STEADY HEAT TRANSFER:

Mode of Heat Transfer Equation→

→ Fourier’s Law
Conduction q  kT
Convection Newton’s law of cooling
σ  5.67 108 W/(m2K4 ) Radiation heat transfer from a small
Radiation where grey object (1) to a large isothermal
ε1  emissivity of object (1)
environment (2)

THERMAL RESISTANCE:
Mode of Heat Transfer Resistance [K/W]
Slab Rcond  L / (kA)
ln(rout / rin )
Conduction Cylindrical (radial direction) Rcond 
2πkL
Spherical (radial direction) Rcond   1
rin
 r1  4π k 
out

Convection Rconv  1 / (hA)

Radiation R  1 / (h A) where h  4ε σT 3
when T  T
rad r r 1 avg 1 2

Steady state heat equation with energy generation:

Planar coordinate:   T    T    T 
k  k  k  q˙ 0
     
x x y y z z
gen

     
1   T  1   T    T 
Cylindrical coordinate:  kr  2 k  k  q˙ gen  0
r r r r ϕ ϕ z z
     

FIN EQUATIONS

Fin Equation with convection alone.

d 2θ  m 2θ (x)  0 General solution: θ (x)  Ae mx  Bemx

dx2
Temperature distribution Fin heat transfer rate Fin Resistance
Tip condition
(x=L) θ / θb Rfin

   
Convection heat h
cosh m L  x  sinh m L  x    
h h cosh mL  sinh mL
sinh mL  cosh mL
transfer: mk mk
1 mk
dθ M
   
h
   
hθ (L)  k h hPkAc
    sinh mL 
h
cosh mL  sinh mL cosh mL  sinh mL
cosh mL
dx x  L mk
mk mk

cosh m L  x

Adiabatic: 1
dθ  
M tanh mL  
 
0 hPkAc tanh mL
dx xL cosh mL

Prescribed θL
 
sinh mx  sinh m L  x
 θL  1 sinh mL 
temperature: θ   
cosh mL 
θ  hPkAc  θ 
  cosh  mL 
b L
b
θ (L)  θ L
  M  
sinh mL
 
sinh mL  θ b 

Infinite fin 1
L   : θ (L)  0 emx M
hPkAc

θ  T  T ; θb  θ (0)  Tb  T ; m2  hP / kA ; M  θb hPkAc
c

Equation Sheet Page 1 of 2

HYPERBOLIC OPERATORS:

Function: f(x) Definition Derivative:

d
 f (x)
dx
sinh(x) ex  ex  / 2 cosh(x)

cosh(x) ex  ex  / 2 sinh(x)

e x  e x
tanh(x) 1 tanh2 (x)
ex  e x

UNSTEADY HEAT TRANSFER

𝛛𝑇 𝑞˙𝑔𝑒𝑛
Heat diffusion equation: = 𝛼𝛻2𝑇 +
𝛛𝑡 𝜌𝑐

where α  
 k / ρ c and is the heat generation rate per unit volume [W/m3]

Tinternal Rinternal hLc

Biot number: Bi    where, possibly, L V /A
Texternal Rexternal k
c s

αt
Fourier number: Fo 
L2

Lumped Parameter Model (for Bi<<1):

General lumped equation:

ρVc
Solution: where τ
hA

Semi-Infinite Solid:

Boundary Condition Temperature distribution Heat Flux at

Surface
Constant Surface Temperature: 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑡) − 𝑇𝑖
= erfc (
𝑥
) k Ts  Ti 
T  x  0,t   Ts 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑖 q x0 
√4𝛼𝑡 παt
Constant Surface Heat Flux: 𝑞0 4𝛼𝑡 1⁄2 2 𝑥
q  x  0  q0 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑡) − 𝑇 = ( ) 𝑒−𝑥 ⁄(4𝛼𝑡) − 𝑥 ∙ erfc ( )
𝑖 𝑘 𝜋 √4𝛼𝑡
Surface Convection: 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑡) − 𝑇𝑖 𝑥
𝜕𝑇 = erfc ( )
−𝑘 | = ℎ(𝑇∞ − 𝑇(𝑥 = 0, 𝑡)) 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑖 √4𝛼𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝑥=0 ℎ𝑥 ℎ2𝛼𝑡 𝑥 ℎ√𝛼𝑡
− exp ( + 2 ) erfc ( + )
𝑘 𝑘 √4𝛼𝑡 𝑘

Equation Sheet Page 2 of 2

 Corrected length:

Lc = L + (t/2)
Lc = L + (D/4)

1. Surface Area:

A_s = 2*pi*(r^2 - r1^2)

2. Base Temperature with Fins:

T_b = T_inf + q_t / [h*A_t * (1 - (N*A_f / A_t) * (1 - n_f))]

3. Base Temperature without Fins:

T_b,wo = T_inf + q_t / [h * (2*pi*r1*H)]

4. Corrected Length:

L_c = L + delta / 2
 Transient Conduction
ℎ𝐴
𝑇(𝑡) − 𝑇∞ −(𝜌𝑉𝑐𝑠 )𝑡
=𝑒 𝑝
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞
Or
𝜌𝑉𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞
𝑡= ln
ℎ 𝐴𝑠 𝑇(𝑡) − 𝑇∞
*𝜏 𝑖𝑠 Thermal time constant and its equal to
𝜌𝑉𝑐𝑝
𝜏= = 𝑅𝑡 𝐶𝑡
ℎ 𝐴𝑠
𝑞 = 𝜌𝑉𝑐𝑝 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ )(1 − 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝜏 )

Biot Number Characteristic Length

ℎ𝐿𝑐 𝑉
𝐵𝑖 = 𝐿𝑐 =
𝑘 𝐴𝑠
For a wall
Fourier Number 𝐿𝑐 = 𝐿
𝛼𝑡 For a cylinder
𝐹𝑜 =
𝐿𝑐 2 𝑟𝑜
𝐿𝑐 =
2
For a sphere
𝑇(𝑡) − 𝑇∞
= 𝑒 −𝐵𝑖 𝐹𝑜 𝑟𝑜
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ 𝐿𝑐 =
3

6
 External Forced Convection

Reynolds Number Prandtl Number

𝜌 𝑢∞ 𝑥 𝑢∞ 𝑥 𝜈 𝑐𝜇
𝑅𝑒 = = 𝑃𝑟 = =
𝜇 𝜈 𝛼 𝑘

Nusselt Number Local Friction Coefficient

ℎ𝐿 𝜏𝑠
𝑁𝑢 = 𝐶𝑓 =
𝑘 𝜌 𝑢∞ 2 /2

Flow Over a Flat Plate

Laminar Flow (𝑅𝑒 < 5 × 105 ) :
𝐶𝑓 = 0.664 𝑅𝑒 −0.5 , 𝐶𝑓 = 1.328 𝑅𝑒 −0.5 , 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.332 𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3
ℎ𝐿
𝛿 = 5𝑥𝑅𝑒 −0.5 , 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = = 0.664 𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3
𝑘
For Liquid Metals:
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.565 𝑃𝑒 0.5 , 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 , 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 2𝑁𝑢𝑥
Mixed Flow (5 × 105 ≤ 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 1 × 108 , 0.6 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 60 ) :
−1⁄
𝐶𝑓 = 0.074 𝑅𝑒 5 , 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = (0.037𝑅𝑒 4⁄5 − 871)𝑃𝑟 1⁄3
Turbulent Flow (𝑅𝑒 ≥ 5 × 105 ):
𝐶𝑓 = 0.0592 𝑅𝑒 −1⁄5 , 𝐶𝑓 = 0.074 𝑅𝑒 −1⁄5 , 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.03 𝑅𝑒 4⁄5 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3

ℎ𝐿
𝛿 = 0.37𝑅𝑒 −1⁄5 , 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = = 0.037𝑅𝑒 4⁄5 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3
𝑘

7
 Special Cases for Flow Over Flat Plate
1-Unheated starting length (𝜁):
Laminar Turbulent
0.332𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3 0.0296𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 𝜁
[1−( )3⁄4 ]1⁄3 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 𝜁
[1−( )9⁄10 ]1⁄9
𝑥 𝑥

2-Uniform heat flux:

Laminar (0.6 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ) Turbulent ( 0.6 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 60)
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.453 𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.0308 𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3

Flow Over a Cylinder

𝜌 𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒𝐷 = =
𝜇 𝜈
0.332𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3 𝑛 = 0.37 → 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 10
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 𝜁 ⁄4 1⁄3
[1−( )3ℎ𝐷 ]
𝑥
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = = 𝐶𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑚 𝑃𝑟 𝑛 𝑛 = 0.36 → 𝑃𝑟 > 10
𝑘

*For all 𝑅𝑒𝐷 and 𝑃𝑟 ≥ 0.2 use:

0.62𝑅𝑒𝐷 0.5 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3 𝑅𝑒𝐷 5 ⁄8

𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 0.3 + [1 + ( ) ] 4 ⁄5
0.4 282000
[1 + ( 𝑃 )2⁄3 ]1⁄4
𝑟
8
 Flow Over a Sphere

ℎ𝐷 1⁄4
0.5 2⁄3 0.4 𝜇
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = = 2 + (0.4𝑅𝑒𝐷 + 0.06𝑅𝑒𝐷 )𝑃𝑟 ( )
𝑘 𝜇𝑠
𝜇 8
0.71 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 380 , 1 ≤ ≤ 3.2 , 3.5 ≤ 𝑅𝑒𝐷 ≤ 8 × 10
𝜇𝑠

9
 Flow Over Bank of Tubes
Aligned Staggered

𝑆𝑡 𝑆 2
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉 𝑆𝐷 = √𝑆𝑇 2 + ( 𝑇 )
𝑆𝑡 −𝐷 2

𝐴1 = 𝑆𝑇 𝐿 𝐴𝐷 = (𝑆𝐷 − 𝐷)𝐿
𝑆𝑡
𝐴 𝑇 = (𝑆𝑇 − 𝐷)𝐿 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉 , (2𝐴𝐷 < 𝐴 𝑇 )
2(𝑆𝐷 −𝐷)
𝑆𝑡
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉 , (2𝐴𝐷 > 𝐴 𝑇 )
𝑆𝑇 −𝐷

0.25
ℎ𝐷 𝑚 0.36 𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = = 𝐶𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟 ( ) , 𝑁𝐿 ≥ 20, 0.7 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 500
𝑘 𝑃𝑟𝑠
10 ≤ 𝑅𝑒𝐷 ≤ 2 × 106
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷
𝑅𝑒𝐷 =
𝜈

10
If 𝑁𝐿 < 20 :
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 𝐹 𝑁𝑢𝐷𝑁
𝐿 ≥20

−𝜋𝐷𝑁ℎ
𝑞 ′ = 𝑁(ℎ𝜋𝐷𝛥𝑇𝑚 ) 𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝑠 − (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑖 ) exp ( )
𝜌𝑣𝑁𝑇 𝑆𝑇 𝐶𝑝
* NT is the number of tubes in each row.

𝜌𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 𝑚̇𝛥𝑃
𝛥𝑃 = 𝑁𝐿 𝑓 𝑋 𝑊̇𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑄𝛥𝑃 = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑣 (𝑁𝑇 𝑆𝑇 𝐿)
2 𝜌
𝑄 = 𝑣 (𝑁𝑇 𝑆𝑇 𝐿)

11
12
13
 Forced Internal Convection

Reynolds Number Entrance Length:

4𝑚̇ 𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜋𝐷𝜇 = 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝑅𝑒 < 2300)
𝜈

𝑥𝑓𝑑 = 0.05𝑅𝑒 𝐷
Hydraulic diameter 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤(𝑅𝑒 ≥ 2300)
4𝐴𝑐
𝐷ℎ = 𝑥𝑓𝑑 = 10𝐷
𝑝

𝑞̇ = 𝑚̇ 𝛥ℎ = 𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛 )
𝑞 ′′ 𝑠 = ℎ(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚 )
𝑑𝑇𝑚 𝑞 ′′ 𝑠 𝑃 ℎ(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚 )𝑃
= =
𝑑𝑥 𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑝 𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑝
Constant heat flux:
𝑞′′ 𝑠 𝑃
The mean temperature: 𝑇𝑙𝑚 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 𝑇𝑚𝑖
𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑝

Total heat: 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑚𝑒 − 𝑇𝑚𝑖 )

Constant surface temperature:

𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚𝑒 −𝑃ℎ𝑥 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑚𝑒 −𝑈𝐴𝑠

= 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚𝑖 𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑝 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑚𝑖 𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑝
𝛥𝑇𝑒 −𝛥𝑇𝑖
In general: 𝛥𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 𝛥𝑇 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ 𝐴𝑠 𝛥𝑇𝑙𝑚
ln ( 𝛥𝑇𝑒 )
𝑖

14
 Internal Forced Flow
Laminar flow (𝑅𝑒 < 2300)
Fully developed region

ℎ𝐷
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = = 3.66 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)
𝑘
ℎ𝐷
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = = 4.36 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 )
𝑘
Entrance region

ℎ𝐷 0.0668(𝐷⁄𝐿)𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = = 3.66 +
𝑘 1 + 0.04[(𝐷⁄𝐿)𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 ]1⁄3

Turbulent flow (𝑅𝑒 > 2300)

ℎ𝐷 n= 0.4 (heating)
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = = 0.023𝑅𝑒 4⁄5 𝑃𝑟 𝑛
𝑘 n=0.3 (cooling)
For great difference in temperature
𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3 𝜇 0.14 0.6 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 16700
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 1.86 ( ) ( )
𝐿 ⁄𝐷 𝜇𝑠 𝜇
0.044 ≤ ( ) ≤ 9.75
𝜇𝑠
𝜋𝐷2
𝑞𝑡 = 𝜌𝑣ℎ𝑠𝑓 = 𝜌𝐿(𝑤𝐻 − )ℎ𝑠𝑓
4
Pressure Drop
𝐿 𝜇𝑉 2
𝛥𝑃 = 𝑓 𝑊̇𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑄𝛥𝑃
𝐷 2

15
16
 Natural Convection
Grashof Number for ideal gas

𝑔𝛽(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )𝐿𝑐 3 1
𝐺𝑟𝐿 = 𝛽=
𝜈2 𝑇
Rayleigh Number
3
𝑔𝛽(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )𝐿𝑐
𝑅𝑎𝐿 = 𝐺𝑟𝐿 𝑃𝑟 =
𝜈𝛼
For a Vertical Plate

ℎ𝐿 Laminar (C=0.59, n=1/4)

𝑁𝑢𝐿 = = 𝐶𝑅𝑎𝐿 𝑛
𝑘 Turbulent (C=0.1, n=1/3)

2
0.387𝑅𝑎𝐿 1⁄6
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = {0.825 + 9⁄16
8⁄27
}
[1 + (0.492⁄𝑃𝑟 ) ]

For a Horizontal Plate

Upper surface of a Hot plate or Lower surface of a Cold Plate
1⁄4
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.59𝑅𝑎𝐿 (104 ≤ 𝑅𝑎𝐿 ≤ 107 , 𝑃𝑟 ≥ 0.7)
1⁄3
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.15𝑅𝑎𝐿 (107 ≤ 𝑅𝑎𝐿 , 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑃𝑟 )

Lower surface of a Hot Plate or Upper surface of a Cold Plate

1⁄5
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.52𝑅𝑎𝐿 (104 ≤ 𝑅𝑎𝐿 ≤ 109 , 𝑃𝑟 ≥ 0.7)

17
 For a long Horizontal Cylinder

ℎ𝐿
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = = 𝐶𝑅𝑎𝐿 𝑛
𝑘

Or
2
0.387𝑅𝑎𝐿 1⁄6
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = {0.6 + 9⁄16
8⁄27
}
[1 + (0.559⁄𝑃𝑟 ) ]

For a Sphere
0.589𝑅𝑎𝐿 1⁄4
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 2 + 9⁄16
4⁄9
[1 + (0.469⁄𝑃𝑟 ) ]

18
19