Material removal processes are a like a family tree that includes three main members (conventional

machining, abrasive processes and nontraditional machining), the focus is on the most Important of
them and that is conventional machining, it includes three main processes which are: turning,
drilling and milling along with other specialized processes such as broaching, sawing, shaping and
planning, the predominant cutting form in machining is shear deformation (chip making).

Abrasive processes include grinding, superfinishing, honing1 and lapping2.

There is also nontraditional machining which includes energy forms such as chemical, mechanical,
electrochemical and thermal.

=Advantages of machining:

• Variety of part shapes and geometric features

• Dimensional accuracy
• Good surface finishes

=Disadvantages of machining:

• Wasteful of materials
• Time consuming

Overview of Machining Technology

To perform operations, relative motion is required between
the tool and work, this motion is achieved by a primary
motion called speed and a secondary motion called feed.

Speed: how fast the material moves past the cutting edge of
the tool.

Feed: it’s the motion of feeding the tool into the work.

Types of Machining Operations

In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove
material from a rotating workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape, as in
Figure(a). The speed motion in turning is provided by the rotating work
part, and the feed motion is achieved by the cutting tool moving slowly in
a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.

1
Honing is an abrasive machining process that produces a precision surface on a metal workpiece by
scrubbing an abrasive grinding stone or grinding wheel against it along a controlled path. Honing is primarily
used to improve the geometric form of a surface but can also improve the surface finish.

2
Lapping is a machining process in which two surfaces are rubbed together with an abrasive between them,
by hand movement or using a machine. Lapping often follows other subtractive processes with more
aggressive material removal as a first step, such as milling and/or grinding. Lapping can take two forms.
Drilling is used to create a round hole, using a rotating tool that is fed in a direction
parallel to its axis of rotation into the work, as in Figure(b). The tool, called a drill bit,
typically has two cutting edges.

In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is fed slowly across the work material to
generate a plane or straight surface. The direction of the feed motion is
perpendicular to the tool’s axis of rotation. The speed motion is provided by the
rotating milling cutter. The two basic forms of milling are peripheral milling and
face milling, as in Figure(c) and (d).

Cutting Conditions
Speed (𝑣), feed(𝑓), and depth(𝑑) of cut are called the cutting conditions.
𝑅𝑀𝑅 = 𝑣𝑓𝑑 (where RMR is the material removal rate).
machine tools permit parts to be made with great
accuracy and repeatability, to tolerances of 0.025
mm (0.001 in) and better. The term machine tool
applies to any power-driven machine that performs
a machining operation, including grinding.

Chip Formation
• Discontinuous chip. When relatively brittle materials (e.g., cast irons) are machined at low
cutting speeds due to high tool-chip friction, this tends to impart an irregular texture to the
machined surface.
• Continuous chip. When ductile work materials are cut at high speeds and small feeds and
depths, long continuous chips are formed. A good surface finish typically results when this
chip type is formed. A sharp cutting edge on the tool and low tool–chip friction encourage the
formation of continuous chips. Long, !!continuous chips (as in turning) can cause problems
regarding chip disposal and/or tangling about the tool!!
• Continuous chip with built-up edge. When machining ductile materials at low-to-medium
cutting speeds, friction between tool and chip tends to cause portions of the work material
to adhere to the rake face of the tool near the cutting edge. This formation is called a built-up
edge (BUE). The formation of a BUE is cyclical; it forms and grows, then becomes unstable
and breaks off. Much of the detached BUE is carried away with the chip, sometimes taking
portions of the tool with it reducing tool lifetime.
• Serrated chip (also called shear-localized chip). These chips are semi-continuous in the
sense that they possess a saw-tooth appearance that is produced by a cyclical chip
formation of alternating high shear strain followed by low shear strain. This fourth type of
chip is most closely associated with certain difficult-to-machine metals such as titanium
alloys, nickel-base superalloys, and austenitic stainless steels when they are machined at
higher cutting speeds. However, the phenomenon is also found with more common work
metals (e.g., steels) when they are cut at high speeds.
Machining and Part Geometry
A rotational work part has a cylindrical or disk-like shape. The characteristic operation that
produces this geometry involves a cutting tool removing material from a rotating work part, such as
turning and boring. Drilling is closely related except that an internal cylindrical shape is created,
and the tool rotates (rather than the work) in most drilling operations.

A nonrotational (also called prismatic) work part is block-like or plate-like, as in (b). This geometry
is achieved by linear motions of the work part, combined with either rotating or linear tool motions.
Operations in this category include milling, shaping, planing, and sawing.

Each machining operation produces a characteristic geometry due to two factors: (1) the relative
motions between the tool and the work part and (2) the shape of the cutting tool. These operations
that create part shape are classified as generating and forming.
In generating, material removal is accomplished by the speed motion in the operation, but part
shape is determined by the feed motion. The feed trajectory may involve variations in depth or width
of cut during the operation.
In forming, the shape of the part is created by the geometry of the cutting tool. In effect, the cutting
edge of the tool has the reverse of the shape to be produced on the part surface. The cutting
conditions in forming usually include the primary speed motion combined with a feeding motion
that is directed into the work. Depth of cut in this category of machining usually refers to the final
penetration into the work after the feed motion has been completed.

Forming and generating are sometimes combined in one operation, as in Figure for thread cutting
on a lathe and slotting on a milling machine. In thread cutting, the pointed shape of the cutting tool
determines the form of the threads, but the feed rate generates the threads. In slotting (also called
slot milling), the width of the cutter determines the width of the slot, but the feed motion creates
the slot.
CUTTING CONDITIONS IN TURNING
𝒗
𝑵 = 𝝅𝑫 [where 𝑁 = rotational speed, rev/min; 𝑣 = cutting speed, m/min (ft/min); and 𝐷𝑜 = original
𝒐
diameter of the part, m (ft).]
𝑫𝒇 = 𝑫𝒐 − 𝟐𝒅 [The turning operation reduces the diameter of the work from its original diameter𝐷𝑜
to a final diameter𝐷𝑓 , as determined by the depth of cut 𝑑 ]

𝒇𝒓 = 𝑵𝒇 [where 𝑓𝑟 = feed rate, mm/min (in/min); and 𝑓= feed, mm/rev (in/rev).]

𝑳
𝑻𝒎 = 𝒇 [where 𝑇𝑚 = machining time, min; and 𝐿 = length of the cylindrical work part, mm (in)]. A
𝒓
𝝅𝑫𝒐 𝑳
more direct computation of the machining time is provided by the following equation: 𝑻𝒎 = 𝒇𝒗

The volumetric rate of material removal can be most conveniently determined by the following
equation: 𝑹𝑴𝑹 = 𝒗𝒇𝒅
ENGINE LATHE
The cutting tool is held in a tool post fastened to the cross-slide (assembled to the carriage); the
term engine dates to when these machines where driven by steam engines.

ENGINE LATHE TECHNOLOGY

The headstock contains the drive unit to rotate the spindle
which rotates the work and opposite to it is the tailstock, in
which the center is mounted to support the workpiece.

The cutting tool is held in the tool post which Is fastened to

the cross slide and can slide along the horizontal axis and
feeds the tool into the workpiece, the ways are built into the
lathe bed.

The carriage is driven by a leadscrew that rotates at the

proper speed to obtain the desired feed rate, the cross slide is
designed to feed in a direction perpendicular to carriage
movement thus by moving the carriage the tool can be fed
parallel to the work axis to perform straight turning or radially to perform facing or perpendicular to
the work axis to perform cutoff, grooving or form turning.

The conventional engine lathe is suitable for work in which the length is larger than the diameter
and is also called a horizontal turning machine, for jobs where the diameter of the work is greater
than the length it is preferred to use vertical turning machines.

The swing is the maximum work part diameter that can be rotated in the spindle, determined as
twice the distance between the centerline of the spindle and the ways of the machine.

The maximum distance between centers indicates the maximum length of a workpiece that can
be mounted between headstock and tailstock centers.

METHODS OF HOLDING THE WORK IN A LATHE

-A live center rotates in a bearing in the tailstock.

=A dead center is fixed to the tailstock, so that it does not rotate.

The chuck, Figure(b), is available in several designs, with three or four jaws to grasp the cylindrical
work part on its outside diameter. A self-centering chuck has a mechanism to move the jaws in or
out simultaneously, thus centering the work at the spindle axis.

A collet consists of a tubular bushing with longitudinal slits running over half its length and equally
spaced around its circumference, as in Figure(c). The inside diameter of the collet is used to hold
cylindrical work such as bar stock. The slits allow one end of the collet to be squeezed to reduce its
diameter and provide a grasping pressure against the work. Because there is a limit to the reduction
obtainable in a collet of any given diameter, collets must be made in various sizes to sufficiently
match the particular work part diameter in the operation.
A face plate, Figure(d), is a work-holding device that fastens to the lathe spindle and is used to
grasp parts with irregular shapes that, because of their shapes, cannot be held by other work-
holding methods. The face plate is therefore equipped with custom-designed clamps for the
particular part geometry.

Drilling and Related Operations

Drilling is a machining operation used to create a round hole in a work-part. This contrasts with
boring, which can only be used to enlarge an existing hole.

CUTTING CONDITIONS IN DRILLING

The cutting speed in a drilling operation is the surface speed at the outside diameter of the drill. It is
specified in this way for convenience, even though nearly all of the cutting is actually performed at
lower speeds closer to the axis of rotation. To set the desired cutting speed in drilling, it is
necessary to determine the rotational speed of the drill.
𝑣
𝑁 = 𝜋𝐷 [where 𝑣 = cutting speed, mm/min (in/min); and 𝐷 = the drill diameter, mm (in). In some
drilling operations, the workpiece is rotated about a stationary tool, but the same formula applies]
𝑓𝑟 = 𝑁𝑓 (feed rate)

In through holes, the drill exits the opposite side of the work; in blind holes, it does not. The
machining time required to drill a through hole (𝑇𝑚 ) can be determined by the following formula:
𝑡+𝐴
𝑇𝑚 =
𝑓𝑟
where 𝑇𝑚 = machining (drilling) time, min; 𝑡 = work thickness, mm (in); 𝑓𝑟 = feed rate, mm/min
(in/min); and 𝐴 = an approach allowance that accounts for the drill point angle, representing the
distance the drill must feed into the work before reaching full diameter, (a). This allowance is given
1 𝜃
by: 𝐴 = 2 𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛 (90 − 2 )

In a blind hole, hole depth d is defined as the distance from the work surface to the depth of the full
𝑑+𝐴
diameter, Figure(b). Thus, for a blind hole, machining time is given by: 𝑇𝑚 = 𝑓𝑟

𝜋𝐷 2 𝑓𝑟
Material removal rate is given by: 𝑅𝑀𝑅 =
4

This equation is valid only after the drill reaches full diameter and excludes the initial
approach of the drill into the work.

OPERATIONS RELATED TO DRILLING

Several operations related to drilling are illustrated in Figure (a) reaming, which is used to slightly
enlarge a hole, provide a better tolerance on its diameter, and improve its surface finish; the tool is
called a reamer, and it usually has straight flutes; (b) tapping is performed by a tap and is used to
provide internal screw threads on an existing hole (c) counterboring provides a stepped hole, in
which a larger diameter follows a smaller diameter partially into the hole; a counterbored hole is
used to seat a bolt head into a hole so the head does not protrude above the surface; (d)
countersinking is similar to counterboring, except that the step in the hole is cone-shaped for flat
head screws and bolts; (e) centering, also called center drilling, drills a starting hole to accurately
establish its location for subsequent drilling (the tool is called a center drill); and (f) spot facing is
similar to milling and is used to provide a flat machined surface on the work part in a localized area.

JIGS AND FIXTURES

A jig is a work-holding device that is also specially designed for the work part; the distinguishing
feature between a jig and a fixture is that a jig provides a means of guiding the tool during the
operation. A fixture does not have this tool-guidance feature.
Milling
Milling is a machining operation in which a work part is fed past a rotating cylindrical tool with
multiple cutting edges. The axis of rotation of the cutting tool is perpendicular to the direction of
feed. Milling is an interrupted cut operation, which means that the teeth of the cutter enter and exit
the work during each revolution. This interrupted cutting action subjects the teeth to a cycle of
impact force and thermal shock on every rotation. The tool material and cutter geometry must be
designed to withstand these conditions.
TYPES OF MILLING OPERATIONS

PERIPHERAL MILLING
In peripheral milling, also called plain milling, the axis of the tool is parallel to the surface being
machined, and the operation is performed by cutting edges on the outside periphery of the cutter.
Several types of peripheral milling are shown in Figure: (a) slab milling, the basic form of peripheral
milling in which the cutter width extends beyond the workpiece on both sides; (b) slotting, also
called slot milling, in which the width of the cutter is less than the workpiece width, creating a slot
in the work—when the cutter is very thin, this operation can be used to mill narrow slots or cut a
work part in two, called saw milling; (c) side milling, in which the cutter machines the side of the
workpiece; (d) straddle milling, the same as side milling, only cutting takes place on both sides of
the work; and (e) form milling, in which the milling teeth have a special profile that determines the
shape of the slot that is cut in the work.
The direction of cutter rotation distinguishes two forms of peripheral milling: (a)up milling and
(b)down milling. In up milling, also called conventional milling, the direction of motion of the cutter
teeth is opposite the feed direction when the teeth cut into the work. It is milling “against the feed.”
In down milling, also called climb milling, the direction of cutter motion is the same as the feed
direction when the teeth cut the work. It is milling “with the feed.”

In up milling, this tends to lift the work part as the cutter teeth exit the material. In down
milling, this cutter force direction is downward, tending to hold the work against the
worktable.

FACE MILLING
In face milling, the axis of the cutter is perpendicular to the surface being milled, and machining is
performed by cutting edges on both the end and outside periphery of the cutter.
 Other Machining Operations
These additional machining operations include shaping and planning which are very similar to each
other, broaching (which is shoving a shaped tool into the metal workpiece) and lastly good old
sawing.

SHAPING AND PLANING

They are similar in the fact that both create flat surfaces and depend on a non-continuous linearly
moving tool, the catch is that in shaping the speed comes from the tool and the feed comes from
the workpiece and planning goes the other way around, their main disadvantage is that due to the
non-continuous motion of the tool, the speed is very limited and things take a bit more time.

Each process has its own cool little machine, starting with SHAPING.
The motion of the ram consists of a
forward stroke to achieve the cut,
and a return stroke during which the
tool is lifted slightly to clear the work
and then reset for the next pass.

The worktable rides on the

cross rail to perform the
On completion of each feed motion.
return stroke, the worktable
is advanced laterally
relative to the ram trajectory
to feed the part.

!Note: The drive mechanism for the ram can be either hydraulic or mechanical. The hydraulic drive has
greater flexibility in adjusting the stroke length and a more uniform speed during the forward stroke, but it is
more expensive than a mechanical drive unit. Both mechanical and hydraulic drives are designed to achieve
higher speeds on the return (noncutting) stroke than on the forward (cutting) stroke, thereby increasing the
proportion of time spent cutting.
 Next on, PLANING.

Cutting speed is achieved

by a reciprocating worktable
that moves the part past the
single point cutting tool.

Overview:
• The construction and movement capabilities of planers permit much larger parts to be
machined than on a shaper.
• Planers can be classified as open-side planers or double-column planers.
o The open-side planer, also known as a single-column planer, has a single column
supporting the cross-rail on which a tool head is mounted. Another tool head can
also be mounted and fed along the vertical column. Multiple tool heads permit more
than one cut to be taken on each pass, The configuration of the open-side planer
permits very wide work parts to be machined.
o A double-column planer has two columns, one on either side of the base and the
worktable. The columns support the cross-rail, on which one or more tool heads are
mounted. The two columns provide a more rigid structure for the operation;
however, the two columns limit the width of the work that can be handled on this
machine.
• Shaping and planing can be used to machine shapes other than flat surfaces. The
restriction is that the cut surface must be straight. This allows the cutting of grooves, slots,
gear teeth, and other shapes as illustrated in the figure. Special machines and tool
geometries must be specified to cut some of these shapes. An important example is a gear
shaper, a vertical shaper with a specially designed rotary feed table and synchronized tool
head to generate teeth on gears.
BROACHING
Broaching uses a multiple-tooth tool to take multiple cuts by moving the tool linearly relative to the
work in the direction of the tool axis, The machine tool is called a broaching machine, and the
cutting tool is called a broach, in certain jobs for which broaching can be used, it is highly
productive.

-Advantages include:

• Good surface finish

• Close tolerances
• Variety of work shapes

=Disadvantage: due to the complicated geometry of the specialized custom broach the tooling is
highly expensive

THERE ARE TWO PRINCIPAL TYPES OF BROACHING:

1) External broaching: is performed on the outside surface of the work to create a certain
cross-sectional shape on the surface.

2) Internal broaching: is accomplished on the internal surface of a hole in the part.

Accordingly, a starting hole must be present in the part so as to insert the broach at the
beginning of the broaching stroke.
BROACHING MACHINE
he basic function of a broaching machine is to provide a precise linear motion of the tool past a
stationary work position, but there are various ways in which this can be done. Most broaching
machines can be classified as either vertical or horizontal machines.

• The vertical broaching machine is designed to move the broach along a vertical path.
• The horizontal broaching machine has a horizontal tool path.

Most broaching machines pull the broach past the work. However, there are exceptions to this pull
action.

1) One exception is a relatively simple type called a broaching press, used only for internal
broaching, which pushes the tool through the work part.

2) Another exception is the continuous broaching machine, in which work parts are fixtured
to an endless belt loop and moved past a stationary broach. Because of its continuous
operation, this machine can be used only for surface broaching.

SAWING
Sawing is a process in which a narrow slit is cut into the work by a tool consisting of a series of
narrowly spaced teeth. Sawing is normally used to separate a work part into two pieces, or to cut
off an unwanted portion of a part. These operations are often referred to as cutoff operations.
Because many factories require cutoff operations at some point in the production sequence,
sawing is an important process.

There are three basic types of sawing:

1) Hacksawing involves a linear reciprocating motion of the saw against the work. This
method of sawing is often used in cutoff operations. Cutting is accomplished only on the
for- ward stroke of the saw blade. Because of this intermittent cutting action, hacksawing is
inherently less efficient than the other sawing methods, both of which are continuous. The
hacksaw blade is a thin straight tool with cutting teeth on one edge. Hacksawing can be
done manually or with a power hacksaw. A power hacksaw provides a drive mechanism to
operate the saw blade at a desired speed; it also applies a given feed rate or sawing
pressure.
2) Bandsawing involves a linear continuous motion, using a
bandsaw blade made in the form of an endless flexible loop
with teeth on one edge. The sawing machine is a bandsaw,
which provides a pulley-like drive mechanism to continuously
move and guide the bandsaw blade past the work. Bandsaws
are classified as vertical or horizontal. The designation refers
to the direction of saw blade motion during cutting. Vertical
bandsaws are used for cutoff as well as operations such as
contouring and slotting.
Contouring on a bandsaw involves cutting a part profile from
flat stock. Slotting is the cutting of a thin slot into a part, an
operation for which bandsawing is well suited. Contour sawing and slotting are operations
in which the work is fed into the saw blade.

3) Circular sawing uses a rotating saw blade to provide a continuous motion of the tool past
the work. Circular sawing is often used to cut long bars, tubes, and similar shapes to
specified length. The cutting action is similar to a slot milling operation, except that the
saw blade is thinner and contains more teeth than a slot-milling cutter. Circular sawing
machines have powered spindles to rotate the saw blade and a feeding mechanism to drive
the rotating blade into the work. Two operations related to circular sawing are abrasive
cutoff and friction sawing.

• Abrasive cutoff, an abrasive disk is used to perform cutoff operations on hard

materials that would be difficult to saw with a conventional saw blade.
• Friction sawing, a steel disk is rotated against the work at very high speeds,
resulting in friction heat that causes the material to soften sufficiently to permit
penetration of the disk through the work.

!Note: The cutting speeds in both of these operations are much faster than in circular
sawing.
Casting
Casting3 is a process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a mold where it
solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity.

Advantages Disadvantages

Casting can be used to create complex part • Limitations on mechanical properties

geometries, including both external and • Porosity
internal shapes.
Some casting processes are capable of • Poor dimensional accuracy
producing parts to final shape. Other casting • Bad surface finish for some casting
processes are near final shape but require processes
some shape processing.
Casting can be used to produce very large • Safety hazards to humans when
parts. Castings weighing more than 100 tons processing hot molten metals
have been made.
The casting process can be performed on any • Environmental problems.
metal that can be heated to the liquid state.
Some casting methods are quite suited to
mass production.

THE MOLD
The mold contains a cavity whose geometry determines the shape of the cast part. The actual size
and shape of the cavity must be slightly oversized to allow for shrinkage that occurs in the metal
during solidification and cooling.

In an open mold, the liquid metal is simply poured until it fills the open cavity.

In a closed mold, a passageway, called the gating system, is provided to permit the molten metal to
flow from outside the mold into the cavity. The closed mold is by far the more important category
in production casting operations.

Casting processes divide into two broad categories, according to type of mold
used:
• Expendable mold: the mold has to be destroyed to collect the casting [sand - plaster].
• Permanent mold: can be reused for multiple castings [metal – ceramic refractory material],
die casting is the most familiar process in this group.

3
The term casting is also applied to the part that is made by this process.
- foundry: a factory equipped for making molds
= foundrymen: workers in the foundry
 CLOSED MOLD

OPEN MOLD

Pattern: has the shape of the part to be cast and is made of wood, metal, plastic, or other material.

Core: a form placed inside the mold cavity to define the interior geometry of the part.

The gating system: the channel, or network of channels, by which molten metal flows into the
cavity from outside the mold, the gating system typically consists of a downsprue (also called
simply the sprue), through which the metal enters a runner that leads into the main cavity. At the
top of the downsprue, a pouring cup is often used to minimize splash and turbulence as the metal
flows into the downsprue.

The riser: a reservoir in the mold that serves as a source of liquid metal to compensate for
shrinkage of the casting during solidification. The riser must be designed to freeze after the main
casting in order to satisfy its function.

POURING THE MOLTEN METAL

For this step to be successful, the metal must flow into all regions of the mold before solidifying.
Factors affecting the pouring operation include pouring temperature, pouring rate, and turbulence.

Pouring temperature: the temperature of the molten metal as it is introduced into the mold.

Pouring rate: the volumetric rate at which the molten metal is poured into the mold. If the rate is too
slow, the metal will chill and freeze before filling the cavity. If the pouring rate is excessive,
turbulence can become a serious problem.

Mold erosion: a consequence of turbulence, its the gradual wearing away of the mold surfaces due
to impact of the flowing molten metal.

ENGINEERING ANALYSIS OF POURING

𝑝1 𝑣2 𝑝2 𝑣2
Bernoulli’s equation: ℎ1 + 𝜌
+ 2𝑔1 + 𝐹1 = ℎ2 + 𝜌
+ 2𝑔2 + 𝐹2

where ℎ = head, cm (in); 𝑝 = pressure on the liquid, N/cm2 (𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛2 ); 𝜌 = density, g/cm3 (𝑙𝑏𝑚/𝑖𝑛3); 𝑣 =
flow velocity, cm/s (in/sec); 𝑔 = gravitational acceleration constant and 𝐹 = head losses due to
friction, cm (in).

If friction losses are ignored and the pressure was constant:

 𝑣12 𝑣22
ℎ1 + = ℎ2 +
2𝑔 2𝑔
This can be used to determine the velocity of the molten metal at the base of the sprue. Let point 1
be defined at the top of the sprue and point 2 at its base. If point 2 is used as the reference plane,
then the head at that point is zero (ℎ2 = 0) and ℎ1 is the height (length) of the sprue. When the
metal is poured into the pouring cup and overflows down the sprue, its initial velocity at the top is
zero:

𝑣22
ℎ1 =
2𝑔

𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ

Continuity law:

𝑄 = 𝑣1 𝐴1 = 𝑣2 𝐴2

𝑐𝑚3 𝑖𝑛3
where 𝑄 = volumetric flow rate, 𝑠
(𝑠𝑒𝑐 ) 𝑣 = velocity as before; 𝐴 = cross-sectional area of the
liquid, 𝑐𝑚2 (𝑖𝑛2 ); and the subscripts refer to any two points in the flow system.

The time required to fill a mold cavity of volume V can be estimated as:
𝑉
𝑇𝑀𝐹 =
𝑄

FLUIDITY
a measure of the capability of a metal to flow into and fill the mold before freezing. Fluidity is the
inverse of viscosity.
 SOLIDIFICATION TIME
Chvorinov’s rule:

𝑉 𝑛
𝑇𝑇𝑆 = 𝐶𝑚 ( )
𝐴
where TTS = total solidification time, min; V = volume of the casting, cm3 (in3); A = surface area of the
casting, cm2 (in2); n is an exponent usually taken to have a value = 2; and Cm is the mold constant.
Given that n = 2, the units of Cm are min/cm2 (min/in2), and its value depends on the particular
conditions of the casting operation, including mold material (e.g., specific heat, thermal
conductivity), thermal properties of the cast metal (e.g., heat of fusion, specific heat, thermal
conductivity), and pouring temperature relative to the melting point of the metal. The value of Cm for
a given casting operation can be based on experimental data from previous operations carried out
using the same mold material, metal, and pouring temperature, even though the shape of the part
may be quite different.

SHRINKAGE
reduction in level caused
by liquid contraction
during cooling.

reduction in height and further reduction in height

formation of shrinkage and diameter due to
cavity caused by thermal contraction during
solidification shrinkage. cooling of the solid metal

SOLIDIFICATION SHIRINKAGE
Welding
Welding4 is a materials-joining process in which two or more parts are coalesced at their
contacting surfaces by a suitable application of heat and/or pressure.

Advantages Disadvantages

provides a permanent joint, the welded parts Requires highly skilled workers that are
become a single entity. scarcely available and expensive to hire.
The weld joint can be stronger than parent Dangerous
material if superior filler is used.
Low cost and highly economical. Doesn’t allow disassembly.

Can be done in the field outside a factory. Defects are difficult to detect.

arc welding
TYPES OF WELDING PROCESSES
resistance
welding
fusion welding
oxyfuel gas
welding

other fusion
welding
welding processes

diffusion welding

solid state
friction welding
welding

ultrasonic
welding

Arc welding refers to a group of welding processes in which heating of the metals is accomplished
by an electric arc.

Resistance welding achieves coalescence using heat from electrical resistance to the low of a
current passing between the faying surfaces of two parts held together under pressure.

Oxyfuel gas welding: These joining processes use an oxyfuel gas, such as a mixture of oxygen and
acetylene, to produce a hot lame for melting the base metal and filler metal.

4
The assemblage of parts that are joined by welding is called a weldment.
-The faying surfaces are the part surfaces in contact or close proximity that are to be joined.
 during the weld (the base metal
is melted, and filler metal is
added to the molten pool)

the completed weldment

before the weld

TYPES OF JOINTS
There are five basic joint types for joining two parts together:

1. Butt joint: In this joint type, the parts lie in the same plane and are joined at their edges.
2. Corner joint: The parts in a corner joint form a right angle and are joined at the corner of the
angle.
3. Lap joint: This joint consists of two overlapping parts.
4. Tee joint: In a tee joint, one part is perpendicular to the other in the approximate shape of
the letter “T”.
5. Edge joint: The parts in an edge joint are parallel with at least one of their edges in common,
and the joint is made at the common edge(s).

TYPES OF WELDS
Fillet weld:

• Used to fill in the edges created by corner, lap and T-joints.

• Filler is used to provide a cross section of a rough right-angled triangle.
• Most common weld type in arc and oxyfuel welding.
• Requires minimum edge preparation (basic square edges of the parts are used).
• Can be single or double and continuous or intermittent.
 SINGLE DOUBLE

Groove welds:

• usually require that the edges of the parts be shaped into a groove to facilitate weld
penetration.
• grooved shapes include square, bevel, V, U, and J, in single or double sides.
• Filler metal is used to ill in the joint, usually by arc or oxyfuel welding.
• Preparation of the part edges beyond the basic square edge is often done to increase the
strength of the welded joint or where thicker parts are to be welded.
• most closely associated with a butt joint.
• groove welds are used on all joint types except the lap.

Plug welds and Slot welds:

Used for attaching flat plates using one or more holes or slots in the top part and then filling
with filler metal to fuse together the joined parts.
Spot weld:

• is a small, fused section between the surfaces of two sheets or plates.

• Multiple spot welds are typically required to join the parts.
• most closely associated with resistance welding.

Seam weld:

Similar to a spot weld except that it consists of a more or less continuously fused section
between the two sheets or plates.

Flange weld:

Made on the edges of two (or more) parts, usually sheet metal or thin plate, at least one of
the parts being flanged.

Surfacing weld:

• not used to join parts, but rather to deposit filler metal onto the surface of a base part in one
or more weld beads.
• The weld beads can be made in a series of overlapping parallel passes, thereby covering
large areas of the base part.
• The purpose is to increase the thickness of the plate or to provide a protective coating on
the surface.