The chemistry of life

Small organic molecules are joined togethrt tomform larger molecules

Macromolecules are polymers built from monomers
Dehydration reaction: formation of polimers
polymer -H HO-monomer Polymer -O- monomer +H2O
Hydrolisis: disassembling of polymers
polymer -O- monomer +H2O polymer -H HO- monomer
An immense variety of polymers can be built from a small set of monomers

Carbohydrates
Monomers: monosaccharides Polymers: polysaccharides
Classified by location of the carbonyl group and by number of carbons
Aldehydes (aldoses): functional group in C1
Ketones (ketoses): functional group un C2
In aquous solutions they form rings (ciclation)
Glucose Bind to the O
breaking the double
Bond is formed between bond
the C with the functional
group and the C before
the last one
Bind to the C to
colose the ring
Lay it

Fructose

Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides joined by a dehydration reaction forming a glucosidic linkage
Reducing sugars: have the carbonyl group intact allowing them to react with other molecules (all monosaccharides are
reducing sugars)
Maltose (glucose + glucose) Sucrose (glucose + fructose)

Polysaccharides
Are the polymers of sugars
Structure and function are determined by its sugar monomers and the positions of glycosidic linkages (if is alpha or
beta)
Storage polysaccharides
 Structure: helical (because the OH are all located in the same direction)
Starch: storage polysaccharide of plants (glucose with alpha-1,4-glycosidic linkage)
Amylose: umbranched helix
Amylopectin: alpha-1,6-glycosidic linkage branched helix
Plants store surplus starch as granules within chloroplasts
Glycogen: storage polysaccharide in animals (glucose with alpha-1,4-glycosidic linkage higly branched helix
Because the branches it can produce more energy in a specific moment
Vertebrates store it mainly in liver and muscle cells
Structural polysaccharides

Rotate
H atoms on one strand can bond with OH groups of oter strands making the structure more stable forming
microfibrils
Structure: straight (linear)
Cellulose: mayor component of the tough wall of plant cells (glucose beta-1,4-glycosidic linkage)
Cell wall: parallel celulose molecules held together forming microfibrils
Chitin; structural polysaccharide in exoskeleton of arthropods and cell wall of many fungi (N-acetylglucosamine
beta-1,4-glycosidic linkage
Peptidoglycan: structural polysaccharide in cell wall of bacteria (N-acetylglucosamine, linked to four amino acids,
with beta-1,4-glycosidic linkage)
Because the amino acids parallel strands join by peptide bonds giving a more stable structure
Lipids
Biological molecules that do NOT form polymers
Hydrophobic molecules (little or no affinity for water) as they consist mostly of hydrocarbons that form non polar
covalent bonds
Fats
Bond together
Structure: 3 fatty acids bind to a glycerol by ester linkages
Fats separate from maten because forms heprogen bonds exclude the fats
3 fatty acids (non polar) Main function: energy storage
Fatty acids vary in length and number and location of doble bones (saturations)

Glycerol (polar)
Saturated fatty acids (no soble bonds)
Form saturated fats (animal fats)
A rich diet in them may contribute to cardiovascular diseases through plaque deposit (saturated fats stack together)
Unsaturated fatty acids (one or mode doble bonds
Forms unsaturated fats (plant and fish fats)
Cis boble bond causes a bend in the fatty acid avoiding the stackment of them
Trans doble bonds stil linear so it has the same problem than saturated fatty acids

Phospholipids Choline (not the same in all

Ester and phosphodiester linkages phospholipids)
It has an hydrophobic tail compose by the fatty acids and an hydrophilic
head compose by the phosphate group and its attachments
When adden to water thet form a bilayer Phosphate
Mayor component of the cell membrane
Steroids Glycerol
Carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings
Cholesterol: component in animal cell membrane
High levels in blood may contribute to cardiovascular
Fatty acids
diseases
Is the precursor of other steroids
Proteins
Account for more that 50% of the dry mass of most cells
Functions: structural support, storage, transport, cellular comunication, movement, defense against foreigh
substances....
Enzimes: a tipe of protein that acts as a catalyser im chemical reactions (can perform theit function repeatrdly)
Monomer: amino acid. Polymer: polypeptide
Amino acid
The R group is the reason why amino acids differ in their properties
All proteins are made based on 20 amino acids
Clasification is based on polarity (non polar, polar non charged, electrically charged acid/base)
Polypeptides
Amino acids linked by peptide bonds in a condensation reaction
Peptide group

Protein
Functional protein: one or more polypeptides twisted, folded and coiled
The 3D conformation is determined by the sequence of amino acids
The function depends on the protein’s conformation
Primary structure: unique sequence of amino acids given by the genetic information
Secondary structure: coils and folds in the polypeptide chain caused by the hydrogen bonds between repeating
constituenys of the polypeptide backbone. Alpha helix (coiled structure) or beta pleated sheet (folded structure)
Tertiary structure: determined by interactions between R groups
Hydrophobic
Disulfide bridges reinforce the structure Hydrogen interactions and van
Is a functional protein bond der wals
Quaternary structure: two or more polypeptides form one macromolecule
Collagen: fibrous protein of three polypeptides coildd lime a rope
Hemoglobine: globular protein of two alpha and two beta chains
Physical and chemical conditions (pH, salt concentration, temperature...) can Disulfide bridge
affect conformation
Denaturation: loss of native conformation creating a inactive protein Ionic bond
It can be reverse in a renaturation proccess
Sickle-cell disease is cause because a single amino acid substitution in the polypeptide of hemoglobin leading to a sickle
shapd
Prostgetic group: any structure attached covalently to a protein (ex: group heme)

Nucleic acids
Monomer: nucleotide. Polymer: polynucleotide
Nitrogenous base The pentose sugar can be a deoxyribose (DNA) or a ribose (RNA)

Phosphate group Pentose sugar

Nucleoside
The nitrogenous base can be a pyrimidine (one ring) or a purine (two rings)
Cytosine Thymine (DNA) Uracil (RNA). Adenine. Guanine
Polynucleotides
Nucleotides linked together by covalent bonds (phosphodiester linkage)
DNA structure
Double helix: two polynucleotides spiraling around an imaginary axis in antiparalel
directions
Nitrogenous bases form hydrogen bonds between them
RNA structure
One single strand
The structure depends on the secuence of nucleic acids (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA)

ATP/ADP GTP/GDP
High energy nucleotides
The energy is stored in the first phosphate group and is release giving ADP

G
A
Ribose
Ribose

NADP+/NADPH
Energy carrier in the form of electrons
It has a reducing power
The nicotinamide ring is the one responsablo for it function
NAD+/NADH do not have the phosphate group

Nicotinamide ring

Ribose
Ribose

FAD/FADH+
Electron and energy carrier

Acetyl CoA
Provides the acetyl group that is needed to start metabolic reactions like Krebs cycle