survey finds that, at a personal level, many Muslims enjoy Western
popular culture. This is especially true in Southern and Eastern Europe (66%), Central Asia
(52%) and sub-Saharan Africa (51%), where medians of at least 50% say they like Western
entertainment. Fewer in Southeast Asia (41%) and the Middle East and North Africa (38%) share
this view. Favorable opinions of Western music, movies and television are even rarer in South
Asia (25%).

Even though many Muslims enjoy Western pop culture, a clear majority of Muslims in most
countries surveyed think that Western entertainment harms morality in their country. And it is
not only Muslims who personally dislike Western music, movies and television who feel this
way. In four of the six regions, medians of at least half of those who say they enjoy this type of
entertainment also say Western cultural imports undermine morality: sub-Saharan Africa (65%),
South Asia (59%), Southeast Asia (51%) and the Middle East-North Africa region (51%). (For
more details, including Muslims’ views toward Bollywood, see Popular Culture in Chapter 7:
Religion, Science and Popular Culture.)

How Do American Muslims Compare?

In 2011, the Pew Research Center conducted its second nationally representative survey of
Muslims in the United States. When that survey is compared with the global survey of Muslims,
some key differences emerge between U.S. Muslims and Muslims in other countries. In general,
American Muslims are more at ease in the contemporary world. About six-in-ten Muslims living
in the U.S. (63%) say there is no tension between being religiously devout and living in a
modern society, compared with a median of 54% of Muslims worldwide. American Muslims
also are more likely than Muslims in other parts of the world to say that many religions can lead
to eternal salvation (56% vs. global median of 18%). Additionally, U.S. Muslims are much less
likely than Muslims worldwide to say that all or most of their close friends are Muslim (48% vs.
global median of 95%).

Muslims in the U.S. are about as likely as Muslims in other countries to view science and
religion as fully compatible. In the U.S., 59% of Muslims say there generally is not a conflict
between science and religion, compared with a median of 54% globally among Muslims.
However, American Muslims are somewhat less likely to believe in evolution than are Muslims
in other parts of the world (45% vs. global median of 53%). Indeed, when it comes to evolution,
U.S. Muslims are closer to U.S. Christians (46% of whom say they believe in evolution) than
they are to fellow Muslims elsewhere in the world.

Q No. 2 Write down the educational objectives and their significance given by Allam Iqbal.
Enlist some specific objectives as a teacher.

Answer:

IQBAL AND THE ISLAMIC OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION

The importance of education hardly needs any emphasis. It is the 'knowledge of things' as
such which ditinguishes man from the rest of the creation and which, according to the Qur'an,
establishes his superiority over all others.[1] Vim is an essential quality for leadership[2] and is one
of those factors of prime importance which lead to the rise and growth of civilization.[3] That is
why the Holy Prophet (Peace be upon him) said: "The acquisition of knowledge is incumbent on
every Muslim" and: "Acquire knowledge, for he who acquireth it in the way of Allah performeth
an act of piety; he who speaketh of it, praiseth the Lord; he who seeketh after it, adoreth God ; he
who dispenseth instruction in it, bestoweth alms, and he who imparteth it to others, performeth
an act of devotion to Allah."
Such being the importance of knowledge and education, it is very essential that we should
clearly understand the nature of education and the principles on which it should be based.
Education

Education is not mere public instruction. It is a process through which a nation develops its
self-consciousness, through developing the self-consciousness of the individuals who compose it.
It conists in the training of the new generations in the arts and crafts of living and in making
them realise their mission and duty in life. Through education a people communicate their
culture and intellectual heritage to the future generations and inspires them with their ideals of
life. Education is a mental, physical and moral training and its objective is to produce highly
cultured men and women fit to discharge their duties as good human beings and as worthy
citizens of a state. This is the nature and purport of education and is borne out by a careful
perusal of the views of the leading educationists of all the ages.
Etymologically, 'education' is derived from the Latin e, ex meaning 'out' and ducere,
duct meaning 'to lead'. Literally it means `pack the information in' and 'draw the talents
out.'[4] Fundamentally the word is associated with the concept of giving information and
knowledge and of developing latent talents of the object.
John Sturat Mill was among the western pioneers who tried to give wider frontiers to
education. He said:

"Not only does education include whatever we do for ourselves and whatever is done for us by
others for the express purpose of bringing us nearer to the perfection of our nature; it does more
in its largest acceptation: it comprehends even the indirect efforts produced on character, and on
the human faculties by things of which the direct purposes are quite different."[5]

John Milton, a recent writer, defines education as follows:

"I call a complete and generous education that which fits a man to perform justly, skillfully and
magnanimously all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war."[6]

This is the broadest possible view of education.

The American philosopher John Dewey, regards education as "the process of forming
fundamental dispositions, intellectual and emotional, towards nature and fellow men." [7] Dr. John
Park is of the view that: "Education is the art or process of imparting or acquiring knowledge and
habits through instruction or study."[8]
Another educationist, Professor Herman H. Home, writes that: "Education is the eternal
process of superior adjustment of the physically and mentally developed, free, conscious, human
being to God, as manifested in the intellectual, emotional and volitional environment of man." [9]
Professor Niblet asserts that:

"The end of education is not 'happiness' but rather to develop greater capacity for being aware; to
deepen human understanding — perhaps inevitably through conflict; struggle and suffering....to
make right action natural.”[10]

Thus, education is a continuous process through which moral, mental and physical training
is imparted to younger generations, who also acquire their ideals and culture through it.
Educationists use the word in two senses: in its broader sense it designates all those influences,
physical, biological, moral and social, which fashion the course of lives of the individual and the
nation and in its narrower sense it designates only those special influences which are organised
and devised by teachers in schools, colleges and other places of education. In any way, however,
education is an all-embracing process and influences all aspects of the life of the pupil. That is
why the life of a nation depends on its education. A chinese proverb rightly puts it in this way:
"If you are planning for a year, plant grains;
If you are planning for a decade, plant trees;
If you are planning for a mellenium, plant men."
It is through education that men are 'planted' and milleniums are built.
Naturalism in Education

The child occupies the central figure in the educational system of the naturalists. The subject
and method of education must be in consonance with the natural tendencies of child’s mind, his
instincts and emotions. While educating the child the teacher must take into consideration his
dominant psychological trends and the stage of development of his personality. The psychology
of development is of utmost importance for education. We must study the nature of infants,
children and adolescents and adjust our educational approach accordingly.
Psycho-analysis has given a great impetus to naturalism in education. It stands for
unrestricted expression of the unconscious impulses of the child. He must be given freedom and
opportunity for natural development so that he may not suffer from mental depression and
conflict. It condemns sexual taboos, authoritarian methods and corporeal punishment.
Rousseu considered that the first twelve years of human life are extremely important. During
this period the child must be given full opportunities for the perfection of his instruments of
knowledge, namely, his sense organs. Nothing was to be done during this period to mould child’s
mind. He was not to read and write. His body and his sense organs were to be exercised and
trained. No moral training should be imparted to him during this period.
Like, Rousseu, Iqbal emphasises the empirical aspect of know-ledge. He realised the
importance of sense-perception. According to him development of an active personality is
impossible without concrete environment. Self-realization, which according to Iqbal, is
conducive to educational goal cannot be conceived without the material environment. He further
realised the importance of freedom which was particularly emphasised by the naturalists.
According to Iqbal, the latent power of the individual cannot develop, unless he is placed in an
atmosphere of freedom and is thus able to interact with the environment and thereby get direct
and first hand experience. Yet, he is a rigid disciplinarian and advocates such strict regulations as
prepare the child for straneous obligations of life. In other words, he does not agree with
Rousseu’s “freedom idea” in its extreme form. Naturalists further stress on adjustment to
environment as the educational aim. Iqbal differs from the naturalists, insofar as he holds that,
not adjustment, but the conquest of the environment is the real aim of education. Therefore,
according to him the child should not yield himself to environmental forces. Man has always
been mastering his material environment and shaping and re-shaping it according to his own
needs and desires. Consequently against the views held by the naturalists, Iqbal contends that the
environment should be shattered and remoulded if it does not accord with the aspiration of the
individual. He expresses this idea when he pleads that if the world does not conform to your
standards, instead of submitting to it you should destroy and remold it.
‫گفتند جہان ما آیا با توے سازد‬
‫گفتم کہ نمی سازد و گفتند کہ برھم زن‬
Idealism in Education

He agrees with the idealists that the material and the physical universe, as known to science,
is an incomplete expression of reality. Man has a peculiar power which manifests itself in the
form of intellect, intuition, culture, art, morality and religion. These are peculiar to man and are
certainly beyond the range of positive science.
Idealism is bitterly opposed to naturalism, in so far as it regards that the real aim of
education is to mould the environment according to ideals or the individual values and not to
yield oneself to the physical environment which is an eternal embodiment of human will and
intelligence; much of it is the result of man’s capacity for inventiveness. Iqbal beautifully gives
expression to this idea:
‫تو شب آفریدی چراغ آفریدم‬
‫سفال آفریدی ایاغ آفریدم‬
‫بیابان و کوھسار و راغ آفریدی‬
‫خیابان و گلزار و باغ آفریدم‬
‫من آنم کہ از سنگ آئینہ سازم‬
‫من آنم کہ از زھر نو شینہ سازم‬

You (God) created the night, I the lamp;

You created the clay, I the vase.
You created the jungle, mountains and deserts
I created gardens, orchards and flower-plots.
It is I who make glass out of stone
It is I who extract elixir out of poison.

Education and Culture

Education is a part and parcel of the culture of a people and is the instrument through which
a culture perpetuates itself. The two cannot be separated from each other in just as the flesh
cannot be separated from the bone. There is a widespread mis conception that a people can
emulate without injury the educational system of any country or nation. Unless a people spurn
their own culture — something tentamount to national suicide ! — they cannot indiscriminately
avail themselves of foreign systems of education.
Every system of education basically consists of a set of certain social ideals, norms and
values and is based on a specific view of life and culture. It is in this realm that imitation is
suicidal. On the other hand, as far as techniques and methods are concerned, one country can
safely profit from the experiences of others. But great care should be taken in respect of values,
principles and ideals, for a conscious or unconscious adoption of them may destory the entire
fabric of a nation's culture.
Iqbal is very clear on this point. He says:
‫ز خاک خویش طلب آنسے کہ پیدا نیست‬
‫تجلی دگرے در خور تقاضا نیست‬

(Look into thy own clay for the fire that is wanted

The light of another is not worth striving for.)

‫اٹھا نہ شیشہ گران فرنگ کے احساں‬

‫سفال ہندسے مینا و جام پیدا کر‬

(Seek not the bounty of the glass-blowers of the West

Make your own world from the clay of India.)

‫رزق خویش از نعمت دیگر مجو‬

‫موج آب از چشمۂ خاور مجو‬

(Seek not thy bread from the bounty of another

Seek not the waves of water from the fountain of the Sun.)

‫تا کجا در تہ بال دگراں می باشی‬

‫در ہوائے چمن آرا دہ پریدن آموز‬

(How long wilt thou abide under the wings of others?

Learn to wing thy flight freely in the garden breeze.)

And perhaps the clearest statement comes when Iqbal criticizes the generation which has
been brought up under the influence of alien education — education which was opposed to our
culture, distasteful to our civilization, affronting to our traditions and insulting to our history. He
says:
‫علم غیر آموختی اندوختی‬
‫روئے خویش از غازہ اش افروختی‬
‫ارجمندی از شعارش می برید‬
‫من ندانم تو توئی یا دیگری‬
‫عقل تو زنجیری افکار غیر‬
‫در گلوئے تو نفس از تار غیر‬
‫بر زبانت گفتگوہا مستعار‬
‫در دل تو آرزو ہا مستعار‬
‫قمریانت را نواہا خواستہ‬
‫سروہا یت را قباہا خواستہ‬
 ‫باد می گیری بجام از دیگراں‬
‫آفتاب ہستی یکے در خود نگر‬
‫از نجوم دیگراں تا بے خبر‬
‫تا کجا طوف چراغ محفلے‬
‫ز آتش خودی سوزاگر داری دے‬
(You have learnt and amassed knowledge of others and brightened your face with rouge
borrowed from others,
You seek honour by aping the manners of others,
I know not, whether you are 'yourself' or just "another's self".
Your intellect is chained in the thoughts of others;
The very breath in your throat comes from the strings of others.
Borrowed speeches are on your tongue;
Borrowed desires in your heart.
Your canaries sing borrowed songs;
Your cypresses are clad in borrowed mantles.
The wine in your cup — you get from others;
The cup, too, you borrow from others.
You are a Sun; look for once into your own self;
Seek not your light from the stars of others.
How long will you dance around the candle of the assembly?
Lit up your own light, if you have a heart.)
Thus it is clear that Iqbal was opposed to borrowed education
and made a fervent plea for the adoption of that system of education
which is the product of our own history and culture and which is in
tune with our traditions and ideals. This exactly is the approach
which is being advocated by the leading educationists of our day.
John Dewey says: "Since education is a social process and
there are many kinds of societies, a criterion for educational criticism
and construction implies a particular social ideal.[11] Prof. Niblett, puts it very beautifully
when he says:

"It (education) is a continuation of the process of growing into a fully human being which took
place physically in the nine months before we were born. But now it is the culture of the society
which is the womb,and the spirit not the body which is gestated."[12] Professor Clarke makes this
significant observation:

"For, whatever else education may mean, it must mean primarily the self-perpetuation of an
accepted culture — a culture which is the life of a determined society." [13]

And the American educationist, Dr. J. B. Conant, raises this point in another significant way
when he says:
"I do not believe that educational practices are an exportable commodity. I fear the contrary
assumption has been implied to some extent in our dealings with Germany and Japan since word
war II. At times in our own history, attempts to import a British or European concept have done
more harm than good."[14]

The above discussion brings home the point that education is inextricably connected with
the culture and the social ideals of a people and any attempt to strike a divorce between the two
would defeat the very purpose of education. Education must represent the culture of the people
and should preserve it for the future generations. Education which poses a neutral attitude
towards culture and ideals of the society, will act as a force of disintegration and destroy the
social fabric of the society. Education does more harm than good to a society if it does not
represent and embody its culture.

The Failure of Liberal Education

The modern concept of liberal education is the very antithesis of the approach discussed
above. Originally liberal education was the kind of education that was regarded as suitable for
freemen as distinguished from the one adequate for the slaves or the serfs. Greeks as well as the
Romans regarded artes liberals as studies appropriate for the free citizen. In the Mediaval period
the same view prevailed. Liberal arts were divided into two groups-
Trivium and Quadrivium, consisting of grammer, rhetoric and logic and arithmetic, geometry,
astronomy and music respectively.
In the modern age liberal education gradually became a purposive and neutral towards
ideals. Individuality was emphasised at the cost of all other considerations. Education was
divorced from religion and moral values. Freedom became the catchword. Elective system was
introduced in respect of subjects and syllabii. It was asserted that a student should be given
ample freedom to grow and develop according to his latent faculties and no external influence be
allowed to cast his thinking or character into specific moulds. This kind of education became
very common in the United States and gained ground in European countries as well.
The results which liberal education has produced are in no way encouraging. Some of the
important results are as follows: —
(a) Education has failed to develop social ideals among the students. And when a people
lack ideals which may inspire them to action and sacrifice, they gradually lose their grip
on history and their decline follows. In the words of Iqbal:
‫زندہ فرد از ارتباط جان و تن‬
‫زندہ قوم از حفظ ناموس کہن‬
‫مرگ فرد از خشکی رود حیات‬
‫مرگ قوم از ترک مقصود حیات‬

(Life of the individual depends on the

relationship of the body and the soul

Life of the nation depends on the

preservation of its tradition and culture.

Individual dies if the life-flow ceases
Nation dies if the ideal of life is spurned.)
(b) Such an education fails to instil moral values in the hearts and souls of the new
generations. It deals merely with the demands of the mind and fails to cater to the
demands of the soul. A dichotomy occurs between the two and this results in a great
national loss. As Iqbal says:
‫علم را بر تن زنی مارے بود‬
‫علم را بر دل زنی یارے بود‬

(Knowledge is a snake for you (i.e. your poison)

if you use it to increase your (material) body (alone),

If knowledge is used for the emancipation of the

soul, then it is your best friend.)

(c) This kind of education has resulted in the departmentalization of knowledge. Liberal
education fails to organize or integrate knowledge into any one consistent whole.
Students begin to see life and the world in small, unrelated fragments and fail to develop
a sense of their unity and meaning. They only see the trees, not the wood!
(d) Liberal education, in the last analysis, produces men who do not have any grip over the
basic and living issues of life. In actual practice their knowledge proves too superficial to
be of any empiric value. From the national viewpoint, such education fails to deliver the
goods.
These basic drawbacks of the modern liberal education are now becoming more and more
manifest. Dr. Frank Aydelotte says about American education: "The exclusive preoccupation
with techniques, with means as opposed to ends, is depriving the study of literature, or
philosophy, or history or religion of any liberal, element."[15] Walter Lippman, the famous social
philosopher, in a speech on "The State of Education in This Troubled World" says: —

"The schools and colleges have been sending out into the world men who no longer understand
the creative principles of the society in which they must live..... deprived of their
cultural tradition, the newly educated western men no longer possess in the form and substance
of their own minds and spirits, the ideas, the premises, the rationale, the logic, the method, the
values or the deposited wisdom which are the genius of the development of Western
Civilization.. . . . the present education is destined, if it continues, to destroy Western
Civilization, and is in fact destroying it."[16]

Dr. Albert G. Sims, Vice-President, Institute of International Education, in a recent article

writes:
 "The central problem in United States Education to which all others are tangent, is that of
defining and giving effect to objectives and philosophy. It is no answer to say to this that the
educational system mirrors in these respects the society which it serves. Education is also the
means by which a community must deliberately project the image of its future."[17]
The recent Rockefeller Report on U.S. Education clearly points out this deficiency:

"They (the students) want meaning in their lives. If their era, and their culture and their leaders
do not or cannot offer them great meanings, great objectives, great convictions, then they will
settle for shallow and trivial meanings. People who live aimlessly, who allow the search for
meaning in their lives to be satisfied by shady and meretricious experiences, have simply not
been stirred by any alternative meanings — religious meanings, ethical values, ideas of social
and civic responsibility, high standards of self-realisation. This is a deficiency for which we all
bear a responsibility.

"We must assume that education is a process that should be infused with meaning and purpose;
that everyone will have deeply held beliefs; that every young man will wish to serve the value
which have nurtured him and made possible his education and his freedom as an individual."

In a book entitled The Crisis in the University which grew out of a series of studies in
England, Sir Walter Moberley says: —

"Our predicament is this:' Most students go through our universifies without ever having been
forced to exercise their minds on the issues which are really momentous. Under the influence of
academic neutrality they are subtly conditioned to unthinking acquiescence in the social and
political status quo and in a secularism on which they have never seriously reflected. Owing to
the prevailing fragmentation of studies, they are not challenged to decide responsibility on a life-
purpose or equipped to make such a decision wisely.. . Fundamentally they are un-
educated."[18] Professor Harold H. Titus, after reviewing the entire educational perspective,
writes:-

"Even more serious than the lack of a common store of knowledge is the lack of common ideals
and convictions. Education too frequently fails to build up any vital affirmations, convictions and
disciplines. There has been a dangerous separation of science and research from human values
and loyalties. ... Education has divorced itself from the spiritual heritage of the past but has failed
to supply any adequate substitute. Consequently, even educated persons are left without
convictions or sense of values as well as without a consistent world view."[19]

M. V. C. Jaffreys complains that:

"The most serious weakness in modern education is the uncertainty about its aims. A glance over
history reminds us that the most vital and effective systems of education have envisaged their
objectives quite definitely; in terms of personal qualities and social situations. Spartan, Feudal,
Jesuit, Nazi, Communist educationists have had this in common, they knew what they wanted to
do and believed in it. By contrast, education in the liberal democracies is distressingly nebulous
in its aims."[20]

These new thought-currents clearly show that the concept of the ideological neutrality of
education is on the wane and decidedly this concept is injurious to culture and progress.

Purpose of Education

Education should be ideologically oriented. It is a means to an end and not an end in itself.
The end is the ideology and the culture of the people it is going to serve.
‫زندگی سرمایہ دار از آرزوست‬
‫عقل از زائیدگان بطن اوست‬

(Life is full of riches by Ideals.

Intellect is one of those which are born

from the inside of its body.)

‫زندگانی را بقا از مدعا ست‬

‫کاروانش را درا از مدعا ست‬

(Life is preserved by purpose and idea;

Because of the goal its caraven bell tinkles.)

Education must instil those beliefs and ideals for which the nation stands. Preservation and
promotion of the Religion and Eulture of the people should be the purpose of education.
A. N. Whitehead emphasises this point when he says that "the essence of education is that it
be religious".[21]
‫ اس علم سے‬،‫ عام طور پر میں نے علم کا لفظ انہی معنوں م یں استعمال کیا ہے‬،‫علم سے میری مراد وہ علم ہے جس کا دارو مدار حواس پر ہے‬
‫ مسلمان کے لیے لازم ہے کہ‬...‫ایک طبعی قوت ہاتھ آتی ہے جس کو دین کے ماتحت رہنا چاہیے۔ اگر یہ دین کے ماتحت نہ رہے تو محض شیطنت ہے‬
‫ یا یوں کہئے کہ اگر اس کی قوت دین کے تابع ہو جائے تو‬،‫ ’’بو لہب را حیدر کرار کن‘‘ اگر یہ بولہب حیدر کرار بن جاے‬.‫علم کو مسلمان کرے‬
]22[
.‘‘‫نوع انسانی کے ل یے سراسر رحمت ہے‬

Iqbal held the view that Islam should be the purpose of our life and education. He writes in a
letter to K. G. Saiyidain:

"By I mean that knowledge which is based on senses. Usually I have used the word in this very
sense. This knowledge yields physical powers which should be subservient to deen (i.e. the
religion of Islam). If it is not subservient to deen then it is demonic, pure and simple.. . it is
incumpent on Muslims to Islamize knowledge. "Abu Lahab should be metamorphosed into
Haiyder". If this Abu Lahab becomes Haider-e-Karrar, or in other words, if it (i.e. knowledge
and the power it wields) becomes subservient to deen, then it would be an unmixed blessing unto
mankind."
 From this observation of Iqbal, it becomes clear that he wanted to give education an
ideological orientation and regarded that knowledge and education satanic which is neutral
towards religion. In his famous Presidential Address of 1930 he said:

"If today you focus your vision on Islam and seek inspiration from the ever-vitalising ideas
embodied in it, you will be only reassembling your scattered forces, regaining your lost intergity,
and thereby saving yourself from total destruction."[23]

He also .says:
‫نقش بر دل معنئ توحید کن‬
‫چارہ کار خود از تقلید کن‬

(Make the imprint of the meaning of Tawheed on your heart,

Seek solution of your problems by adherence to your traditions.)

Thus the primary purpose of education should be to imbue the students with their religion
and ideology. They should be taught the meaning and purpose of life, man's position in the
world, the doctrines of Tawheed (unity of God), Risalah (Prophethood), Akhirah (Life hereafter)
and their bearing upon individual and social life, the Islamic values of morality, the nature and
content of Islamic culture, and the obligations and the mission of a Muslim. Education should
produce men with deeply-held convictions about the Islamic ideals of individual and collective
life. It should develop in them the Islamic approach so that they may carve out their own way in
the light of Islamic guidance.
The Qur'an says that the men of knowledge are the witnesses o Truth. Education which is
designed to produce 'men of knowledge' should regard the cultivation of the knowledge of Islam
as the primary goal. The Qur'an says:

"Allah (Himself) is witness that there is no God save Him. And the angels and the men of
learning (too are witness to this fact)."[24]

According to the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him):

"Men of learning and Mujahideen are nearest to the prophetic status: for the men of learning
direct the people in the ideals and objectives for which the prophets were raised and
the Mujahid wields his sword in that cause."

Now, the question is: what is the mission for which the prophets have been raised: a mission
which is to be discharged by the men of learning and the academies which are to produce these
men of learning? According to the Qur'an, this mission is the propagation of the Message of
Islam and the establishment of a just and healthy social order. The Qur'an says:
"He it is who bath sent among the unlettered ones a messenger of their own: to recite unto
them His revelations and to make them grow and purify, and to teach them the scripture and
Wisdom, though heretofore they were indeed in error manifest."[25]
 And:

"We verily sent our Messengers with clear proofs, and revealed with them the Scripture and the
Balance, that mankind may observe justice and right measure."[26]

Thus the basic objective of education in the framework of Islamic Culture is to discharge
these prophetic functions, to educate the people in the religion of Islam, to imbue them with the
spirit and ideals of this religion and to prepare them for a fully-grown life.
This objective is to be achieved by permeating the entire education with the spirit of the
Islamic ideology. Compilation and introduction of new books will have to be done from this
viewpoint. An overhauling of the entire curricula and the creation of an atmosphere which is
conducive to the achievement of these objectives will also be called for. It will also be necessary
that in the teaching of each and every subject — particularly in respect of social studies — the
viewpoint of Islam should be explained to the student and at every stage of his education proper
care should be taken to arouse his sense of moral responsibility. This, in my view, would be the
proper purpose of education.

Individualism and Social Sense

A very basic issue of education is: what importance is to be given to the development of
individuality of the student? There are conflicting theories about it. Some regard the
development of the individuality as the fundamental value and do not give any importance to the
growth of social sense and collective responsibility. On the contrary there are some other
theories which regard conformity to the social norm as the basic value and do not lay any
emphasis upon the growth of the individual personality. Both these extremes are incorrect and
unrealistic. A unique feature of Islam is that it establishes a balance between individualism and
collectivism. It believes in the individual personality of man and holds everyone personally
responsible and accountable to God. It guarantees fundamental rights of the individual and does
not permit any one to tamper with them. It makes the proper development of the personality of
man as one of the prime objectives of its educational policy. It does not subscribe to the view
that man must loose his individuality in the social-collective or in the state. According to the
Qur'an:

"Man shall have nothing but what he strives for."[27]

"And whatever suffering ye suffer, it is what your hands have wrought."[28]

"God does not change the condition of a people unless they first change that which is in their
hearts."[29]

"For each is that which it hath earned and against each is only that which it hath deserved."[30]

"Unto us are our deeds and unto you are yours."[31]

 Iqbal has laid great emphasis on the proper development of the individuality of man. He
says that the Qur'anic concept of the ego stresses "the individuality and uniqueness of man and
has a definite view of his destiny as a unity of life."[32] The development of ego is of prime
importance in his way of thinking. He condemns imitation because it curbs one's individuality.
He is against drama and Tamtheel for in them the actor has to adopt the role of someone else and
the repetition of it leads to the assassination of one's own personality. His view was that:
‫پیکر ہستی ز اسرار خودی است‬
‫ہر چہ می بینی ز اسرار خودی است‬

(Khudi is the determinant of the entire gamut of existence,

All that Thou seest is due to the secrets of Khudi.)

‫وا نمودن خویش را خوئے خودی است‬

‫خفتہ در ہر ذرہ نیروے خودی است‬

(It is in the nature of Khudi to manifest itself.

In every particle lies slumbering the prowess of Khudi.)

Thus the development of the individuality of man should be a basic tent with education.
This is only one aspect of the problem. On the other hand, Islam also awakens a sense of
social responsibility in man, organizes human beings in a society and a state and enjoins the
individual to subscribe to the social good. Prayer, in Islam, is offered in congregation which
inculcates social discipline among the Muslims. Everyone is enjoined to pay Zakat and it has
been laid down in the Qur’an that: “In their wealth the beggar and the destitute have their due
right.” (Al-Qur’an 11:19). Jihad has been made obligatory, which means that the individual
should, when the occasion arises, offer even his life for the defence and protection of Islam and
the Islamic state. The Holy Prophet said:

“All mankind is a fold every member of which shall be a keeper or shepherd unto every other,
and be accountable for the welfare of the entire fold.”

“Live together, do not turn against each other, make things easy for others and do not put
obstacles in each other’s way.” “He is not a believer who takes his fill while his neighbour
starves.” “The believer in God is he who is not a danger to life and property of any other.”

Iqbal _mphasizes this point when he says:___

‫فرد قائم ربط ملت سے ہے تنہا کچھ نہیں‬
‫موج ہے دریا میں اور بیرون دریا کچھ نہیں‬

(Individual is what he is through his association with

the community. He is a nonety without that association.

He is like a wave in the river — outside the river

the wave has no existence.)

A healthy educational policy will always aim at the achievement of balance between the
development of the individuality and the social consciousness of the pupil. For
‫فرد می گیرد ز ملت احترام‬
‫ملت از افراد می یابد نظام‬

(The individual derives his honour from his nation

A nation is organised when the individuals are united together.)

The development of the individuality can be achieved only if the child is treated with love
and affection — even with a certain degree of respect for his individual self — and if his latent
faculties are given ample opportunities for self-expression. He should breathe in an atmosphere
of freedom. Education should become pupil-centred, giving him all possible opportunities to
develop his creative faculties and inherent talents and apptitude. The teachers should guide him
and help him in his pursuit for the development of his personality but should not overshadow
him to the extent that he becomes only a reflection of the teacher's personality. There should not
be any compulsory drafting in different fields and occupations of the child who should be given
the chance to make his own choice. The school atmosphere should be permeated with freedom,
then alone can the proper development of the pupil's personality take place.
The primary emphasis on individuality does not mean that there should be any lack of social
sense and collective responsibility in the students. The virtues of social consciousness and
responsibility should be installed in them from the very beginning and they should be prepared
for social service and responsible citizenship.

The Need for Integrated Knowledge

Another principle of education is that students should be imparted balanced and integrated
knowledge. They should be able to visualise the unity of the universe and the life in the diversity
of the world-phenomena. The Report of the University Education Commission of India asserts
that:

`The purpose of all education, it is admitted by thinkers of East and West, is to provide a
coherent picture of the universe and an integrated way of life. We must obtain through it a sense
of perspective, a synoptic vision, a samanvaya of the different items of knowledge. Man cannot
live by a mass of disconnected information. He has a passion for an ordered intellectual vision of
the connections of things. Life is one in all its varied manifestations. We may study the factual
relations of the different manifestations but we must have knowledge of life as a whole. It cannot
be a collection of distracting scraps but should be a harmony of patterns."[33]
 Islam stands for the golden mean and its ideal is the development of a balanced personality.
Balance in thought and behaviour is, according to a saying of the Prophet (peace be upon him),
one of the characteristics of prophethood. Education, should, therefore, make it a point to see that
the student gets a wide perspective of knowledge, and develops a balanced approach to life and
its problems before he enters the stage of specialisation.
Moreover, it seems that Islam views knowledge as an integrated and correlated whole. This
can be inferred from the fact that the Qur'an is the mainspring of all knowledge and it is this
Book which will mould the mind and the approach of all the seekers of knowledge, whatever be
their fields of inquiry. This automatically leads us to the concept of integrated knowledge.
Knowledge will not remain split into small, unrelated fragments, but will be integrated into a
single whole. This will also eliminate the evils of fragmentation and departmentalisation.
Perhaps it would be more in consonance with the approach to start specialisation only at a higher
stage of education. In the lower stages education should remain non-specialised. This will go a
long way in broadening the outlook of the youth and in cultivating in them the virtues of
intellectual tolerance.

Character-Building

Iqbal says:
‫آہ اس راز سے واقف ہے نہ ملا نہ فقیہ‬
‫وحدت افکار کی بے وحدت کردار ہے خام‬

(Ah! Neither the Mulla nor the Jurist is aware of the fact

That unity of thought without unity of character is incomplete and wanting.)

Education must lay prime emphasis upon the character-formation of the child. Unless it goes
to build up good character as well, it will never achieve its real purpose. "Character-training,"
says Professor W.O. Lester Smith, "is closely linked with the conception of school as a society".
[34]
This view is now being emphasised on different hands.

In Islam the importance of good deeds is primary. The Qur'an simultaneously stresses the
need of Iman and 'amal salih. One of the basic missions of the Prophet is stated to
be tazkiyah, i.e., the purification of human life.
It is a psychological fact that the fundamental character-traits are laid in the early stages of
life and the school and the college can play a significant role in building up the character of man.
It is for education to mould the character of the child into the Islamic pattern. Al-Ghazali said:
"Education must not only seek to fill the young mind with knowledge, but must, at the same
time, stimulate the child's moral character and stimulate him to the properties of social life". The
ideal character before us is that of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him). As the Qur'an says:
"Verily in the life of the Prophet of Allah you have the best example to follow."[35] At all stages
of education students should be taught the life-example of the Holy Prophet and his Companions.
The teacher, by the example of his own life and behaviour should inspire the child to develop a
good life and the atmosphere of the academic institutions should be conducive to character-
formation. It is only then that we would be able to produce the mumin (true believer) as
envisioned in the Book of God.
Towards Life-fulfilment
Islam stands not for life-denial, but for life-fulfilment. This means that our education must
prepare our youngsters for life, train them in the arts and crafts of living and cater to the
multifarious needs of the society.
Islam disapproves of life-renunciation and wants men to live with justice and equity in the
midst of the rough and tumble of life. The Qur'an teaches us to seek for the best of this world and
the best of the Hereafter. Allah strongly censures those who refuse to enjoy His blessings: Says
the Holy Qur'an:

"Say (to them) by whose order have you denied yourself those amenities which Allah created for
His bondmen and those good things to eat and use (which He made for them) ?"

Islam's attitude is reflected in the Qur'anic verse: "Eat and drink but exceed not (and become
not extravagant)," Islam highly values human labour. It forbids begging and dole-seeking and
puts a premium on productive effort so much so that according to a hadith, "God loves the hand
that works for the attainment of livelihood". Islam wants to enable every person to earn his living
and the Holy Prophet has even said that "hunger comes close to infidelity".
Iqbal says:
‫ہر کہ محسوسات را تسخیر کرد‬
‫عالمے از ذرۂ تعمیر کرد‬

(Anybody who conquers the physical world

constructs a new world from an atom.)

‫جستجو را محکم از تدبیر کن‬

‫انفس و آفاق را تسخیر کن‬

(Lend strength to thy search by practical contrivance

Conquer the worlds of the self and the cosmos.)

Iqbal believes in the education which teaches life-affirmation and the conquest of the world
and not in the one which leads to life-renunciation. According to him:

"Only that truly exists which can say 'I am'. It is the degree of the intuition of I-am-ness that
determines the place of a thing in the scale of being."[36]

About education he explicitly says:

‫علم از سامان حفظ زندگی است‬

‫علم از اسباب تقویم خودی است‬
 ‫علم و فن از پیش خیزان حیات‬
‫علم و فن از خانہ زادان حیات‬

(Knowledge is an instrument for the preservation of life;

Knowledge is a means of establishing the self

Science and Art are servants of life.

Slaves born and bred in its house;

From the above discussion we can infer a few other aims of education, viz.:
(a) Education should enable a man to earn an honest, just and reasonable living;
(d) Education should cater to the economic, social, scientific and technological needs of the
community. It should not only not neglect them in any way, but should positively work
for their fulfilment; and
(c) There should be a practical and vocational bias in education, so that everyone should be
able to attain economic stability and social independence.
An educational system reared in accordance with these aims will embody the aspirations of
Iqbal and will prove a blessing to mankind.
Some of the most important objectives of teacher education are as follows:

1. Imparting an adequate knowledge of the subject- matter:

The objective of teacher education is to develop a good command of the subject matter of the
assignment given to him in the colleges.

2. Equipping the prospective teachers with necessary pedagogic skills:

The main objective of teacher education is to develop a skill to stimulate experience in the
taught, under an artificially created environment, less with material resources and more by the
creation of an emotional atmosphere. The teacher should develop a capacity to do, observe, infer
and to generalize.

3. Enabling the teacher to acquire understanding of child psychology:

The objective is to understand the child psychology so that the teacher is able to appreciate the
difficulties experienced by children so as to bring about new modes and methods of achieving
the goals in consonance with the reactions of the children.

4. Developing proper attitudes towards teaching:

One of the major objectives of teacher education is to develop proper altitudes towards teaching
as a result of which he will be able to maximize the achievements from both the material and
human resources. T here is also development of a proper perception of the problems of universal
enrolment, regular attendance, year-to-year promotion.

5. Developing self-confidence in the teachers:

The objectives of teacher education are development of the ability to take care of himself in
terms of:
(a) Adjustment with the physical conditions,

(b) Healthy adjustment with the social environment

(c) Adjustment with himself to derive emotional satisfaction with his life.

6. Enabling teachers to make proper use of instructional facilities:

The objective of teacher education is to develop the capacity to extend the resources of the
school by means of improvisation of instructional facilities.

7. Enabling teachers to understand the significance of individual differences of child and to take
appropriate steps for their optimum development:
The objective of teacher education is to know the causes of individual differences as a result of
which he will be able to develop the ability to be a child with children, an adult with the adults, a
responsible citizen among the community.

8. Development of the ability to give direct satisfaction of parents from the achievement of
children in terms of:
(a) Proper habits of taking care of the body,

(b) Proper attitudes reflected in the behaviour of the children at home, in the school, in the
streets, at the farms and fields etc.

(c) Progress in the class.

The duties of the teacher is very much relevant in nursery, primary, middle, secondary, higher
secondary schools. Hence the scope of teacher education is very vast. The duties of the teacher in
different stages of education depend on the foundational general education of the teacher.
Emphasis is to be on the practical aspects rather than theory.

Q No.3 Describe the need and importance of education with reference to the Quran and
Sunnah.

Answer:

THE IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION IN ISLAM

THE CREATION OF NABI ADAM (A.S)

When Hazrat Adam (A.S.) was created, Allah S.W.T. said to the angels to bow down. Everybody
bowed down except Iblis. The reason Iblis refused to bow down was because he said that Nabi
Adam (A.S.) was made of clay and he was made from fire. How can fire bow down to clay? The
angels looked at it in a different way. They looked at the inside of Nabi Adam (A.S.) because
Allah S.W.T. gave knowledge to Nabi Adam (A.S.)
In the Holy Qur’an, Allah S.W.T. says in Sura 2, verses 31-34:

"And he taught Adam all the names, then presented them to the angels; then He said: Tell me the
names of those if you are right. They said: Glory be to thee! We have no knowledge but that
which Thou hast taught us; surely Thou art the knowing, the wise. He said: O Adam! Inform
them of their names. Then when he had informed them of their names, He said: Did I not say to
you that I surely know what is ghaib in the heavens and the earth and (that) I know what you
manifest and what you hide? And when We said to the angels: Make obeisance to Adam they did
obeisance but Iblis (did it not). He refused and he was proud and he was one of the unbelievers."

THE DUTY AND COMPULSION OF ATTAINING OF KNOWLEDGE

Knowledge is the most important thing in one’s life. There are two kinds of knowledge:
Religious knowledge and Secular knowledge..

These two kinds of knowledge’s are very important for a human being. Secular for this day to
day dwelling and religious for his smooth life on earth and hereafter.

The Holy Prophet of Allah (S.A.W.) has said: "Atta libul ilm faridhatol kuli muslim." This
Hadith means: "Attainment of knowledge is a must for every Muslim."

Imam Jaffer as-Sadiq (A.S.) has said: "Acquire knowledge of religious jurisprudence. Any one
among you who does not become efficient in religious jurisprudence is a rustic."

Allah S.W.T. says in the Qur’an in Sura 9, Verse 121:

"..........let them devote themselves to studies in religion and admonish their comrades when they
return to them so that they may guard themselves against evil."

Imam Jaffer as-Sadiq (A.S.) has said in this same subject: "I would rather like my companions to
be flogged on their heads so that they may (be compelled to) acquire religious knowledge."

Allah S.W.T. says in the Holy Qur’an in Sura 107, Verse 1-7:

"Didn’t you see the one who denies religion (din)? Such is the one who repulses the orphan and
does not encourage the feeding of the poor. So woe to the worshippers, who are neglectful to
their prayers; those who (want but) to be seen (of men) but refuse (to supply even) the
neighborly needs."

THE ACADEMY FOUNDED BY IMAM JAFFER AS-SADIQ (A.S.)

If we talk about knowledge, we can not forget Imam Jaffer as-Sadiq (A.S.). Imam Jaffer as-Sadiq
(A.S.) was born on 17 Rabul-ul-awwal 83 A.H. Imam Jaffer as-Sadiq (A.S.) has the same birth
date as that of our Holy Prophet (S.A.W.). The Imam became the Imam of the time when he was
31 years old. Imam Jaffer as-Sadiq (A.S.) has three titles; they are As-Sadiq, Al-Fadil and At-
Tahir.
It was during the time of our sixth Imam (A.S.) that the Khalifah transferred from the Ummayids
to the Abbasids. It was because of this transfer and the fights that took place, that Imam Jaffer as-
Sadiq (A.S.) had plenty of time to spread Islam. Many foreigners, other than Arabs, came to visit
Imam Jaffer as-Sadiq (A.S.) and Islam spread further.

Imam Jaffer as-Sadiq (A.S.)’s knowledge of all branches attracted many students from far places
until his students numbered four thousand. Apart from fiqh, hadith, tafsir, etc. Imam Jaffer as-
Sadiq (A.S.) also taught science, and other arts e.g. mathematics, and chemistry. One of the
famous students of Imam Jaffer as-Sadiq (A.S.) was Jabir Ibn Hayyan who was a mathematician
and a chemist. Jabir benefited so much from the Imam’s knowledge and guidance that he was
able to write 400 books on different subjects. Wasil Ibn’Ata - founder of the Mutazlites, Abu
Hanifah, the founder of the Hanafi sect and Malik Ibn Anas, the founder of the Maliki sect were
all students of Imam Jaffer as-Sadiq (A.S.).

KNOWLEDGE OF THE IMAMS

We believe that the Imam, like the Prophet, must be the best among mankind and that he must
excel in all human qualities, such as bravery, generosity, chasteness, truthfulness, justice,
prudence, reason, wisdom, and morality. The reason for this is the same as that of which we gave
for the Prophet’s superiority. He derives his education, the Divine commandments and all his
knowledge from the Prophet or from the previous Imam. When a new question arises, he knows
the answer from the divine inspiration through the pure mind that Allah has given him. If he
gives attention to some matter in order to know it, he will obtain a perfect understanding with no
error, for the Imams do not derive their knowledge from the methodological reasoning or from
the teachings of men of knowledge although it is possible for their knowledge to be increased
and strengthened. For the Prophet of Allah (S.A.W.) has said:

"O Lord, increase my knowledge!"

It has been narrated that Imam Muhammad al-Baqir (A.S) was passing along with his
companions and saw a group of people waiting for a Christian priest who was to come out from a
cave after his meditation of one whole year. Imam Baqir (A.S.) also waited with other people; as
soon as the priest came out he addressed everybody present there and addressed the Imam ‘you
are not among these people’; the priest then asked ‘Are you among the educated or illiterate?’
The Imam replied ‘I am not amongst the illiterate.’ The Imam was the treasure of knowledge
(Bakir al-Uloom). The Imam was carrying the same torch from Imam Ali (A.S.) of (Salooni)
ASK ME? I HAVE KNOWLEDGE OF SKIES MORE THAN KNOWLEDGE OF EARTH. We
as the followers of the Ahlul-Bait should acquire knowledge and part with knowledge whatever
we can.
LEARNED MEN ARE OF MANY KINDS

Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.) is quoted to have said:

"He who learns for the sake of haughtiness, dies ignorant. He who learns only to talk, rather than
to act, dies a hyprocite. He who learns for the mere sake of debating, dies irreligious. He who
learns only to accumulate wealth, dies an atheist. And he who learns for the sake of action, dies a
mystic."

Imam Jaffer as-Sadiq (A.S.) has said about acting with knowledge:

"Accept not deed without knowledge, and there is not knowledge except with action. So,
whoever knows, his knowledge leads him to action, and whoever acts not has no knowledge."

DEATH OF A RELIGIOUS SCHOLAR

Imam Musa al-Kazim (A.S.) has said: "When a believer dies, the angels weep over him and so
do the portions of the earth on which he used to worship Allah and also the doors of heaven
through which his good deeds ascended. His death causes such a void in Islam that nothing can
fill up because the learned believers are fortresses of Islam like the protecting wall built around
the city."

The above hadith is trying to tell us that if we have knowledge we will succeed in the hereafter
and if you have knowledge, don’t be proud of it. All the Imams and the Prophets were never
proud of their knowledge and we should follow our Imams and the Prophets.

To end this essay, I will caught the Prophet: "O Lord, increase my knowledge!"

This above saying is trying to tell us that knowledge can never end, you can increase knowledge
everyday.

Q No.4 Elaborate the functions of curriculum in Islamic system of education.

Answer:

Functions of Curriculum in Education

Curriculum is a criteria to provide experiences to the learners toward the maximum growth of
their personalities. Same is the objective of education itself. Various functions of curriculum are
described and listed as follows.

Development of Individuals
Each individual has got his own Peculiar abilities, talents, interests, knowledge, attitudes, ideals,
appreciations, skills and understandings. All learners do not learn equally well. But the type of
curriculum, the design of curriculum, the methods applied and the techniques followed can offer
opportunities to the learners to benefit from them according to their own capabilities. So it is the
function of the curriculum to help the students by providing them such type of experiences which
met the need of all the students.

As the curriculum consists of curricular and co-curricular activities, it plays important role in
mental, moral, social, emotional and physical development. The curricular activities help in the
intellectual growth while co-curricular activities help in around development of the learners in
order to produce balanced personalities.

Producing Responsible Citizens

Responsible and useful citizens can be produced by a well-organized educational program.
Curriculum plays a pivot role in providing knowledge about rights and responsibilities of the
citizens and helping them in the development of desirable and useful skills to be applied in daily
life.

To Develop Basic Skills

Basic skills like, reading, writing, speaking and understanding in certain language can be
developed properly by applying suitable curriculum.

Preservation and Transmission of Cultural Heritage

The function of each society is to preserve its culture and to transmit it to its next generation.
This function can be performed in a suitable way by the curriculum. The curriculum preserves
the culture in literature and with the help of suitable teaching learning situation it is transmitted
to the next generation. Beside the above mentioned functions of curriculum can also help by:

1. Making the people broad minded.

2. Providing knowledge about the world.
3. Inculcating Islamic values.
4. Developing and building up some attitudes towards life.
5. Engaging the people in some useful tasks. – producing subject specialists.
6. Producing scientists, educationists or specialized people for various field improving social,
cultural and economical conditions.
7. Improving physical and mental health of the people.
Introduction:

The Curriculum is one of the important elements in the educational system which determines the
success of learning for the students. Ramayulis (2001) stated that the curriculum is the subjects
given to students to cultivate knowledge to be able to adapt to their environment. In the context
of Islamic education curriculum, the name of Al Ghazali is unquestionable. Al Ghazali's thoughts
on education have been widely expressed, such as by' Abd al-Amir Syams al Din in his book Al
Fikr al Tarbawiy 'inda al Ghazali, Fatiyah Hasan Sulaiman in his book al Mazhab al Tarbawiy'
inda al Ghazali, Hasan Asari in his book The Educational Thoughts of al Ghazali. Al Ghazāli's
thoughts on curriculum can be learned from his thoughts on dividing sciences into three broad
categories: (1) unworthy sciences, (2) worthy sciences, and (3) sciences which are commendable
to a certain degree but are not recommended to be studied in depth. Nata (1998b) explained the
categories further. First, Worthy sciences. According to al-Ghazāli, the science in this category is
a science that has no benefit both in the world and the hereafter and only brings harm to those
who have it, as well as to others. Witchcraft, for example, can break friendships, revenge, enmity
and bad things. Another example is astrology. al-Ghazāli divide astrology into two; calculations
based astrology (reckoning), and istidlaly based astrology. However, in some cases, he stated
that astrology is not totally unworthy because it can be used to know the direction of Qibla.
Second, the worthy sciences. Al-Ghazāli explained that these sciences are those closely related to
worship. He divided this into two parts, namely fardlu' ain, that is the true science of religion
with its types, starting from the book of Allah, the primary worship, to the science of shari'a by
which he will understand what to be abandoned and what to be done. The fardlu kifayah is all
sciences that cannot be ignored to support life, such as medical science, arithmetic, and others.
According to Al-Ghazali, if no one learns the fardhu kifayah science, everybody will be burden
with sin. However, if someone has mastered it and practiced it, other people will be released
from the responsibility. Third, sciences which are commendable to a certain degree but are not
recommended to be studied in depth such as philosophy and logic episteme. It is because this
kind of sciences can lead to chaos and confusion between beliefs and doubts. This will
eventually lead to disbelief (Ghazāli, 2013). There are a lot of books about Al Ghazali's thoughts,
including Sabda (2008) The Concept of Islamic Education Curriculum Reflection of Al Ghazali's
thoughts. in this book, the concept of curriculum highlighted from the concept of curriculum
development perspectives, (philosophical, psychological, and sociological), and its curriculum
design ideas (objectives, materials, organizations, and systems of implementation of Islamic
education curriculum). The basis and ideas of Islamic education curriculum according to al
Ghazali is reflected from various thoughts in various fields. However, this book did not discuss
the relationship between al-Ghazali’s thoughts with the concept of previous education, especially
with the curriculum in the times before al Ghazali. There are several articles that also discussed
al Ghazali thoughts on curriculum, such as the article Kurnanto (2011), discusses al Ghazali’s
thoughts on the concept of education of al Ghazali which includes discussion about students,
human nature, and learning ethics. According to Edi the concept of education of al Ghazali is
closely related to the concept of human, so this paper is derived from the concept of human
according to al Ghazali.

The article Alwizar (2015), “Educational Thoughts of al- Ghazali”, explained about the role of
education, education goals, educators, learners, education methods and curriculum. According to
Alwizar, the concept of curriculum from al Ghazali starts from the concept of al Ghazali about
science, from the division of Syariah and ghairu syar'iyah science then discussion of the law of
science (fardhu 'ain and fardhu kifayah). The gap between Alwizar study and this paper is in the
concept of curriculum. Alwizar mentioned that the concept of curriculum from al Ghazali is
empirical, while, according to the writers of this study, the concept of curriculum from al Ghazali
is holistic and complete.
The Education Curriculum

The curriculum is a principal thing in education. The purpose of education will be achieved, if
there is a guidance, in the form of a series of materials and the way to deliver it and curriculum
covers all these things. Therefore, the curriculum is a tool to achieve the educational purpose.
According to Nasution (1991), Soetopo & Soemanto (1982) curriculum is literally interpreted as
a teaching material, derived from the Latin “curriculum”. Some say that the word comes from
the French “courier” which means running. In the future, this word is used as a reference to
teaching materials that are structured to support the purpose of education, a series of lessons to
be accomplished at one educational level. Crow & Crow (1990) stated that a curriculum is a
teaching design that contains a number of subjects arranged systematically, which is necessary as
a condition for completing a certain education program., Langgulung (2000) and Hamid (2012)
wrote that the curriculum is an educational, cultural, social, sports and art experience, both inside
and outside the classroom managed by the school. It can be restated that a curriculum is a tool
that is designed systematically, directed and measurable to achieve a goal. Its existence is very
flexible and adjusting to the goal. This flexibility makes it possible for some parties to put their
intentions or interests into the curriculum. In its development, the curriculum is not only a lesson
plan but also everything that happens in the educational process at school. It is something that is
real and actual in school. The coverage of the curriculum is now more extensive and complex.
Langgulung (2000) and Hamdan (2014) tried to establish a basic benchmark to standardize a
curriculum. There are four main points to be considered in the preparation of the curriculum,
including a) The objectives to be achieved by education, firmly talked about what kind of person
we want to form through the curriculum; b) Knowledge, information, data, activities, and
experiences from which the curriculum is formed; this is what is usually called the subject and
part of the syllabus; c) Methods and ways of teaching used by teachers to teach and encourage
students to learn and bring them to the direction expected by the curriculum; d) The methods and
means of assessment used in measuring and assessing the curriculum and outcome of the planned
education process in the curriculum such as quarterly exam, final exam and others. In the writer's
view, Langgulung's phrase is an elaboration of the four basic questions raised by Ralph W. Tyler
in his book “Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction” (1949), which is the formula of the
initial assumptions used to construct the curriculum: a) what aim that should be reached by the
school?; b) How to choose lesson material to achieve that goal ?; c) How is the material
effectively presented and taught ?; d) How can the effectiveness of learning effectively be
assessed?

A basic benchmark in the preparation of curriculum is should be formulated. It consists of

objectives, contents, methods of learning and evaluation. All of them must be mutually related,
harmonious, balanced and leveled. Therefore, a curriculum designed is expected to produce
output with integrated knowledge.

Islamic Education Curriculum

Omar Muhammad al-Toumy al-Syaibani cited in Nata (1998a) revealed that the characteristics of
Islamic education curriculum are as follows: a) Highlights religious and moral goals on the
various purposes and content, methods, religious tools and techniques; b) Extends the scope and
thoroughness of its content that is the curriculum that truly reflects the spirit, thoughts, and
comprehensive teaching. The curriculum should also pay attention to the development and
guidance of all aspects of the student's intellectual, psychological, social and spiritual life; c)
Being balanced among the various sciences contained in the curriculum. In addition, it is also
balanced between useful knowledge for individual and social development; d) be thorough in
organizing all subjects needed by the students; e) The curriculum is always tailored to the
interests and talents of students. Islamic Education principles must be met in the formulation of
the curriculum to maintain the relationship between the subject matter and the religion.
Basically, everything comes from Allah. It is the interpretation that makes it look different. Al-
Syaibani as cited in Nata (1998a) mentioned 7 principles of Islamic curriculum as follows: (1)
Perfect linkage with religion, including its teachings and values. Each part contained in the
curriculum, starting from the purpose, content, teaching methods, ways of treatment and so on
should be based on religion and Islamic values. The curriculum must have the spirit of Islamic
religion. The virtue of the goals and concerns must be based on Islamic teachings; (2) Universal
purposes and content of the curriculum, which includes the purpose of developing aqidah, minds,
and other things beneficial to society in spiritual, cultural, social, economic, political
development; including the sciences of religion, language, humanity, physical, practical,
professional, art and so on; (3) a relative balance between goals and content; (4) Associating the
talents, interests, abilities, and the needs of the learners as well as between the natural
surroundings, both physical, and social where the students live and interact; (5) Maintaining
individual differences among students, both in terms of interest and talent; (6) Accepting the
development changes in accordance with the development of the times and places; (7) Relating
the various subjects with the experiences and activities contained in the curriculum. In this case,
religious nuance is very obvious. The series of subjects contained in the curriculum, all leading
to the One. This was also applied to the Prophet's education, to the time of the dynastic era. In
general, educational curriculum principles contain three main things; continuous, sequential and
experience integrity. Thus, besides the curriculum is a series of interconnected materials, it must
also be arranged in sequence and leveled, systematically directed to obtain educational
objectives.

Iit is necessary to mention the various forms of curriculum and enforced in the Islamic education,
from the period of the Prophet to the period of al-Ghazāli coherently. The curriculum before al-
Ghazāli began when Muhammad was appointed as a prophet. It began when Muhammad was in
Makkah, so the form and scope of the material was very simple and not constructed
systematically.

1. Curriculum in Makkah Period

According to Tafsir (2001) Curriculum at that time was only in the form of alQur'an which
contained faith, prayer, and morals. Muhammad at this time was in a very difficult time; his
environment was occupied by ignorant people to Islam. To introduce the Islam, it was initially
done in secret, until Muhammad found a way to do it in public. Furthermore, the revelation
received at that time was limited to monotheism, upholding the ultimate obligation, such as
praying and set good examples.

2. Curriculum in Madinah Period

Curriculum in this period has been developed, due to the increasing number of revelations
received by Muhammad, many things needed to be regulated more and more. According to Nata
(1998a) in this period the form was reciting al-Qur'an Faith (pillars of faith), worship (pillars of
Islam), morals, economic and political base, sports and health, as well as reading and writing.

3. Curriculum in Khulafaurrasyidin and Bani Umayyah Periods

At this time, the curriculum changed, however, the scope was extended covering the subject
matter of school, called Kuttab. The wider area of Islamic power and the more influence of the
culture of the conquered territories emerged a variety of new knowledge that needed to be
developed and taught in school. The curriculum included reading and writing, reciting the Qur'an
and memorizing it, faith, worship, and morals. According to Nata (1998a) and Tafsir (2004)
during Umar bin Khattab period, he instructed people to teach their children swimming,
horseback riding, archery, reading and memorizing easy verses and proverbs. High school and
college taught the Qur'an and its interpretation, hadith and its collection, and Fiqh. According to
Usman & Lubna (2010), in period of Bani Umayyah the form was al-Qur`an, hadis, dan syair.

4. Curriculum in Bani Abbasiyah Period

The Curriculum of Bani Abbasiyah Period became increasingly complex, due to the expansion of
Islamic territory and the growing influence of the wider local culture. Islam is growing with
more diverse communities and this influenced the mindset of AlGhazāli. In Kuttab, schools
taught reciting and memorizing the Qur'an, the main basis of religion (Faith, worship, and
morals), the story of the great people (characters) of Islam, reading and memorizing the poetry
and natsar (Prose), mathematics, and the principles of nahwu and sharf. Al-Qabisyi as cited in
Nata (1998a) sorted it into compulsory subjects and elective subjects. Compulsory subjects
consisted of al-Qur'an prayers, some nahwu, and Arabic, reading and writing. While, elective
subjects consisted of numeracy, all nahwu and Arabic, poetry, history /Arabic texts. Generally,
subjects taught in secondary schools are al-Qur'an Arabic and literature, fiqh, Tafseer, hadith,
nahwu, sharf, balaghoh, sciences, mantiq, astronomy, history, chemistry, medicine, and music.
For vocational high school of clerks, the subjects are language, correspondence, speeches,
discussions, debate, and arts. Higher education in Abbasiyah period had two majors; naqliyah
and aqliyah sciences. The major of Naqliyah sciences consisted of Tafseer, hadith, fiqh and ushul
fiqh, nahwu and sharf, balaghoh, Arabic language and Arabic literature. The majors of aqliyah
sciences consisted of mantiq, and chemistry, music, sciences, geometry, astronomy, divinity,
animal science, plant science, and medicine.
Q No.5 Describe various principles of Islamic supervision and administration in the light of
Quran and Sunnah.

Answer:

Administration has come until today as a phenomenon from the time of the Prophet Adam (as). It
has seemed as one of the most basic needs of humanity, because the innate nature of human
requires an efficient administration, and many natural events, which we can call the innate nature
of the universe, also teach us the administrative mentality.

To be able to define a system as an administration, these four elements must be together:

1- A particular thought system

2- A community that gathers around this thought system

3- The goals to be pursued, and the aims to be achieved, which are proper to the thought system

4- A leader, or administrator, who coordinates and organizes all these elements in a particular
way of relationship and balance and ensures supervision. 1

Now, in consideration of the elements mentioned above, we can evaluate the administrative
mentality of Islamic civilization as follows:

1- Our thought system is Islam which we describe as “greater humanity” and the borders of
which are drawn by the Islamic scholars.

2- Our community – currently – is the 2-billion Muslim ummah.

3- Our aim and purpose are to secure the happiness of the two worlds, make the justice prevalent
under the sun, establish the order of the world, and raise the perfect human. And many others can
be mentioned here.

4- Our leader, administrator, is the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and, after his passing away, the
Khalifah who is charged with the Prophet’s duties except prophethood and represents him.

Before we continue with the principles of administrative mentality, I would like to draw your
attention to two hadiths that form the backbone of Islam’s administrative mentality:

“The master [leader] of a people [nation] is the one who serves them.” 2

“All of you are shepherds and each of you is responsible for his flock. The amir [leader] of a
people is a shepherd and he is responsible for his flock. A man is the shepherd of the people of
his house and he is responsible for his flock. A woman is the shepherd of the house of her
husband and she is responsible. A man’s servant is the shepherd of his master’s property and he
is responsible for it. Each of you is a shepherd and each of you is responsible for his flock.” 3

The principles of administrative mentality in Islam

The administrative mentality in Islam is based on five elements: Trust, Justice, Merit,
Consultation, and Legitimacy. Islamic scholars stated that the administrations that are formed
based on these elements are ‘legitimate.’ 4

1- Trust

Trust means “confidence, uprightness, a thing put into someone’s protection.” As a term it has
got the meanings that the position of service and authority is entrusted to the administrator’s
protection, and these positions can be protected by confidence and uprightness.

In Islamic civilizations, administration is not only entrusted to administrators. The administered

is also held responsible for checking the administrator. It is the aim of an ideal society that the
administration is both entrusted to the administrator and the administered. In a narration, it is
said that the best of the jihads is to say the truth to the face of tyrant ruler. When he became the
Khalifah, Abu Bakr (ra) said, “Warn me if I stray from the justice.” Upon this, the companions
said, “We correct you with our swords.” Omar (ra) said when he became the Khalifah: “O
people! Obey me as long as I obey Allah and our Prophet. If I stray from the right path, correct
me with your swords.”

The following event beautifully shows the understanding of trust and reliability in Islam:

When Omar (ra) was the Khalifah, a companion came to his office. He said ‘assalamu alaikum’
and sat down. But Omar (ra) did not return the greeting at that moment. He was busy with his
work, so the companion waited. Having not looked at the face of the companion, Omar (ra)
finished his work and put out the candle. Then he lighted another candle and started talking by
returning the greeting of the companion. The companion asked:

– O Omar! Why didn’t you return my greeting at once and why did you start talking to me after
putting out one candle and lighting another one?

Omar (ra) replied:

The first candle was bought with the state treasury. If I busied myself with personal affairs while
it was burning, I would be held responsible in the sight of Allah. For we would not talk about
state affairs with you, I lighted the candle which I bought with my own money and then I started
to talking to you.

2- Justice

Imam Bediuzzaman Said Nursi evaluated the concept of justice in two ways: the positive justice,
which is to give the rightholder his due; and the negative justice, which is to discipline the
wrongful. 5

Legal arrangements have come into existence with the need for protecting the human honour.
The humanity has always been in search of being governed with justice; and the justice has been
accepted as the basis of the state. Prophets and holy books were sent to secure the justice. Allah
(swt) has commanded people to be just: “Indeed, Allah orders justice and good conduct and
giving to relatives and forbids immorality and bad conduct and oppression.” (Nahl, 16:90)

Another verse from the Qur’an about this subject is as follows: “O you who have believed, be
persistently standing firm for Allah , witnesses in justice, and do not let the hatred of a people
prevent you from being just. Be just; that is nearer to righteousness. And fear Allah; indeed,
Allah is acquainted with what you do.” (Ma’idah, 5:8)

In a narration it is said that the most beloved and the closest person to Allah in the Doomsday is
the just ruler, and the person whom Allah torments most and keeps away from Himself is the
tyrant ruler.

Kınalızade Ali Efendi wrote in his Ahlak-ı Alai, “Justice exists with state, state exists with land,
land with soldier, soldier with treasury, treasury with subject (folk), and folk exists with justice.”
What draws attention here is that Kınalızade links the justice of the state to the justice of the folk
which is formed by individuals’ coming together. This understanding is exactly in line with the
hadith “You are governed how you are,” and with the sentence “Let the human live so that the
state lives.”

The Islamic civilization has developed its “view of justice” based on the understanding
mentioned above. The proof for this is the thousands of just administrators in the 1400-year
Islamic civilization. I will mention a striking event occurred between the Ottoman Sultan ‘Fatih
Sultan Mehmed’ and a Greek architect:

The sultan entrusts two marble columns that will be used for the Fatih Mosque to the Architect
Sinan Atik, who is originally a Greek. Sinan shortens the columns. The sultan gets angry for that
and orders to punish him by cutting architect’s hand.

The architect wants to claims his right against the sultan. The first kadi (judge) of Istanbul, Sarı
Hızır Çelebi accepts and files the claim.

When the sultan is summoned, he likes to sit down but the judge does not allow him to sit down.
“Sir! You are going to face the complainant before the law,” he says. The sultan stands together
with the complainant at the court.

When his plea is asked, the sultan accepts his mistake. The judge declares the sultan as guilty
because of what he has done and decides to punish him with the same thing he has done for the
architect which means his hand will be cut off.

Those present are all shocked. It is such an extraordinary situation that the architect’s hands and
feet begin to tremble. Finally, when he comes to his senses, he goes down on his knees to the
sultan and says, “I withdraw the lawsuit. I am dwarfed before the greatness of Islam’s justice. I
cannot risk being cursed till the Doomsday by making the hand of such a world conqueror cut.”
But the judge decides the sultan to pay compensation. And the sultan pays it from his own
money.
When the case finished and everyone is gone, the sultan pulls out an iron bar and says to the
judge, “If you had not decided to cut my hand according to the rules of Islam, I would be
smashing your head with this bar.” And the judge takes out his mace and replies, “If you had not
accepted my decision because you are the sultan, I swear, I would kill you with this.”

3- Merit (suitability, capability)

It means “being worthy of, suitability, capability, competence.” In Islamic civilization, the
following five elements have vital importance in terms of an administrator or leader’s having the
merit: ‘ilm, taqwa, akhlaq, cability to govern, and justice.

Allah (swt) shows Adam (as)’s suitability for being the Khalifah on the earth with regard to his
scholarly superiority. By teaching all of the names, Allah (swt) showed that Adam (as) – and the
humanity in his person – is superior, under certain conditions, to the angel and is suitable for
being the Khalifah of the earth. 6

If an administrator does not have taqwa, that is, if he is not afraid of Allah (swt), his ‘ilm
(knowledge) has no validity. Because someone who cannot apply his knowledge to his life
cannot be appointed as an administrator.

Moreover, the most important characteristic that an administrator should have while leading the
Muslims is the moral, or akhlaq. Only one example is enough for this matter. Our Lord, Allah
(swt), addressed our Prophet (pbuh) in a verse: “So by mercy from Allah, [O Muhammad], you
were lenient with them. And if you had been rude [in speech] and harsh in heart, they would
have disbanded from about you.” (Al ‘Imran, 3:159)

Giving the job to the competent is actually a matter of foresight and intuition. Our Master,
Muhammad (pbuh), had these both and did the right thing while taking his most loyal friend Abu
Bakr (ra) with him during the emigration to Madina; choosing Cafar b. Abu Talib as the head of
the group he sent to Habashistan; sending Mus‘ab b. Umayr (ra) to Madina as the first murshid,
or guide; leaving Ali (ra) in his bed before beginning his emigration to Madina; and leaving
Abbas (ra) in Makka for intelligence. He charged them according to their skills, and all of them
did their best and fulfilled their duty thoroughly.

Similarly, it is a good example that just a short time before his death our Prophet (pbuh)
appointed 17-year-old Usama bin Zayd (ra) as the commander of the military expedition to Syria
among all the other companions. It has been understood how much our Master (pbuh) gave
importance to the skill while giving a mission. In this way, both the duties are fulfilled
successfully and the companions felt at peace by being successful in doing their duties.

Abu Zar (ra) narrated:

I asked, “Oh the Messenger of Allah, would you not assign me [as an official]. He said to me, “O
Abu Dharr, I see that you are weak and I like for you what I like for myself. Do not rule over
(even) two persons, and do not manage an orphan’s property.” 7
Muslim leader, or administrator, must get the rightful weak’s due from the powerful oppressor;
strengthen the weak, that is, establish the justice. Abu Bakr (ra) told in his sermon: “The weak
among you is the strongest beside me in case of being rightful; the strongest is the weakest
beside me in case of being wrongful.”

Let’s finish the subject of merit with the words of Omar (ra) and Imam Bediuzzaman.

Omar (ra) said: “The administration can only be achieved with a discipline that does not cause
oppression; gentleness that does not cause weakness; generosity that does not cause
extravagance; and frugality that does not cause stinginess.” 8

Imam Bediuzzaman said: “Oh the class of the high! We, the common people and the people of
the madrasa, demand our rights from you. We ask you to confirm your promise with your action,
not to excuse yourselves with the mistakes of others, not refer the works to each others, not to be
lazy with the works in your responsibility, to make up for the opportunities missed because of
you, to listen to our affairs, consult with us about our matters, to disturb your comfort a bit, and
ask after us!” 9

4- Consultation (Istishara)

Mash‘ar is the beehive, shura is the honeycomb, mishwar is the spatula for gathering the honey,
and istishara is to gather the honey. (Mütercim Asım Efendi, Kamus Translation)

Holding a consultation with each other and making a decision about things, and then continuing
accordingly is called “istishara.” It is one of the fundamentals of Islamic administration. The
verse 42:38 (“…whose affair is [determined by] consultation among themselves…”) was
revealed at the period of Makka, when the Islamic State (in Madina) was not established yet. It is
emphasized in the verses of the Qur’an that the understanding of consultation should direct the
life.

“…And if they both desire weaning through mutual consent from both of them and consultation,
there is no blame upon either of them….” (Baqarah, 2:233)

“…and consult them in the matter. And when you have decided, then rely upon Allah….” (Al
‘Imran, 3:159)

It is known that as Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) commanded the Muslims to consult with each
other, he himself consulted with his companions about general or private things. As a matter of
fact, the Prophet (pbuh) took every decision that is crucial in the fight for survival of the first
Muslim community by consulting with his community. Various stages of the battles of Badr,
Uhud and the Trench; the Baiatul ridwan and the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah are some of the
examples.

When the verse 3:159 (“…consult them in the matter…”) was revealed, the Prophet (pbuh) said:
“Know that neither Allah nor His Messenger needs counsel. However, Allah made it a mercy on
my ummah. Whoever hold consultation among them does not remain deprived of goodness, and
whoever gives up consultation cannot escape mistakes.” 10

Imam Bediuzzaman strongly emphasizes the importance of consultation:

“The key to Muslims’ happiness in Islamic social life is the mutual consultation enjoined by the
Shari’a. The verse, “Whose rule is consultation among themselves.” [Qur’an 42:38] orders
consultation as a fundamental principle. Just as the consultation of the ages and centuries that
mankind has practised by means of history, a conjunction of ideas, formed the basis of the
progress and sciences of all mankind, so too one reason for the backwardness of Asia, the largest
continent, was the failure to practise that true consultation.

The key and discloser of the continent of Asia and its future is mutual consultation. That is to
say, just as individuals should consult one another, so must nations and continents also practise
consultation. For it is the freedom resulting from the Shari’a, which is born of the consultation
enjoined by the Shari’a, and the noble-mindedness and compassion of belief that will loosen and
remove the fetters and chains of the various forms of tyranny fastened to the feet of three
hundred, rather, four hundred million strong Islam.” 11

5- Legitimacy

Legitimacy means being proper to the public morality and the law. The legitimacy in Islamic
administration is the regulations which carry positive value in terms of religiosity, morality and
law, and which the religion approves. Legitimacy is based on the superiority of Divine Law. The
ordinance of the Qur’an is clear in this subject:

“O you who have believed, obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority among
you. And if you disagree over anything, refer it to Allah and the Messenger, if you should
believe in Allah and the Last Day. That is the best [way] and best in result.” (Nisa, 4:59)

Muslim administrators, in terms of authority, are the implementers of Allah (swt)’s ordinances.
They cannot act arbitrarily in legislation, implementation and judgement or make any concession
to a person or a group.

During his caliphate, Ali (ra) gave an order. After a while he wondered if his order was carried
out, and asked:

“Did you do what I told you?”

Having not carried out the order yet, ashamed and timid, they said, “No.”

Ali (ra) warned them as follows: “I swear by Allah, you either do what is commanded, or the
Jews and the Christian come and walk all over you.” 12

While determining the fundamentals for the virtuous society it wants to build, the Islamic
civilization also presented the fundamentals of the understanding of administration of this
society. When these fundamentals are examined, the administrator in the Islamic civilization
knows that the society and the belongings of the society are the responsibilities of him as a result
of the duty given to him; protecting the trust and being reliable become his characteristic.
Reliable administrator governs the society with justice. He ensures that everybody is equal
before the law. Administration is given to the one who is competent. The suitable administrator,
who performs the fundamentals of the trust and justice, is chosen with consultation. The
administrator who is chosen as a result of consultation obtains legitimacy. Obeying “ulul amr”
(those in authority) who has obtained legitimacy is compulsory. When the adaptation of these
fundamentals is achieved, it can be possible to build a virtuous and model society, equipped with
wisdom and justice, with which Allah (swt) will be pleased.

Sincerity:

Sincerity means to show humbleness and keep promises. Sincerity is instrumental in building
and developing a culture of confidence, truthfulness, trust, and cooperation in the organization.
When manager and subordinates are sincere to their job and duty, the organization shows more
productivity. Role of sincerity cannot be minimized in conducting business and undertaking
transactions. An employee has relationship with different people at work place. But his
relationship with manager is most important and crucial for his personal development. If
employee has strong relationship with manager, it results in better environment for work place.
Sincerity is an important principles of effective Islamic management. Islam stresses that manager
should perform his duty with sincerity. It is his moral obligation to keep promises14 . Allah says
in the holy Quran: “O you who believe; fulfil obligations” (Al-Quran: Chapter 5, Verse: 1).

Delegation of Authority:

Delegation of authority means to entrust someone else to perform part of your job. A manager in
organization cannot perform all tasks alone. Manger delegate authority to his subordinates who
has competencies and knowledge. Delegation of authority involves some important steps which
are assignment of duties to someone else, granting of authority, and creating responsibility and
accountability. It is one of the essential tools for effective management of any organization.
Delegation of authority strengthens the internal control system of the organization, it clarifies
responsibility for decision making. Islam also gives due importance to delegation of authority.
Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) started administrative organization by appointing rulers and
officers in states and cities. Delegation of authority is effective Islamic principle of management
and administration. The importance of delegation of authority is well-enshrined in the statements
of renowned Muslims scholars7 . “appointment of an individual by the Imam, to whom the
administration of matter is completely entrusted, allowing him to make decision according to his
own judgement” (Al-Marwadi). “Delegation of authority is rational and necessary because no
individual is capable of performing all matters alone” (Ibn Khaldun).

Specialization and Division of Labour:

Division of labor is also an important principle and feature of human resource management in
Islam. Knowledge, justice and brotherhood are some attributes which are important features for
division of labour. In any organization, job allocation depends on the skills and knowledge of the
employees which they possess for the task entrusted to them. It is essential for effective
management that employees should work hard to achieve the entrusted task and making
organization a successful17. An important task in division of labour is that manager or employer
should take into consideration the knowledge, skills and aptitude of the individual while
allocating the task. If task is allocated to such person which is layman in the task which was
allocated to him, it may result in complete failure. This may exalt position of the employees who
have pertinent knowledge and skills for a particular task. Division of labour allow employee to
render effective services in the organization18. Division of labour should not be affected by
personal connection and friendship. If manager allocates task to employee due to personal
relation or personal acquaintance, it may disturb smooth process of administration. Islam also
emphasizes on the crucial role of teamwork in the organization. Division of labour does not stop
employees from showing and exercising the spirit of teamwork while performing task in the
organization. The concept of teamwork also plays critical role in developing qualities of
kindness, humbleness and modesty in those employees who practice it. Division of labour
ultimately asses the management of the organization19 .

Recruitment of the Employee:

Every organization needs able person to achieve its stipulated goals. Recruitment is the process
through which an organization hire individuals having valid qualification and experience.
Recruitment is not an easy job for any organization. Islam has also given immense importance to
the process of recruiting and hiring individuals for a task. Islam is rich in best practices of human
resource management. Manager can use these practices at any level for effective management20.
Allah says in the Quran that “Allah does command you to render back your trust to those to
whom they are due: and when you judge between man and man” (Al-Quran: Chapter: 4: Verse:
58). It is indicated in the above verse of holy Quran recruitment in Islamic management is based
on merit. Such persons should be recruited who have the desired qualification and experience.
Islamic recruitment system based on equality and justice. It gives equal opportunity to all
individuals to compete for a post who has desired qualification. It is also obligatory for
individuals to provide accurate information21. Allah says that “And cover not the truth with
falsehood, nor hide the truth when you know” (Al-Quran: Chapter: 2: Verse: 42). Islam is not
only a religion and system of belief but it is a comprehensive way of life that covers social,
moral, economic, political, and ethical aspects of human life. Islam is not only concerned with
the worldly matters of individual life but it also guides individual for life after death. In Islam,
selection of employee or worker is based on the principles of honesty, justice, and competency.
Conclusion:

Islam give due importance to work and it is obligatory for all individuals who are mentally and
physically capable. Work result in attaining equilibrium in personal and social life and it is
indispensable for fulfilling human needs. This articles tries to explore issues of human resource
management from an Islamic perspectives. Principles of Islamic human resource management
are based on the teaching of Quran and Sunnah. Islamic management principles are vital and
beneficial for the development organization and for whole society. It result in high productivity
of the organization and enhance job satisfaction of the employees and increase their commitment
level. If these principles which are discussed earlier, are implemented in organization at any
level, it will create healthy environment for mutual respect and trust. It may also result in better
consultation activities, sharing of knowledge, and creativity and innovation. Human resource
management practices which based on Islamic principles, ensure realization of organizational
objectives in most effective way. Islamic management principles and approaches are based on
nonmaterial objectives. Islam consider employment as a trust, both on employee and employer.
There is clear demarcation between employer and employees. Islam is a system of governing the
behaviors and lives of individuals. Islamic principles of human resource management has socio-
economic effect on live of the individuals. It is the need of time to implement Islamic principles
of human resource management in organization in order to achieve maximum productivity of the
organization.

Our Lord! Make these fundamentals rule our social life again! And make us virtuous Muslims!
Do not give any change to those who target our unity, solidarity, life, religion and Qur’an in the
Islamic world and in our homeland! Amin…