MASTERING

PHYSICS
MACMILLAN MASTER SERIES

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 MASTERING
PHYSICS

THIRD EDITION

H. J. P. KEIGHLEY
F. R. McKIM
A. CLARK
M. J. HARRISON

M
MACMILLAN
ISBN 978-0-333-42052-2 ISBN 978-1-349-08849-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-08849-2

Text © H.J.P. Keighley, F.R. McKim, A. Clark and M.J. Harrison, 1982, 1984, 1986
Figures © The Macmillan Press Ltd 1982, 1984, 1986

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission

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Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to
this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and
civil claims for damages.

First edition 1982

Reprinted 1982, 1983
Revised edition 1984
Third edition 1986
Reprinted 1987, 1988, 1990, 1991

Published by
MACMILLAN EDUCATION LTD
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS
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 v

CONTENTS
Preface to the First Edition xiii
Preface to the Revised Edition xiv
Preface to the Third Edition xv
Acknowledgements xvi

I. MECHANICS

1 Fundamental concepts 1.1 Length 3

1.2 Metric prefixes 3
1.3 Force 3
1.4 Measurement of force 5
1.5 Load-extension graphs 6
1.6 Mass 6
1.7 Weight 7
1.8 Measuring time 8
1.9 Volume 8
1.10 Measuring volume 9
1.11 Density 9
1.12 Air density 10
2 Pressure 2.1 The concept of pressure 12
2.2 Pressure in liquids 14
2.3 The pressure due to a column
of liquid 16
2.4 Upthrust 17
2.5 Measuring pressure 18
2.6 Atmospheric pressure 19
2.7 A simple barometer 20
2.8 The aneroid barometer 21
2.9 Airliners and spacesuits 22
3 Vectors 3.1 Addition of physical
quantities 24
3.2 An experiment on addition
of forces 24
4 Motion 4.1 Definition of terms 28
4.2 Newton's first law of motion 28
4.3 Newton's second law of
motion 31
CONTENTS
4.4 The unit of force, the newton 34
4.5 Newton's third law of motion 35
4.6 Momentum and impulse 35
4.7 Conservation of momentum 36
4.8 Rocket and jet motors 37
4.9 Acceleration in free fall 37
4.10 Frictional forces in solids 38
4.11 The importance of friction 40
4.12 Uniformly accelerated motion 41
4.13 Motion graphs 42
5 Levers and centres of 5.1 Levers in everyday life 44
gravity 5.2 An experiment to investigate
the turning effect of a
force 44
5.3 Centre of gravity 47
5.4 Determining the position of
the centre of gravity 47
5.5 Stability 49
5.6 Couples 50
6 Work, energy and power 6.1 Some definitions 53
6.2 Various forms of energy 53
6.3 Electrical energy 54
6.4 Kinetic energy (KE) 55
6.5 Potential energy (PE) 56
6.6 Conservation of energy 58
6.7 Heat energy 58
6.8 Energy conversion in a
power station 59
6.9 Power 59
6.10 The energy crisis 59
7 Machines 7.1 Introduction 62
7.2 An experiment with pulleys 62
7.3 The inclined plane 64
7.4 Levers 65

II. HEAT AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

8 Heat energy 8.1 Introduction 69

8.2 Frictional heating 69
8.3 Specific heat capacity 69
8.4 Specific heat capacity by an
electrical method 71
8.5 A basic equation 72
 vii

8.6 Different specific heat

capacities 72
9 Expansion 9.1 Demonstration of expansion 74
9.2 Large forces involved in the
expansion of a solid 74
9.3 Expansion - friend or foe? 74
9.4 Linear expansivity 76
9.5 Bimetallic strip 78
9.6 Calibration of a mercury
thermometer 79
9.7 The clinical thermometer 80
9.8 Molecular explanation of
expansion 80
10 Properties of gases and 10.1 The molecular theory of
molecular structure matter 82
10.2 Molecules in solids 82
10.3 Molecules in liquids 83
10.4 The size of a molecule 84
10.5 Molecules in gases 84
10.6 Diffusion 85
10.7 Brownian movement 86
10.8 Boyle's law for a gas at
constant temperature 87
10.9 Gas pressure law at
constant volume 89
10.10 Charles' law for a gas at
constant pressure 90
10.11 The kinetic theory for gases 92
11 The transfer of heat energy 11.1 Introduction 95
11.2 Conduction 95
11.3 An explanation of
conduction 97
11.4 Convection 97
11.5 Radiation 99
11.6 Reflection and refraction of
radiation 100
11.7 Emitters and absorbers of
radiation 100
11.8 The vacuum flask 102
11.9 Heat problems in supersonic
aircraft and satellites 102
11.10 The greenhouse effect 103
11.11 Hot water and central
heating 103
CONTENTS
12 Change of state 12.1 Latent heat 105
12.2 Measuring specific latent heat 106
12.3 When a liquid evaporates,
it cools 107
12.4 Distinction between 108
evaporation and boiling
12.5 The body's cooling system
and refrigerators 109
12.6 An increase in pressure
lowers the melting point 110
12.7 The binding of snowballs 110
12.8 A decrease in pressure
lowers the boiling point 111
12.9 Pressure cookers 112

III. WAVE MOTION, LIGHT AND SOUND

13 Waves 13.1 Introduction 115

13.2 Describing waves 115
13.3 Transverse waves 116
13.4 Longitudinal waves 117
13.5 Observing and measuring 118
travelling waves
13.6 The wave equation 120
13.7 Wave velocity 121
13.8 Energy in waves 122
13.9 Properties of travelling
waves 122
13.10 Standing waves 131
14 Reflections and shadows 14.1 Rays of light 133
14.2 Laws of regular reflection 133
14.3 The image in a plane mirror 135
14.4 Uses of plane mirrors 137
14.5 Diffuse reflection 137
14.6 Shadows 138
15 Refraction 15.1 Introduction 140
15.2 Refraction at an air-glass
interface 140
15.3 Refractive indices 143
15.4 The reversibility of a ray of
light 144
15.5 Internal reflections 145
 ix

15.6 Some applications of total

internal reflection 146
15.7 Real and apparent depths 148
16 Thin lenses and curved 16.1 Action of a lens 151
mirrors 16.2 Optical centre and focal
point 152
16.3 The power of a lens 153
16.4 Measuring the focal length
of a converging lens 154
16.5 Images produced by lenses 154
16.6 The action of a curved
mirror 157
16.7 The principal focus and
focal length 158
16.8 Uses of lenses and mirrors 159
17 Optical instrwnents 17.1 The pinhole camera 160
17.2 The camera with a lens 161
17.3 The slide projector 162
17.4 A radio telescope 163
18 The electromagnetic 18.1 Visible light 164
spectrum 18.2 Detectors of light 166
18.3 The extended spectrum 166
18.4 Colour addition 169
18.5 Colour subtraction 171
18.6 Coloured objects seen in
coloured lights 171
19 Sound 19.1 Introduction 173
19.2 Measurement of the
frequency of sound waves 174
19.3 Measuring the velocity of
sound in air by an echo
method 174
19.4 Diffraction and interference
of sound waves 175
19.5 The pitch, loudness and
quality of a musical note 176
19.6 Absorption of sound waves 177
19.7 Resonance 178
CONTENTS
IV. ELECTRICITY, ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

20 Magnetism 20.1 Properties of magnets 183

20.2 The test for magnetism 184
20.3 Making a magnet 184
20.4 Induced magnetism 185
20.5 Properties of soft iron and
steel 185
20.6 Magnetic fields 186
21 Electrons and electron 21.1 Charging by friction 189
beams 21.2 Positive and negative charge 189
21.3 Protons and electrons 190
21.4 Charging by induction 190
21.5 Ionisation 191
21.6 Lightning and lightning
conductors 192
21.7 The cathode ray oscilloscope 192
22 Electric circuits 22.1 Electric current 198
22.2 Electric potential difference
(voltage) 199
22.3 Series and parallel circuits 200
22.4 Current in series and
parallel circuits 201
22.5 Potential difference in series
and parallel circuits 203
22.6 Electrical resistance 204
22.7 Combination of resistors 207
22.8 The potential divider
circuit 210
22.9 Capacitors 211
23 Magnetic effects of an 23.1 The magnetic field produced
electric current by an electric current 215
23.2 The magnetic field produced
by a solenoid 216
23.3 Force on a current-carrying
conductor in a magnetic 217
field
23.4 The electric motor 219
23.5 The moving-coil loudspeaker 222
24 Energy and power from 24.1 Electrical power and energy 224
electrical sources 24.2 The mains supply 225
24.3 Domestic wiring 226
 xi

24.4 Electrical connection to the

mains supply 227
24.5 The earth lead 228
24.6 The kilowatt-hour 229
2S Electromagnetic induction 25.1 Introduction 231
25.2 The size of the induced e.mJ. 233
25.3 The direction of the induced
current 233
25.4 The alternating-current
generator 234
25.5 The direct-current generator 237
25.6 An induced e.mJ. due to a
changing current 237
25.7 The transformer 238
25.8 Step-up and step-down
transformers 240
25.9 The efficiency of a
transformer 240
25.10 The distribution of
electrical energy 241
26 Radioactivity and the 26.1 The spark counter 244
atom 26.2 The Geiger-Muller tube 244
26.3 The diffusion cloud
chamber 245
26.4 The properties of the ionising
radiations emitted from
radioactive substances 246
26.5 The nature of ex, {3 and 'Y
. radiation 249
26.6 The mechanism of
radioactive emissions 249
26.7 Radioactive sources 251
26.8 Radioactive decay 252
26.9 Safety precautions and
uses 254
26.10 Nuclear Fission 255
27 Electronics 27.1 Introduction 257
27.2 The diode 257
27.3 Bridge rectifier circuit 258
27.4 Smoothing the output from
a bridge rectifier 259
27.5 A low voltage power supply 259
27.6 LEDs, LDRs and thermistors 260
CONTENTS
27.7 The transistor 261
27.8 Using transistors 262
27.9 Logic gates 266
27.1 0 Combining logic gates 268
27.11 The bistable 269
27.12 An operational amplifier 272
27.13 Operational amplifier as a
switch 277
Questions 281
Answers to Questions 324
Index 328
 xiii

PREFACE TO THE
FIRST EDITION
The book aims to provide a concise, easily readable treatment of all the
essential principles contained in O-level physics courses. We have tried to
present them with a directness and simplicity that will enable students to
achieve maximum comprehension in the shortest possible time. Many
diagrams have been included in the text as these are a great help in under-
standing physics and are especially useful in revision.
Important laws and definitions are set in italic type.
SI units have been used throughout.

Marlborough, 1982 H.I. P.K.

F. R. McK.
A.C.
M.I.H.
xiv

PREFACE TO THE
REVISED EDITION
In this edition we have added some worked examples and provided answers
to the questions at the end of the book. We have also extended one or two
sections to provide more comprehensive coverage of the many different
O-level syllabuses, and have made a few minor changes in the text to
improve its clarity.

Marlborough,1983 H. J. P. K.
F. R. McK.
A.C.
M.J.H.
 xv

PREFACE TO THE
THIRD EDITION
We have changed the contents to bring the text into line with the proposed
GCSE syllabuses. In particular, we have added a chapter on electronics,
deleted topics such as electrolysis and most of the work on curved mirrors.
We have added further worked examples and taken the. opportunity to
make other changes in order to make the book as helpful as possible to
students studying for GCSE.

Marlborough, 1986 H. J.P. K.

F. R. McK.
A. C.
M.J.H.
xvi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We gratefully acknowledge the following for supplying photographs which
we have used to illustrate the part-title pages of the book:
Part I The Columbia space shuttle being launched at Cape Canaveral
(courtesy Space Frontiers Ltd).
Part II The European Space Agency's European communications satel-
lite (courtesy British Aerospace).
Part III Approach and runway lights as seen from the flight deck of an
aircraft (courtesy British Aerospace).
Part IV The lights of Piccadilly Circus (courtesy United Kingdom
Atomic Energy Authority).

We are also grateful to Rex Fearures Ltd. for permission to reproduce the
cover picture of Halley's Comet taken by the space probe Giotto. The
European Space Agency used many physics laws and principles to get
the space probe on course, to take the pictures and to transmit them
back to Earth.
 PART I
MECHANICS

The Columbia space shuttle being launched at Cape Canaveral (courtesy Space
Frontiers Ltd)
 CHAPTER 1 3

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

If a study of physics or any other science is made in any detail, it is neces-

sary to understand certain basic ideas and to know the meanings of the
words used to express them. In this first chapter, we deal with some of
them.

1.1 LENGTH

The standard of length is the metre (m). The marks and subdivisions on
any ruler are made by comparison with the standard metre.

1.2 METRIC PREFIXES

In order to express the distance travelled in a motor car in the course of

half an hour, it is usually more convenient to talk in terms of kilometres
rather than metres (1 kilometre is 1000 metres). When measuring smaller
distances, it is often convenient to measure them in millimetres (1 milli-
metre is one-thousandth of a metre).
The prefixes in common use with metric units are shown in Table 1.1.
Some examples of the use of these prefixes are as follows:
A kilogram is 103 grams, that is, 1000 grams; a megatonne is 106 tonnes,
that is, a million tonnes.
A microsecond is 10- 6 second, that is, one-millionth of a second.

1.3 FORCE

The boy shown in Fig. 1.1 a is being pushed and in Fig. 1.1 b is being pulled.
Whenever you pull or push something, you are applying a force to it. A
force may
4

(i) change the speed of an object;

(ii) change the shape or size of an object;
(iii) change the direction in which an object is travelling.
Can you think of examples to illustrate each of the above statements?

Table 1.1 prefixes used with metric units

Submultiple PreFlX Symbol

10 12 tera- T
109 giga- G
106 mega- M
103 kilo- k
10 1 deca- da
10- 2 centi- c
10- 3 milli- m
10-6 micro- J.l
10-9 nano- n
10- 12 pico- p

fig 1.1 a force may be thought of as (a) a push or (b) a pull

(a) (b)

One force with which everyone is familiar is the force of gravity. If you
let go of a stone which you were holding, the stone starts to move towards
the ground because the force of gravity is pulling it downwards. While you
were holding the stone, it did not move because you were pulling up on
the stone with a force equal to the force of gravity downwards on the
stone. In that case there were two equal and opposite forces acting on the
 5

stone and we say that the resultant force was zero. When the resultant
force on a body is zero, it will not change its speed nor its direction of
travel.

1.4 MEASUREMENT OF FORCE

A simple way of measuring a force is to use a spring balance (Fig. 1.2). The
greater the force that is applied, the greater is the movement of the pointer
attached to the spring. Providing the force applied to a spring is not too
large, the extension of the spring is proportional to the force .
. Force is measured in units called newtons and spring balances are cali·
brated in newtons.
In Section 4.4 we show how this unit of measurement was chosen, but
it might help for the moment if you remember that it requires a force of
1 newton (1 N) to support an average-sized apple. If an average-sized apple
is hung on a spring balance, the balance will read 1 N.

fig 1.2 a spring balance may be used to measure the force on a mass hung
from it

:I
.
6

1.5 LOAD-EXTENSION GRAPHS

By hanging known loads on a long piece of wire, nylon or a length of

rubber and measuring the extension, graphs similar to the one shown in
Fig. 1.3 may be obtained. The part OA of the graph is a straight line show-
ing that the extension is proportional to the load. (This is known as Hooke's
law). For extensions greater than at A, the graph curves. The limit of
proportionality has been reached. Beyond the elastic limit the specimen
will not return to its original length when the load is removed.

1.6 MASS

As we stated above, a force can cause a body to increase its speed, that is,
to accelerate. Will the acceleration of a small car pushed by three people
be the same as that of a large lorry pushed just as hard by the same three
people? Obviously not. Clearly the acceleration for a given force depends
on the body being accelerated. We say that a body which is difficult to
accelerate is more massive than a body which is easy to accelerate. The
mass of a body is a measure of how difficult the body is to accelerate.
The unit a/mass is the kilogram (kg)
This standard is a lump of platinum alloy kept at Sevres near Paris. If
masses of 2 kg and 1 kg have the same force applied to them, then the 1 kg
mass will have twice the acceleration of the 2 kg mass.
It is sometimes helpful to think of mass as the quantity of 'stuff' that is
in the body. A mass of 2 kg has in it twice the quantity of 'stuff' that is in
a mass of 1 kg.

fig 1.3 a load-extension graph. Hooke's law is obeyed until the point A ;s
reached

-
z
"i
.3

o Extension/m
 7

1.7 WEIGHT

The weight of a body is the force of gravity on it

The weight of a body on the Earth is the force with which the Earth
attracts the body. The weight of a body on any other plane~ is the force
with which the planet attracts the body. The force of gravity on the Moon
is less than that on the Earth and hence the weight of a body on the Moon
is less than its weight on the Earth.
Wherever a body is in the universe its mass remains constant,
but its weight depends on where it is situated
The force exerted by the Earth on a mass of 1 kg is 9.8 N. We some-
times express this by saying that the Earth's gravitational field is 9.8 new-
tons per kilogram, written 9.8 N/kg. For convenience in calculations this is
often taken as 10 N/kg. It follows that the pull of the Earth on a mass of
2 kg is 10 x 2 = 20 N, and the weight of a 3 kg mass is 10 x 3 = 30 N.
We have already stated that weight is measured with a spring balance
calibrated in newtons. Mass may be measured with a beam balance like the
one illustrated in Fig. 1.4. The unknown mass is put in one of the pans and
known masses are put in the other pan until the arm of the balance is hori-
zontal. The masses in each of the pans are then the same since the Earth
pulls equal masses with the same force.
Other types of balance can be used to measure mass. Often only one
pan is used and balance can be obtained by sliding special masses along a
scale, or sometimes the balance displays the mass of the object directly on
a screen.

fig 1.4 a beam balance compares the masses of objects in each of the two
pans
8

1.8 MEASURING TIME

One of the most easily understood methods of measuring time is to use a

pendulum. The simplest form of pendulum consists of a lump of, say,
metal on the end of a piece of string. If the string is hung from its free end
and allowed to oscillate, then the time for one complete oscillation of the
pendulum ('both there and back') is known as the periodic time of the
pendulum.
Providing the angle of swing of the pendulum is small, the periodic time
depends only on the length of the pendulum. This forms the basis of all
pendulum clocks.
An alternative oscillating device is a balance wheel connected to a hair
spring (Fig. 1.5). The periodic time of oscillation of this remains constant
providing appropriate precautions are taken for effects of changing tem-
perature.

fig 1.5 a balance wheel and hair spring. The inner end of the spring is
attached to the wheel and the outer is attached to a fixed frame

Most accurate clocks these days depend for their time-keeping on the
oscillatory property of a quartz crystal, when joined into an electronic
circuit. This is the timing mechanism of all quartz watches.

1.9 VOLUME

It is sometimes necessary to calculate the volume of variously shaped

samples. For some standard objects the values are as follows:
For a rectangular solid of length a, breadth b and height c
Volume =a x b x c (1.1 )
For a cylinder of radius r and height h
 9

Volume = rrr2 h (1.2)

For a sphere of radius r
4rrr3
Volume = - - (1.3)
3

1.10 MEASURING VOLUME

If a solid has an irregular shape its volume can be measured by placing it in

a measuring cylinder partly filled with liquid. The change in level of the
liquid gives the volume of the solid (Fig. 1.6), because the solid displaces
an amount of water equal to its own volume.

fig 1.6 measuring the volume of an irregular shape using a measuring

cylinder

-
-
-
- - =.
- -
-

The volume of a quantity of liquid can be measured directly using a

measuring cylinder.

1.11 DENSITY

We say that steel is heavier than wood, yet a tree is heavier than a pin. Most
people understand that when we say steel is heavier than wood we are
comparing equal volumes.
The quantity which remains constant for any sample of a particular
material is the mass per unit volume. This is termed the density, so that we
may write
Density is mass per unit volume
or

Density = -Mass
-- (I.4)
Volume
10

In the SI system of measurement, mass has the units of kilograms, and

volume has the units of cubic metres. Density is therefore in kg/m 3 .
Sometimes, partly because the numbers involved are smaller the mass is
expressed in grams (g) and the volume in cubic centimetres (cm 3 ), so that
the density is in g/cm 3 .
The densities of some typical substances are given in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 densities o/various substances

kg/m 3 g/cm 3

Solids
Uranium 18700 18.7
Copper 8900 8.9
Aluminium 2700 2.7
Glass (varies) 2500 2.5
Ice 920 0.92
Wood 600 - 1100 0.6 - 1.1
Cork 240 0.24
Liquids
Mercury 13600 13.6
Water 1000 1.00
Petrol 680 - 720 0.68 - 0.72
Gases
Air at O°C at
sea level 1.29 1.29 x 10-3
Hydrogen at aOc at
sea level 9.0 x 10-2 9.0 X 10-5

1.12 AIR DENSITY

To determine the density of air, a half-litre flask is weighed (a) when full
of air and (b) when evacuated using a vacuum pump. The difference in mass
is due to the air in the flask (Fig. 1.7). The volume of the flask is deter-
mined by filling it with· water and then pouring the water into a measuring
cylinder. The density is calculated from equation (I.4).

WORKED EXAMPLE

(i) A solid of mass 100 g is immersed in water and displaces 40 cm 3 .m-

water. What is the density of the solid?
 11

(ii) 30 cm 3 of copper sulphate solution of density 1.2 g/cm 3 are mixed

with 70 cm 3 of water. What is the density of the resulting mixture?

(1·) D · =
enslty Mass ( page 9)
Volume
Since the solid displaces 40 cm 3 of water its volume is 40 cm 3

Density = 100 g = 2.5 g/cm 3

40cm 3
(ii) Mass of copper sulphate = 30 cm 3 x 1.2 g/cm 3 = 36 g
Mass of water = 70 cm 3 x 1 g/cm 3 = 70 g

. . Total mass 106 g

Total mass = 106 g .. DensIty = = 3 = 1.06 g/cm 3
Total volume 100 cm

fig 1.7 determining the mass of air in a flask

Flask
containing
air

(a)

Flask
evacuated

(b)
12 CHAPTER 2

PRESSURE

2.1 THE CONCEPT OF PRESSURE

Most of you will have eaten walnuts at some time or other and possibly
associate them with the Christmas season. But have you ever tried to crack
one without a nutcracker just by squeezing it in your hand? Unless you
find a particularly weak nut, it is very difficult indeed, if not impossible.
However, if you take two nuts and squeeze them together as shown in
Fig. 2.1, you will probably have little difficulty in cracking them. Can you
explain this rather surprising effect? Why do you think drawing pins have
sharp points, and knives with sharp blades cut better than knives with
blunt blades, In order to answer these and similar questions, we must try
to understand the idea and the meaning of pressure.

fig 2.1 try squeezing two walnuts together. The high pressure at the
point of contact will often crack the shells

Fig. 2.2 illustrates a simple experiment to investigate what is meant by

pressure. A coin is being pushed into plasticine first by exerting a force on
 13

fig 2.2 the higher pressure in (b) causes the coin to sink more easily into
the plasticine

(al (b)

the flat side of it and secondly by exerting the same force on the edge. It
is obvious in which ca$e the coin is pushed more readily into the plasticine.
Many people are also familiar with the fact that if you put on a pair of skis
you do not sink as far into the snow as you would do if you were standing
on the snow without skis. How can we explain these facts?
How far you sink in each case is determined not only by the hardness
and condition of the snow and the force exerted on it, but also by the area
over which the force acts. It is the force per unit area or the pressure, as
we call it, that determines the penetration.
Pressure is the force (or thrust) acting on unit area
i.e.
Force
Pressure = - - (2.1 )
Area
If the force is expressed in newtons and the area in square metres, the
pressure is in pascals (Pa), i.e. 1 Pa = 1 N/m 2 .
A boy weighing 600 N is standing on snow. If the shoes he is wearing
have a total area in contact with the ground of 0.03 m 2 , then the pressure
he is exerting on the snow is given by
14

600N
Pressure = 2 = 20000 N/m 2 = 20000 Pa = 20 kPa
0.03 m
If the boy then puts on skis of total area OJ m3 , the pressure he now
exerts on the snow is given by
600N
Pressure = ---2 = 2000 Pa = 2 kPa
0.3 m
The new pressure is only one-tenth of the old pressure and this is the
reason he does not sink so far into the snow.
Now think again about cracking walnuts. When two walnuts are in the
hand, the area of contact between the two walnuts is quite small. Can you
explain in terms of pressure why it is easier to crack a walnut if a second
walnut is held against it?

2.2 PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS

Suppose you have two identical rectangular tanks, one filled with water
and the other filled with bricks of the same weight as the water. What is
the difference in the pressure exerted in the two cases? What would be the
effect of removing the walls in each case? In both cases the pressure on the
bottom is the same but in the case of the liquid the pressure is exerted in
other directions besides downwards. Indeed a liquid exerts its pressure in
all directions. Fig. 2.3 illustrates a demonstration which shows the sideways
pressure of water. A vertical-sided tank has three holes drilled in the side.

fig 2.3 an experiment to show that pressure in liquids increases with

depth
 15

Notice that the water pressure at the bottom is greater than that at the top.
How does the experiment show this? The fact that pressure acts in all
directions may be indicated by the demonstration shown in Fig. 2.4. A

fig 2.4 pressure in liquids acts in all directions

rubber ball with lots of holes in it is filled with water. When the ball is
squeezed, the water comes out of all the holes, showing that the pressure
acts in all directions on the inside surface of the ball. More precise experi-
ments show that
The pressure at any point in a liquid acts equally in all directions
The experiment with a rubber ball also illustrates another important
principle, namely that
When any part of a confined liquid is subject to pressure, the
pressure is transmitted (or passed on) equally to all parts
of the containing vessel
This principle and the fact that liquids are virtually incompressible are
made use of in hydraulic machines. The principle of such machines is
illustrated in Fig. 2.5. A force of 20 N acts on a small piston of area 10 cm 2 .
The space between the small piston and the large piston is filled with
liquid. The pressure of 2 N/cm 2 is transmitted throughout the liquid and
this pressure acts on the large piston of area 100 cm' . Since a force of 2 N
acts on each square centimetre of this piston, the total force on it is
2 x 100 = 200 N. By using the property that a liquid has of transmitting
16

fig 2.5 the principle of hydraulic machines

20N--.. --.... 200N

pressure, such a machine acts as a very useful force multiplier. Hydraulic

jacks are frequently used for lifting cars at garages. In an hydraulic press an
object held firmly against the larger piston may be compressed. Fig. 2.6
illustrates the principle of hydraulic brakes in cars. The pressure is trans-
mitted through the fluid in the hydraulic system, and a small force exerted
on the brake pedal can cause a large force to be exerted on the wheels.

fig 2.6 the principle of hydraulic brakes (not drawn to scale)

Brake shoes push

against brake drum
inside wheel

Return spring

2.3 THE PRESSURE DUE TO A COLUMN OF LIQUID

It may be shown that the pressure due to a column of liquid depends only
on the height of the column and the density of the liquid. The pressure
does not depend on the cross-sectional area of the column. For example,
the pressure at a depth of 50 m below the surface of the sea does not
depend on the size of the ocean. It depends only on the depth and the
density of sea water.
 17

It can be shown (see question 8 for Chapter 2) that the pressure (P)
below the surface of a liquid of density p and depth h is given by
Pressure (N/m 2 ) = 10 (N/kg) x Depth (m) x Density (kg/m 3 ) (2.2)
or
P= 10hpN/m2

2.4 UPTHRUST

The increase in pressure with depth, means that the force acting upwards
on the lower part of a body immersed in a fluid, is greater than the force
acting downwards on the top of the body. This gives rise to a net upward
force called the upthrust. In the experiment illustrated in Fig. 2.7. the
body weighs 0.70 N in air, but it appears to weigh only 0.40 N when im-
mersed in water. The upthrust or the body is 0.30 N which explains the
apparent loss of weight.
When a boat is floating in water the upthrust (acting upwards) is equal
to the weight of the boat (acting downwards). A boat being lowered into
water stops moving downwards when the upthrust exactly balances its
weight. There is then no resultant force acting on the boat.

fig 2.7 an upthrust acts on an immersed body

O.70N I I

Beaker of
water
18

You can feel the effect of the upthrust on your body decreasing as you
pull yourself up by your arms when climbirtg out of a swimming pool.

2.5 MEASURING PRESSURE

(i) The Bourdon pressure gauge

This type of pressure gauge works like a blow-out toy sometimes seen at
Christmas parties (Fig. 2.8). When the gas, whose pressure is required,
enters the curved tube, the tube tends to straighten out and rotates the
pointer.

fig 2.8 the Bourdon pressure gauge

c::::::>
Cross section
of tube T

(ii) The U-tube manometer

Fig. 2.9 shows V-tube manometers being used to measure the pressure of
the gas supply. Two of the V-tubes contain water. Notice that the height
of the column of water (hw) does not depend on the cross-sectional area of
tube. The height does, however, depend on what liquid is in the tube.
When mercury, which is much denser than water, is used, the height of the
mercury (h m ) is much less than the height of the water column, This illus-
trates what we saw in the last section, namely that the pressure due to a
column of liquid depends on the depth of the liquid column and the density
of the liquid.
 19

fig 2.9 U-tube manometers

From gas --+-

supply

h I
W
---
-
-
-
-
=====~;::==~==~

-
--
-_-
-:_
- -.:..
:--- ~

Water Water Mercury

2.6 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

We all know that we are surrounded by a vast quantity of air. In fact we

live at the bottom of an ocean of air which we call the atmosphere. Fig.
2.10 shows two ways in which the pressure due to the atmosphere can be
observed .. In the first experiment, a metal can is connected to a vacuum
pump and the air inside is withdrawn. The pressure on the inside of the can
is thus reduced and the atmospheric pressure pushing on the outside causes
the can to collapse (Fig. 2.1 Oa). In the fountain experiment, water in a
flask is boiled for some time and any air in the flask is driven out by the
steam. When the air has been driven out, a clip on the rubber tubing at the
top is screwed down and is not opened again until it is under water (Fig.
2.1 Ob). When the steam condenses the pressure inside the flask is reduced
and the atmospheric pressure forces the water up into the flask producing
a fountain.

fig 2.10 two experiments to demonstrate atmospheric pressure

To vacuum
pump

(a) (b)
20

In 1651, Otto von Guericke, the mayor of Magdeburg, performed a

striking experiment before the Emperor Ferdinand III to demonstrate the
existence of atmospheric pressure. Having invented the first vacuum pump,
von Guericke made two metal hemispheres about 60 cm in diameter which
fitted together with an airtight joint. When he pumped the air out from in-
side the joined hemispheres, it took eight horses on each side to pull them
apart. Removing the air from inside the hemispheres reduced the outward
force on each hemisphere. The surrounding atmosphere still produced an
inward force which held the two hemispheres together until the forces
produced by the horses were big enough to pull them apart.

2.7 A SIMPLE BAROMETER

A simple barometer may be constructed by using mercury and a glass tube,

which is about 90 cm long, sealed at one end. The tube is first filled with
mercury to within about 1 cm of the top (Fig. 2.11). In order to remove
the small bubbles of air trapped in the mercury the opened end is closed
(for example by a bung) and the tube inverted. The bubble of air moves up
the tube collecting all the small bubbles of air as it goes. The tube is invert-
ed a number of times in order to remove all the small air bubbles. The tube
is then filled to the top with mercury and the thumb placed over the end.
The thumb is removed when the open end is under a trough of mercury.
On an average day the mercury will stand at a height of 760 mm above the
level in the trough, and this vertical height remains the same even if the
tube is tilted.

fig 2.11 the vertical height of the barometer stays constant if the tube is
tilted (not drawn to scale)

8--- 8

Atmospheric Trough of
mercury
A A
 21

The pressure at A due to the column of mercury AB is equal to the

atmospheric pressure. The vertical height AB is therefore a measure of the
atmospheric pressure in millimetres of mercury (mmHg). We can calculate
the pressure using equation (2.2), knowing that the density of mercury is
13 600 kg/m 3 and that the mercury column height is 0.76 m. Using these
data
Pressure = 10 x 0.76 x 13600 = 1.03 x lOs N/m2 = 103 kPa
Fig. 2.12' shows an apparatus which may be used to demonstrate the
fact that it is the atmospheric pressure which is pushing the mercury up the
tube and not the vacuum which is sucking it up. As the air above the mer-
cury in the trough is withdrawn, the height of the mercury in the barometer
tube falls.

fig 2.12 if the air pressure in the flask is reduced, the height of the mercury
in the tube falls

To vacuum
pump

2.8 THE ANEROID BAROMETER

A very convenient form of barometer, because it can be moved about

easily, is the aneroid (meaning 'without liquid') barometer (Fig. 2.13). It
consists of an evacuated metal box, which has corrugated sides to increase
its strength. A fixed spring prevents the box from collapsing completely. If
the atmospheric pressure increases, the centre of the box moves inwards
22

fig 2.13 an aneroid brometer

Chain

Partially evacuated box Hinge Pivot

and this movement is magnified by a system of levers. The last lever is

attached to a chain which turns the pointer. A hair spring takes up any
slack in the chain.
A similar instrument is frequently used as an altimeter in an aeroplane.
As the aeroplane rises, the atmospheric pressure decreases, and the decrease
in pressure is a measure of the height the aircraft has attained.

2.9 AIRLINERS AND SPACESUITS

Many airliners fly at heights where the air pressure is very low. The cabins
of high-altitude aircraft must therefore be pressurised, that is, the pressure
inside the cabin must be increased above that of the air outside. If this were
not done, passengers in such airliners would experience extreme discomfort
and find it difficult to get enough oxygen. The 'popping' of the ears during
take-off and landing is caused by changes of pressure on the ear drum
because of changes in the cabin air pressure.
Astronauts go right outside the Earth's atmosphere to places where there
is no air and hence they must take their atmosphere with them. The space-
suits they wear supply them with oxygen and maintain them at a suitable
pressure. In the absence of a spacesuit, a man on the Moon would be dead
within a very short time. He would not have any oxygen to breathe, the
water and blood in his body would boil and probably explode into the sur-
rounding vaGUum.

WORKED EXAMPLE

A piston of area 20 cm 2 fits a cylinder in which it runs smoothly. The air

pressure inside the cylinder is increased by 2 cm of mercury. What extra
force acts on the piston? (Density of mercury = 13600 kg/m 3 ; g = 10 N/kg)
 23

Pressure in a liquid of density p at depth h = 10 x h x p N/m 2

(Section 2.3)
Extra pressure = 10 N/kg x 0.02 m x 13 600 kg/m 3 = 2 720 N/m 2
Extra force on 0.002 m 2 (20 cm 2 ) = Extra pressure x area
= 2720 N/m2 x 0.002 m2
= 5.44 N
24 CHAPTER 3

VECTORS

3.1 ADDITION OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Does a mass of 3 g added to a mass of 5 g always produce a total mass of

8 g? You may think this is a stupid question and say, 'Of course it does'.
You would be quite right. But does a force of 3 N added to a force of 5 N
always produce a force of 8 N? What would be the result if they pulled on
a body in opposite directions? Two forces, one of 5 N one way and the
other of 3 N the other way are equivalent to one single force of 2 N in the
first direction. The single force to which the other two added together are
equivalent is termed the resultant force.
Suppose the two forces make an angle of 60° with each other, as shown
in Fig. 3.1. What is the resultant force then? We can answer this question
from the results of the experiment described below.

fig 3.1

5N

3.2 AN EXPERIMENT ON ADDITION OF FORCES

Consider the experiment shown in Fig. 3.2a. A ring is attached to one end
of a spring S and the other end of the spring is firmly fixed to a corner of a
 25

fig 3.2 the diagonal XP represents the resultant of the two forces repre·
sented by the lines XY and XZ

z
(a) (b)

large board (e.g. blackboard). Two spring balances are attached to the ring
at different points so that the spring S may be extended by pulling on the
spring balances. When the spring is steady, the position of the centre of the
ring X is marked on the board. Lines XY and XZ are drawn to show the dir-
ection in which each spring balance is pulling. The spring balances are then
removed from the ring. Suppose that before they were removed the
balances read 4 Nand 6 N. Fig. 3.2b shows the line XY drawn 4 units long
and the line XZ drawn 6 units long. These lines then represent the forces
both in magnitude (size) and direction. The parallelogram XYPZ is then
completed. The diagonal XP is 8 units long. You may well have guessed
that this 8 units represents the resultant of the two forces of 4 Nand 6 N.
This may be verified by fixing a spring balance to the ring and pulling on it
until the ring is in exactly the same position as in the first part of the ex-
periment. You will find that the spring balance reads 8 N and is pulling in
the direction XP (Fig. 3.3).

fig 3.3
26

It is not necessary to draw the whole parallelogram in order to add two

forces. The rule for adding two forces is as follows:
Represent one of the forces in magnitude and direction by the line AB
(Fig. 3.4). At the point B draw another line BC to represent the
other force in magnitude and direction. The line A C represents
the resultant force in both magnitude and direction

fig 3.4 the resultant of the forces represented by AB and BC is represent-

ed by the line A C

The same rule applies for adding velocities. Suppose you are rowing
across a stream at 3 metres per second (m/s) and that the stream is flowing
at 4 m/s. In 1 s you will move 3 m across the stream through the water and
at the same time the stream will carry you down 4 m. Fig. 3.5 shows these
velocities. AB represents the 3 m/s and BC the 4 m/s. The line AC is the
resultant velocity and the actual path you will travel while in the boat.
Notice the rule for adding velocities is the same as the rule for adding
forces.
Quantities which have direction as well as magnitude are called vectors.
Quantities which have only magnitude are called scalars

fig 3.5 the vector AB added to the vector BC is equivalent to the vector
AC

A 3 8
..------.,

c
 27

Velocities and forces are examples of vector quantities and must be added
by the law of vector addition as follows:
Represent the two vectors in magnitude and direction by the sides AB and
BC taken in sequence round a triangle ABC. Then the resultant vector is
represented in magnitude and direction by the third side AC
Mass and energy are examples of scalar quantities which add by simple
arithmetic. A mass of 2 g added to a mass of 3 g always produces a total of
5 g. But forces of 2 Nand 3 N do not always produce the same resultant;
that depends on the direction in which each force acts.
28 CHAPTER 4

MOTION

4.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Velocity is the distance travelled in unit time in a particular direction, or

·
VeIOClty Distance travelled
= ------- in the specified direction (4.1)
Time taken
A common unit is metres per second, written mis, in a stated direction.
In everyday speech the terms velocity and speed are sometimes used to
mean the same thing. However in science they mean something different.
Speed is a scalar quantity and has no direction, whereas velocity is a vector
quantity and should always have a direction stated.
Acceleration is the change in velocity in unit time, or
Change in velocity
Acceleration = (4.2)
Time taken for change
A common unit for acceleration is m/s 2 (in the direction in which the
velocity changes).

4.2 NEWTON'S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

From everyday observation it might appear that we must exert a steady

force to keep a body moving with constant velocity. For example, the
water skier in Fig. 4.1 is being pulled by a constant force and moves with a
constant velocity. The incompleteness of this argument is that we have
neglected the force which the water exerts on the skis. The force exerted
by the water on the skis and the force on the rope are equal but they act in
opposite directions. Hence the total (or resultant) force on the skier is zero
and he continues to move with constant velocity. Should the rope break,
or the skier drop it, the force of the water on the skis quickly brings him
to rest.
 29

fig 4.1 constant speed seems to require a constant force acting on the
skier

Fig. 4.2 shows another example of steady motion appearing to need a

steady force. In this case it is the frictional forces which act in the opposite
direction to the pull from the man, and again the resultant force is zero
and the roller moves with a constant velocity.
One of the nearest approaches to motion on a frictionless surface in the
laboratory is a dry-ice puck moving on a flat glass surface, where the puck

fig 4.2 does a constant roller speed require a constant force?

30

floats on a cushion of carbon dioxide gas. When the puck is given a push
and photographed in the flashing light of a stroboscope (Fig. 4.3), the
resulting picture (drawn in Fig. 4.4) shows that the puck moves a constant
distance between each flash of light, that is, it is moving with a constant
velocity.

fig 4.3 laboratory apparatus to study the motion of a dry ice puck

Flashing
stroboscope

Camera

fig 4.4 drawing of a typical photograph obtained with the apparatus of

Fig. 4.3

e e e e
Newton's first law of motion may be stated as follows:
If a body is at rest it will remain at rest, and if it is in motion it will
continue to move in a straight line with a constant velocity
unless it is acted on by a resultant external force
 31

We have all had experience of this law when travelling in a motor car.
If you are in a car when the brakes are suddenly applied, you feel as if you
are being thrown forwards. In fact, you are simply trying to move on with
your constant velocity and it is the seat which is being pulled away from
you. If you are wearing a seat belt, you can feel the force exerted by the
belt on your body to change its velocity.

4.3 NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

Fig. 4.5 shows an experiment which is being conducted to investigate how

the acceleration of a trolley depends on the force applied to it and on its

fig 4.5 as the trolley is acted on by the force produced by the stretched
elastic its motion down the friction-compensating slope is indicat-
ed by dots on the tape

Ticker tape

mass. The force is applied by a rubber band stretched by a fixed amount.

A strip of paper attached to the rear of the trolley passes through a ticker
timer. The ticker timer is operated by a 12 volt a.c. supply and has an arm
which vibrates 50 times every second. As the tape moves through the ticker
timer, 50 dots appear on the tape every second. Analysis of the spacing
between the dots allows the velocity and hence the acceleration to be
calculated.
Before starting the experiment, the friction-compensating slope must be
adjusted so that the trolley moves with a constant velocity when given a
small push.
To convert the distance travelled between dots into a velocity in cm/s
we make use of the fact that the ticker timer makes 50 dots every second.
32

The intervals between two adjacent dots is therefore 0.02 s. So the time to
produce two such dot intervals, say between dot 9 and dot 11 if they are
numbered consecutively on the tape, is 2 x 0.02 = 0.04 s.
The acceleration may then be calculated as follows. Number the dots
along the length of tape produced in the experiment. Suppose the distance
between dots 9 and 11 is x cm (Fig. 4.6). Then the (average) speed at dot
10 is x/0.04 cm/s = 25x cm/s. Similarly if the distance between dots 59
and 61 is y cm, the speed at dot 60 is y/0.04 cm/s = 25y cm/s.

fig 4.6 the dots are madeatO.02s intervals. The speed at dot 10 is x/0.04
= 25x cm/s. The speed at dot 60 is y/0.04 = 25y cm/s

Dot 10 Dot 60

t
----L
~= =:
I
:
I
== == ~~---=(~:--+---t---'>
:
I
I
I

~ :~,.~----~.~!
'x cm' , yem '

The speed may be calculated every 10 dots (Le. 0.2 s); so a graph may
be constructed of speed against the time at every tenth dot, that is, the
speed at time intervals of 0.2 s (Fig. 4.7). If this graph is a straight line, it
means that the speed is increasing uniformly, so that the acceleration is
constant. The value of the acceleration is the slope of the graph, indicated
as v/t cm/s 2 in Fig. 4.7.

fig 4.7 speed plotted against time for the experiment of Fig. 4.5. The
acceleration equals v/t

Speed
(from dot
spacing)

~---- t ---------J-~

-,..- Time
Time to produce 10 dots (= 0.2 s)
 33

Alternatively, if it is assumed that the acceleration is uniform, its value

may be calculated from the speeds at dots 10 and 60. The time interval
between the production of these dots is exactly 50 x 0.02 = 1.0 s. So

Acceleration = __C_h_a_n.::;g_e_in--,sp,--e_e_d__
Time taken for change
(1.0 s in this case)

25y - 25x -_ 25(y -x) cm / s2

1.0
(a) The relationship between force and acceleration
We call the force exerted by one elastic band one unit, the force from two
elastic bands stretched the same amount two units, and so on. By applying
forces of one, two, three and four units to the trolley in turn and analysing
the tapes of the resulting motion, the acceleration may be calculated in
each case, using one of the two methods described above.
The results of doing this for different forces are shown in Fig. 4.8,
where the acceleration is plotted against the applied force. The graph is a
straight line through the origin, indicating that the acceleration is propor-
tional to the force.

fig 4.8 graph indicating the relationship between acceleration and applied
force acting on a constant mass

Acceleration
in cm/52

300

225
150

75

o 2 3 4

Force

(b) The relationship between mass and acceleration

In this experiment the force is kept constant by using two rubber bands at
constant stretch throughout the experiment. The mass may be changed by
34

stacking one trolley on top of another. We say that one trolley has a mass
of one unit, two trolleys stacked up a mass of two units, and so on. In
each case the acceleration of the trolley stack along the slope is calculated
as in the previous experiment. Fig. 4.9 shows graphs of acceleration against
mass and acceleration against l/mass. The graph of acceleration against
l/mass is a straight line through the origin, showing that the acceleration is
inversely proportional to the mass.

fig 4.9 graphs indicating the relationship between acceleration and mass
for a constant applied force

Acceleration Acceleration

Mass
Mass

Combining the results of the two experiments given in the two preced-
ing paragraphs we have
F
acr. - (4.3)
m
where a is the acceleration, F the resultant force and m the mass.
Equation (4.3) is a mathematical statement of Newton's second law of
motion, which may be stated as follows:
The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the resultant
force acting on it and inversely proportional to the mass of the body

4.4 THE UNIT OF FORCE, THE NEWTON

One newton (1 N) is the force which gives a mass of one kilogram

(1 kg) an acceleration of one metre per second per second (1 m/S2 )
Defining the newton in this way enables us to write equation (4.3) as
 35

F
a= - or F=ma (4.4)
m
where F is in newtons, m in kilograms and a in metres/second 2 .

4.5 NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

Newton's third law states.

If a body A exerts a force on a body B then B exerts an
equal and opposite force on body A
An appreciation of the third law will save you from getting very wet
when stepping out of a rowing boat (Fig. 4.1O)! As you step out of the
boat, the force which the boat exerts on you (enabling you to move for-
wards) means that there is an equal force acting backwards on the boat
causing it to accelerate backwards, so that the distance between the boat
and the pier increases rapidly.

fig 4.10 a demonstration of Newton's third law of motion

4.6 MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE

The momentum of a body is defined by the relationship

Momentum = Mass x Velocity (4.5)
Momentum has direction as well as magnitude and is therefore a vector
quantity (see also section 3.2). For a group of bodies the total momentum
is equal to the sum of the individual momenta.
If a body initially at rest is acted on by a resultant force F for a time t
and acquires a velocity v, then using equation 4.4. we have
36

Fxt=mxaxt=mx ~xt=mxv
t

The quantity Ft is called the impulse. It follows that

Impulse =(resultant force) x (time) =(change of momentum)
4.7 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

An important result may be obtained using the apparatus illustrated in

Fig. 4.11. The trolleys have protruding rods which may be pushed in to

fig 4.11 the arrangement of two trolleys and ticker timer for the so-called
'explosion' experiment. The masses of the trolleys may be varied
by adding loads to them. (Redrawn from material kindly supplied
by Philip Harris Ltd)

Hit to
release
plunger

Tape bracket

compress a spring. One of the rods may be released by pressing the vertical
plunger. Tapes are attached to each trolley and passed through the timer.
When the plunger is struck and the trolleys move apart, their velocities may
be analysed by analysis of the tapes. The results show that if one trolley
with mass ml moves off with velocity VI in one direction, the other trolley
of mass m2 moves off with velocity V2 in the other direction, where
 37

that is, the momentum gained by one trolley as a result of the explosion is
equal and opposite to the momentum gained by the other.
In another kind of experiment a trolley may be made to run into the
back of another initially stationary one, the two being made to stick to-
gether using a pin on the first which sticks into a lump of plasticine on the
second. In each case, no matter what the masses of each trolley, it is found
that the total momentum before impact (i.e. the momentum of the moving
trolley) is equal to the total momentum after impact (i.e. the momentum
of both trolleys added together).
These experiments are examples of the law of conservation ofmomen-
tum which states that
If no external force acts on a system in a particular direction then the
total momentum of the system in that direction remains unchanged

4.8 ROCKET AND JET MOTORS

In both rocket and jet motors a fuel is burnt in a combustion chamber.

The difference between them is that in a rocket the gas in which the fuel is
burnt is carried (often in the form of liquid oxygen) in the rocket itself; in
a jet engine the fuel is burnt in air drawn into the engine from an intake at
the front end of the engine.
As a result of combustion, the gases reach a high temperature and pres-
sure. They are exp'elled from the exhaust nozzle at high speed, gaining
momentum as they do so. The rocket or jet must therefore gain momentum
in the opposite direction.

4.9 ACCELERATION IN FREE FALL

The acceleration in free fall may be determined using the apparatus illus-
trated in Fig. 4.12. When plate A is raised so that it is held by the bar
magnet B, an electrical circuit is completed at the contact C. A separate
switch starts a clock and at the same time switches off the electromagnet,
The steel ball falls and when it strikes plate A the circuit is broken at C
and the clock stops. From the distance, s, fallen by the ball and the time,
t, recorded on the clock, the acceleration, g, may be calculated using the
equation (see Section 4.12)

(4.6)
Alternatively, some object like a bunch of keys may be attached to a
ticker tape and the ticker timer fixed so that the tape can fall vertically
38

fig 4.12 the magnet/clock apparatus for measuring g

F !
Leads to
clock/power
supply
Electromagnet

Magnet (8)
Hinge

Trap door (A)

Leads to
~ _ _ _ clock

(a) (b)

through it (Fig. 4.13). The mass is released and subsequent analysis of the
tape enables the acceleration due to gravity to be calculated.
The acceleration due to gravity, in free fall, is about 10 m/s 2 (or more
exactly 9.8 m/s 2 ) on Earth. It has a quite different value on the surface of
the Moon, or elsewhere in the Solar System.

4.10 FRICTIONAL FORCES IN SOLIDS

Whenever one surface slides over another surface, there is always a force
opposing motion. The force results from the fact that no surfaces are
perfectly smooth. However highly polished the surfaces, on a molecular
scale they might look something like Fig. 4.14. If an attempt is made to
 39

fig 4.13

Ticker timer
clamped
vertically

fig 4.14 an oil film separates the two surfaces and reduces the frictional
force

[ l
1 Pull
I , . :
']
a
40

slide one surface over the other, the tiny projections on each surface will
catch on each other and this results in a force opposing motion. This force
is called friction.
One basic property of frictional forces may be investigated using the
apparatus illustrated in Fig. 4.15. A wooden block rests on a horizontal
bench top and has a hook on one side to which a spring balance is attached.
When the spring balance is pulled sideways, a horizontal force will be
exerted on the block, trying to make it move off across the bench top. At
first nothing happens, although the spring balance force steadily increases.
Eventually the block will start to move and the spring balance reading just
before this happens indicates what is called the limiting static friction.
As soon as the block starts to move, something else can be noticed. The
block may be kept in continuous steady motion by exerting a smaller force
than the limiting frictional force. The smaller force is termed the dynamic
frictional force; it is always less than the limiting static frictional force for
any particular system.

fig 4.15 an apparatus with which frictional forces can be investigated

Mass stationary

Mass

-' Mass moving 4N

~~j--~~[~I~·~~'~.~a~~~~~~
1

4.11 THE IMPORTANCE OF FRICTION

The force of friction is of great importance. It is present in any moving

machinery, the design of which is almost always such as to reduce friction
as much as possible.
There are two main ways of reducing friction, either by separating the
two parts in relative motion using perhaps a film of oil or grease, or else
by introducing something which will roll between the surfaces; ball bear-
ings or roller bearings have this function.
In machines it is important to reduce friction as much as possible,
otherwise energy is lost as heat resulting from the rubbing together of the
 41

surfaces, one of which moves across the other. For example, any friction
in the engine or transmission of a motor car means that some petrol must
be used in turning over the machinery in the car and not in driving the
car along the road.
While a car is going along a road, energy must be used up in moving the
air out of the way so that the car can pass. The usage of energy means that
there is a frictional force because of the air movement necessary, and
work is done against this frictional force while the car is moving.
There is a similar frictional force acting on an object like a stone falling
through the air. When a stone is dropped from a height it initially acceler-
ates at about 9.8 m/s2, as previously stated, because the only force on it
initially is its weight. Subsequently, as its speed increases there is a friction-
al force, due to the air resistance, acting in the opposite direction to the
weight. Eventually, as the speed builds up enough, the frictional force
(which increases with speed) may become equal to the weight. At this
point the acceleration becomes zero and the subsequent, constant down-
ward velocity is termed the terminal velocity.

4.12 UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

Fig. 4.16 shows a distance/time graph and a velocity/time graph for a body
starting from rest and acted on by a constant force. Since a constant force
produces a constant acceleration (a), the velocity/time graph is a straight
line of gradient a. The distance/time graph is a curve because the distance
travelled is proportional to t 2 . This may be shown as follows:
From equation (4.2) we have
v
a= -
t

fig 4.16 graphs of distance (s)ltime (t) and velocity (v)ltime (t) for a body
acted on by a constant force

s v

~-----~ t t

(a) (b)
42

or
v =at (4.7)
and the distance travelled s is given by
s = (Average velocity) x Time
But
Initial velocity + Final velocity
Average velocity
2
o +at
= - - = "[at
1

2
Therefore

s =tat x t =tat2
i.e.
(4.8)
Hence s is proportional to t 2 and the graph of s against t is a curve as
shown in Fig. 4.16.
Eliminating t from equations (4.7) and (4.8) we get
(4.9)
Problems about bodies moving with a constant acceleration can often be
quickly solved by using the above equations.
If the body does not start from rest but has an initial velocity u, then
the equations become
v = u + at, s = ut + tat2 and
(see question 14 for Chapter 4 and the worked example below).

4.13 MOTION GRAPHS

Suppose a body travels at 10 mls for 2 s. The total distance travelled is

10 mls x 2 s = 20 m. Notice that this is the shaded area under the graph in
Fig. 4.17.
In general we may say that
For a graph of velocity/time, (i) the gradient is the acceleration, and
(iO the area under the graph is the total distance travelled
For a graph of distance/time, the gradient of the graph at any
point is the velocity of the body at that point.
 43

fig 4.17 the shaded area is the distance travelled

v in m/s

10 ~"",_"",

o 2 3 tin s

WORKED EXAMPLE

A vehicle is at rest until a constant force acts on it for 10 s. During the

time the force acts the vehicle travels 200 m. What is the acceleration of
the vehicle?
We have s = 200 m, t = 10 s. So we need an equation which relates s, t
and a. Using equation 4.8 we have
s =tar
200 m = ta x (lOS)2
200 m =ta x (loa S2)
400m 2
a = - - =4m/s
100 S2
44 CHAPTER 5

LEVERS AND CENTRES

OF GRAVITY

5.1 LEVERS IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Most of you at some time or other will have used a screwdriver to prize the
lid off a paint tin. Does the length of the screwdriver matter? Would the lid
of the paint tin come off just as easily if it were prised off using a coin?
Why are door handles placed on the opposite edge of the door from the
hinges? Would it be just as easy to open the door if the handle were nearer
to the hinge? Suppose someone tries to close an open door by pushing
hard on the handle and someone else tries to stop him by pushing on the
other side but much nearer to the hinge. Who would win? What other
factor besides the force determines the turning effect of the force?
This chapter deals with the principles which determine the answers to
these questions.

5.2 AN EXPERIMENT TO INVESTIGATE THE TURNING EFFECT OF

A FORCE

A half metre rule (or any other beam) is balanced at its centre. Place four
metal discs (UK lOp pieces are suitable) so that their centres are 5 cm from
the fulcrum (i.e. the point of pivot). Now see where one disc must be
placed on the other side so that the beam is in equilibrium (i.e. the beam is
balanced)(Fig. 5.1).

fig 5.1 an experiment to investigate the law governing the balancing of a

beam

Half metre rule

One metal disc

 45

Next balance the four discs using two discs on the other side, then three
and finally four discs. The results of such an experiment are shown in
Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 results for the experiment

illustrated in Fif(. 5.1
No. of discs
(units offorce) Distance from
on left-hand side fulcrum (cm)

20.0
2 10.0
3 6.7
4 5.0

The four discs on the right-hand side try to turn the beam in a clockwise
direction. The discs on the left-hand side tend to turn the beam anticlock-
wise. Clearly the turning effect of the force depends on its distance from
the fulcrum. But how can we actually work out the turning effect? The
results in Table 5.1 show that the number of discs (units of force) multi-
plied by the distance from the fulcrum is a constant, in this case equal to
20.
We can therefore measure the turning effect of a force by multiplying
together the force and the perpendicular distance from the fulcrum to the
line of action of the force. Thus
Moment of _ F Perpendicular distance from the fulcrum
a force - orce x to the line of action of the force
The experiment illustrated in Fig. 5.2 is designed to investigate further
the turning effects of forces. A number of weights are hung from a metre
rule and their distances from the fulcrum adjusted until the rule is horizon-

fig 5.2 a more complex experiment, with two forces on one side of the
fulcrum balancing one on the other side

-y~
z
~x .. " ..
46

tal. The results of such an experiment are shown in Table 5.2. In Table 5.3
the anticlockwise moment for this experiment, WI x x, and the two clock-
wise moments, Wz xy and W3 x Z, are calculated. In the readings shown
the anticlockwise moment is kept constant and it can be seen that the total
clockwise moment is obtained by adding the two separate moments.

Table 5.2 results for the experiment illustrated in Fig. 5.2

Wl Wz W3 X Y Z
(N) (N) (N) (em) (em) (em)

2 0.5 20 35 10
2 0.5 20 25 30
2 0.5 20 20 40

Table 5.3 Calculations for the results of the experiment

(Fig. 5.2) given in Table 5.2

W1x W2 y + W3 Z
(anticlockwise moment) (total clockwise moment)

40 35 + 5 = 40
40 25 + IS = 40
40 20 + 20 = 40

Fig. 5.3 shows an arrangement where the forces acting on the ruler are
not parallel to one another. A pulley is used to change the direction of the
2 N force. The position of the pulley is adjusted until the ruler is horizon-
tal. The readings obtained in a particular experiment are shown on the

i
fig 5.3 balancing a beam when the forces acting on it are not parallel

25cm
",..,,<t;>
1_ 42cm

1N

2N
 47

diagram. The anticlockwise moment is 1 x 25 = 25 N cm. Which distance

must we multiply the 2 N force by, in order to get 25 N cm? You can see
from the diagram that the required distance, which is 12.5 cm, is the per-
pendicular distance from the fulcrum to the line of action of the force.
We can summarise the results of the above experiments by the following
statements:
The moment of a force about a point is measured by the product
of the force, and the perpendicular distance from the point
to the line of action of the force
When a body is in eqUilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments
acting on the body about a point is equal to the sitm of the
anticlockwise moments about the same point

5.3 CENTRE OF GRAVITY

A ruler can be balanced if it rests on a support under its centre (Fig. 5.4).
Every part of the ruler is attracted by the Earth, but the ruler behaves as if

fig 5.4 a uniform ruler balanced at its midpoint

its whole weight were concentrated at its centre. Fig. 5.5 illustrates an
experiment you can conduct with a friend. A thread with a loop on the end
is tied to the centre of a ruler and a weight of equal mass also has a string
with a loop attached to it. Provided your friend keeps his eyes shut, he will
not be able to tell whether it is the metre rule or the weight which you are
putting on his finger.
The experiment illustrated in Fig. 5.6 also shows that a ruler behaves as
if its whole weight were concentrated at its centre. Suppose the experiment
is conducted with a ruler which weighs 1 N. Then the ruler will balance if
its centre and the 1 N weight are equally distant from the fulcrum, as shown
in Fig. 5.6. The weight of the ruler is behaving as if its whole weight were
concentrated at its centre point.

5.4 DETERMINING THE POSITION OF THE CENTRE OF GRA YITY

The centre of gravity of a piece of cardboard in the shape of England and

Wales may be found by the experiment illustrated in Fig. 5.7. A small hole
is made at the point A so that the shape can swing freely on a horizontal
pin through A. A plumbline is also attached to the point. The centre of
48

fig 5.5 the ruler behaves as if its whole weight were concentrated at its
centre of gravity

fig 5.6 balancing a ruler off-centre using just one applied force

1
1N

gravity must lie vertically below the point A, when the card is hanging.
(Can you see why?) A line is drawn on the card to show the position of
the plumbline. The card is then hung from the hole B and the new position
of the plumbline marked. Since the centre of gravity lies on the plumbline
in each case, the centre of gravity must lie at the point where the two lines
cross. If you do the experiment carefully, you will find that the card will
balance on your fingertip if you put your fingertip at the point of inter-
section of the lines.
 49

fig 5.7 a freely suspended object rotates until its centre of gravity is
vertically below its point of suspension

Do you think the accuracy of the experiment would be improved if a

third hole were made and the direction of the plumbline marked on the
card when it was hung from this third hole?

5.5 STABILITY

If a body is in stable equilibrium it will always return to its original position

if it is displaced a little and then released. Fig. 5.8a shows a body in stable
equilibrium since its weight gives rise to a moment which will cause it to
return to its original standing position when released. In Fig. 5.8b the body
is unstable since when it is released its weight gives rise to a moment which
makes it topple over. Two ways of making a body more stable are illus-
trated in (c) and (d). A body is said to be in neutral eqUilibrium if when
displaced it stays in its new position, i.e. a ball on a horizontal table.
Consider the experiment illustrated in Fig. 5.9. A wooden block has a
plumbline attached to a point on a horizontal line through its centre of
gravity. The block is standing on a rough surface which can be tilted. The
block will not topple over provided the plumb line crosses the base between
A and B.
50

fig 5.8 stable and unstable equilibrium. The object in (a) is stable because
it wi/l return to its original position when released. In (b) when
released it will topple further and is said to be unstable. Enlarging
the base area (c), or lowering the centre of gravity by adding
ballast to the bottom (d) makes a body more likely to be stable

(a) (b)

Larger base area Loaded to lower CG

Ie) (d)

fig 5.9 the stability of a tilted block

Block does not

topple over
because plumbline
is to left of A

5.6 COUPLES

Suppose you grip a steering wheel with your two hands and turn it. The
two forces are as indicated in Fig. 5.1 O. They cannot be replaced by a single
 51

fig 5.10 forces exerted by the hands make the steering wheel rotate. These
forces together make a couple

force. Their only effect is to make the wheel turn. They are an example of
a couple, sometimes called a torque, defined as follows:
A couple is any system offorces which tends to cause rotation only.
The simplest kind of couple is a pair of equal and opposite
parallel forces which do not act through a point
Examples of couples are the forces exerted on the head of a screw when
turning it, on a propeller when rotating it and on the lid of a jar when un-
screwing it.
The moment of a couple may be calculated using the equation
Moment of a couple = force x perpendicular distance between the
forces

WORKED EXAMPLE

The diagram (Fig. 5.11) represents a metre rule pivoted at its centre. Using
the values of the forces and distances shown in the diagram, calculate the
distance y, if the system is in equilibrium.
We use the principle of moments (section 5.2), and taking moments
about F
52

fig 5.11

5N

~---40cm----~. __.~----50cm----__~._

35 N 10 N

Anticloekwise moment = Clockwise moment

=> 35 N x y = (5 N x 40 em) + (10 N x 50 em)
=> 35 N x y = 200 N em + 500 N em
=> 35 N x y =700 N em
700N em
=>y
35 N
=20em
 CHAPTER 6 53

WORK, ENERGY AND

POWER

6.1 SOME DEFINITIONS

Useful jobs such as lifting containers onto a ship can be done by cranes if
they have a source of supply of what we call energy. Cranes can lift their
loads by burning oil or petrol. People can do similar jobs, for example lift-
ing cases into the boot of a car. In order to do this, they must take in
energy by eating food. If we were unable to get this 'food energy', or
chemical energy as scientists call it, we could not work and we would grow
weaker and weaker.
Energy is the ability to do work
But what do scientists mean by 'work'? In everyday life the word 'work'
can mean a number of different things, but the scientist uses the word to
mean something that is done whenever an applied force causes movement.
Work is done whenever a force moves its point of application. For example,
if you lift a load of 1 N onto a shelf 1 m higher, you do a certain amount
of work. If you lift two weights of 1 N through 1 m or a weight of 2 N
through 1 m, you do twice as much work. Clearly the quantity of work
depends on both the load raised and the distance moved. We define 'work'
as:
Work = Force x Distance moved in the direction of the force (6.1)
To move 1 N through 1 m requires 1 newton-metre (N m) of work.
I N m is called a joule (1). Thus
1 J of work is done when 1 N moves through 1 m
in the direction of the force

6.2 VARIOUS FORMS OF ENERGY

We have already stated that oil and petrol can be used to supply energy to
a crane to enable it to lift a load. Other forms of energy could have been
54

used to work the crane. For example, electrical energy could drive an elec-
tric motor or heat energy could be used to drive a steam engine. In one of
the cases, electrical energy is being used to do work and, in the other case,
hellt energy is being used to do work.
There are many different kinds of energy. Many machines have been
devised which will convert one form of energy into another.

6.3 ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Batteries and dynamos produce electrical energy. This energy, possessed

by any electric current flowing in a circuit, is a very clean and convenient
form of energy. In a battery it is produced by chemical reactions (i.e.
chemical energy is converted into electrical energy). In a generating station
the initial source of energy which the dynamo converts into electrical
energy may be chemical energy (from coal or oil being burnt) or nuclear
energy (from uranium or other nuclear fuel) or potential energy (from
water behind a dam).
Electrical energy may be converted into heat energy in an electric fire,
or into light energy (together with some heat as well) in a bulb.
Batteries are a convenient way to store electrical energy in a portable
form, but the quantity of energy that can be stored in this way is small
(about 10 car batteries are needed to produce the energy equivalent to a
gallon of petrol).
Rechargeable batteries are more expensive than non-rechargeable bat-
teries, but because they can be recharged they are cheaper in the long run.
Their internal resistance (the resistance of the chemicals inside them) is
small and they are rapidly discharged and damaged if short circuited,
because the current which flows is large compared with the current when
in normal use. On the other hand a low internal resistance means that the
rechargeable battery is more efficient because less energy is lost as heat in
driving currents through the chemicals in the battery. Because of their low
internal resistance they can supply a lot of energy quickly. However, they
last less time before running down than ordinary batteries. Another dis-
advantage is that they run down by themselves when not in use, losing
about a third of their capacity in two months.
The capacity of a battery is expressed in ampere-hour (Ah). A battery
has a capacity of 100 Ah if it will, for example, supply 1 A for 100 h, 5 A
for 20 h or 10 A for 10 h.
 55

6.4 KINETIC ENERGY (KE)

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a moving body

Suppose a stone drops over the side of a cliff. As it falls, its kinetic energy
increases as it goes faster and faster. It has maximum kinetic energy just
before it hits the ground. When it hits the ground this energy is turned in-
to heat energy and some sound energy. The kinetic energy of a moving car
can demolish a brick wall. Hydroelectric power stations make use of the
kinetic energy of water running down mountain sides. The kinetic energy
of the water is used to drive a dynamo and thus produce electrical energy.
It may be shown mathematically that a body of mass m moving with
speed v has a kinetic energy given by the expression tmv 2 . Consider the
body of mass m initially at rest and acted on by a force F which causes it
to undergo an acceleration a. Suppose that it travels a distance s under this
acceleration in time t.
Then the work done by the force on the body is given by
Work (W) = Force x Distance = Fs
(from equation (6.1». But
F=rna
(from equation (4.4» and
s=taf
(from equation (4.8), so that
W =(rna) x dat 2 ) = tm(at)2
As the final velocity v is given by
v = at
(see equation (4.7)

W=tmv 2
The work done on the body is equal to the energy stored in the body in
this case, so that the kinetic energy of this body is given by the expression
Kinetic energy = tmv2 (6.2)

The units of kinetic energy are the same as the units of work. If m is in
kg and v is in mis, then tmv 2 is in joules (1).
56

6.5 POTENTIAL ENERGY (PE)

Potentilll energy is the energy that a body has by virtue of its position or
the state that it is in. When the weight in a grandfather clock is raised,
work has to be done on it and when it is at its highest point it has maxi-
mum potential energy. As the weight falls it loses potential energy and the
energy is used to drive the clock. The wound-up spring in a wristwatch has
potential energy because of the state it is in, that is, wound up rather than
unwound. Stretched elastic bands also have potential energy. So does a
bow when drawn ready to fire an arrow. As the bow is released it returns
to its undrawn shape, and its potential energy is converted into kinetic
energy of the arrow.
Fig. 6.1 shows two laboratory demonstrations in energy conversion. In
(a) a battery is being used to drive an electric motor which lifts the weight
giving it potential energy. When the battery is disconnected and the weight
is allowed to fall, it drives the motor round (the motor then behaves as a
generator), electrical energy is produced and this in turn is used to produce
light and heat energy in the bulb.
In Fig. 6.1 b another demonstration is illustrated. Work is done on the
elastic, twisting it up, by the person winding the handle. This energy is
stored as potential energy in the elastic. When the ratchet is released this
stored energy is supplied to the generator and the light bulb momentarily
flashes.
The change in gravitational potential energy associated with a change in
vertical height may be readily calculated. Suppose a stone has a mass m kg,
then it has a weight of mg N, where g is the force of gravity on each kilo-
gram (about 10 N/kg). When the stone is raised to a height h m above the
ground, the work done on it is given by
Force x Distance =mg (N) x h (m) =mgh (1) (6.3)
and this is the gain in potential energy when the stone is raised a height
h m. If the stone falls again, this potential energy is converted into kinetic
energy.

fig 6.1 two laboratory demonstrations of the conversion of energy. In

(a) energy from a battery drives a motor which lifts a weight,
giving it potential energy. This potential energy can then turn the
motor (as a generator) producing electrical energy to light a bulb.
In (b) work is done on the elastic and stored as potential energy.
The stored energy can again be converted into electrical energy to
light the bulb
 57

Change-over

Driving belt

(a)
58

The velocity of the stone when it reaches the ground again may be
calculated, for the loss in potential energy during the fall is equal to the
gain in kinetic energy. Using the usual symbols and equation (6.2) for the
kinetic energy, we therefore have
mgh =-tmv 2
so that
or v =v2gh

6.6 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

In all our discussion in this chapter or elsewhere we have assumed that,

when any work is done, the energy needed to do it has come from some-
where and that, after the work is done, the energy has been transformed
into some other form.
All experiments have been found to be consistent with the law of con-
servation of energy which states that:
Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be
converted from one form to another

6.7 HEAT ENERGY

If energy cannot be created or destroyed, and if more and more energy is

released on Earth by the burning of coal and oil, what becomes of this
energy? The answer is that it mostly becomes heat energy. For example, in
a motor car some of the chemical energy in the fuel becomes heat energy
in the exhaust gases. Only a small amount (less than 30%) becomes mech-
anical energy and a lot of this becomes heat energy in the bearings. When
the car is stopped by applying the brakes, most of the kinetic energy of
the car becomes heat energy in the wheels and brake shoes and this even-
tually gets lost to the atmosphere. Even while the car is going a10ng at
constant speed, energy is used up by the engine in driving the car through
the air, and this becomes increased kinetic energy of the air molecules past
which the car has gone (increased heat energy).
If this were the whole story, the air round the Earth would be gradually
heating up as time passed. This is not happening because energy is being
continually lost from the Earth's surface into space. The surface tempera-
ture of the Earth is determined almost solely by the energy radiated to the
Earth from the Sun. The Earth's average surface temperature just keeps
the total energy received from the Sun and the total energy radiated from
Earth into space in balance. The energy released on Earth by the burning
of various fuels, etc., makes very little difference to this balance.
 59

6.8 ENERGY CONVERSION IN A POWER STATION

The source of energy may be oil, coal or nuclear energy. The fuel produces
heat energy. The heat energy is used to produce steam at high pressure
which rotates the blades of a turbine. This drives a dynamo in which the
rotational kinetic energy is converted into electrical energy

6.9 POWER

What usually matters for any machine is not just how much work it can do,
but the rate at which it can do the work.
The power of a machine is the rate at which it does work
From this definition it follows that power is measured in joules per second
or watts, for
1 watt (W)::: 1 joule per second (J/s)
Like any other metric unit, the watt has multiples and sUbmultiples. One
kilowatt (kW) equals 1000 watts. One megawatt (MW) equals 1000000
watts.
When a 100 W light bulb is switched on it uses energy at a rate of
100 J/s. A power station might be rated at a maximum output of 500 MW.
This means that it could light up five million 100 W light bulbs simul-
taneously.
It is possible to calculate the power of the human body when running
up stairs (see question 8 for Chapter 6).

6.10 THE ENERGY CRISIS

Since the early 1970s there has been increasing talk of an energy crisis. It
has become generally realised that the Earth's known reserves of oil are
rapidly running out. If there had continued to be a 5% annual growth in
world demand for oil, as there was in the 1960s, and even if technological
advance had made possible a 100% recovery of oil from oil fields (rather
than about 50% as at present) then all known oil reserves would have been
used up by about 2050.
A world recession reduces demand and makes the oil last longer, but
there is still a need to reduce oil consumption as much as possible and to
search for alternative forms of energy where possible.

(a) Energy conservation

Various measures being taken include better insulation of buildings, so
that energy used for space heating in winter is not quickly lost to the out-
60

side. Car body shapes have been improved, so that less energy is wasted in
driving the car through the air and the petrol consumption is improved.
Where possible there is an attempt to move away from the use of oil to the
use of coal or some other longer-lasting fuel (hence the argument for the
increased electrification of the railways).

(b) Alternative forms of energy

The realisation that there is an energy crisis has spurred on the search for
alternative sources of energy. The principal sources used at present are oil,
coal, nuclear (fission), hydroelectric power and natural gas. Others which
could become more widely used are as follows:

(i) Solar power

Special panels act like a miniature greenhouse and can be used, for example,
to pre-heat the domestic hot water supply. Solar cells are used on space-
craft to convert wave energy from the Sun into electrical energy.

(ii) Wave power

Specially shaped devices have been designed which move as waves in the
sea pass them. The movement can be used to drive dynamos.

(iii) Tidal power

The enormous movement of water round the world's coasts between high
and low tides provides a very large source of energy. This has been tapped
at La Rance, France, where there is a tidal barrage with a peak output of
400 MW. The difference in depth of water on either side of the barrage is
used to drive a set of turbines. A proposed barrage across the Severn
Estuary would be some 40 times larger than this, producing about 10% of
the UK electrical energy demand, but at high capital cost.

(iv) Geothermal power

A few places in the world have the temperature near the surface sufficiently
high to produce steam which is then used to drive turbines and generate
electricity in the usual manner (e.g. the Geysers, California, USA).

(v) Wind power

The traditional windmill is well known and now uncommon. Newer types
of windmill are being developed which could be a significant source of
energy in exposed windy places.
 61

(vi) Fusion power

All existing nuclear power stations operate on the fission principle, the
source of energy being the fission of appropriate nuclei (e.g. uranium,
plutonium). Another type of nuclear reaction is the fusing together of
hydrogen nuclei to form helium nuclei, with an associated large release of
energy. This reaction takes place at an uncontrolled rate in a hydrogen
bomb explosion; scientists are trying to control the reaction in order to pro-
duce a fusion power station. If they are successful, we would have a virtually
unlimited source of energy because the world's oceans contain enough of
the right type of hydrogen to last for many thousand million years.

WORKED EXAMPLE

The brakes of a new experimental very fast train give the train a maximum
deceleration of 2 m/s2. The top speed of the train is 75 m/s and each axle
of the train carries a load of 15000 kg. (i) What is the retarding force on
each axle as the train decelerates at its maximum rate and (ii) what is the
initial power dissipated on each axle if the brakes are fully applied while
the train is travelling at top speed?
(i) F =rna (see section 4.4) Hence, F = 15000 kg x 2 m/s 2 = 30000 N
(ii) Power = work done per second (see section 6.9)
= Force x (distance moved in 1 s)
= 30000 N x 75 m = 2.25 x 10 6 J/s or 2.25 x 106 W
62 CHAPTER 7

MACHINES

7.1 INTRODUCTION

A machine is any device which enables mechanical work to be done more

easily. Very often this results in a small applied force being amplified into
a large one, for example when a screwdriver is used to 'lever' a lid off a tin.
Sometimes a small movement is amplified into a large one, as in a bicycle
when a small pedal movement results in a much larger movement of the
bicycle along a road.
F or any machine the principle of conservation of energy, stated in
Chapter 6 Section 6.6, must apply. The source of energy for a moving
bicycle is the chemical energy in the food eaten by the cyclist. Some of
this is converted into work done against friction (due to moving parts and
the air resistance) as the bicycle goes along.

7.2 AN EXPERIMENT WITH PULLEYS

The pulley system shown in Fig. 7.1 has a double pulley at the top and a
single pulley at the bottom. The load is attached to the bottom single
pulley. The effort required to raise the load takes the form of a weight
hanger with slotted weights. The effort weight is gradually increased until,
when give~ a small start, it will raise the load with constant velocity. The
effort required to raise different loads in this way may be investigated.
Table 7.1 shows a series of readings obtained in this way.
The third column in the table is the work done on the load, that is, the
potential energy gained by the load when it is raised I m (load (N) x 1 (m)).
The fourth column is the work done by the effort in raising the load.
Notice that when the load comes up I m, each of three strings supporting
the load shortens by I m and therefore the effort moves 3 m. Thus in this
machine the effort moves three times as far as the load. The fourth column
is therefore the effort multiplied by 3.
 63

fig 7.1 a simple pulley system

~ Effort

Table 7.1 results for the experiment illustrated in Fig. 7.1

Work done on load

in raising it 1 m Work done by effort Efficiency
Load Effort (i.e. PE gained by (J) Workout
=
(N) {N) load) (J) (= Effort (N) x 3 (m)) Work in

1.1 0.5 1.1 1.5 0.73

1.7 0.7 1.7 2.1 0.81
2.0 0.8 2.0 2.4 0.83
2.6 1.0 2.6 3.0 0.87
3.8 1.4 3.8 4.2 0.90
4.1 1.5 4.1 4.5 0.91
4.4 1.6 4.4 4.8 0.92
5.0 1.8 5.0 5.4 0.92
64

The efficiency of any machine is defined as follows:

. .
EfflClency = Work got out of machine (7.1)
Work put into machine
In this particular machine, the work got out of the machine is the potential
energy gained by the load, and the work put into the machine is the work
done by the effort. The results obtained for various loads are given in the
fifth column of the table.
Notice that the efficiency increases with the load. In the absence of
friction, and with a weightless bottom pulley, the efficiency would be

fig 7.2 this pulley wheel changes the direction of the applied force

Effort

fig 7.3 this pulley reduces the force needed to raise the load (with a
weightless bottom block and no friction the effort would be half
the load)
 65

100%. Because the effort always has to do work against friction and also
work in lifting the bottom pulley block as well as the load, the efficiency
of a pulley system is always less than 1.0, or less than 100%.
Of course the efficiency of any machine can never be more than 1.0,
for we can never get more work out of a machine than what we put into it.
Two further points can be made about the use of pulleys in machines.
Fig. 7.2 indicates that a pulley may be used to change the direction of a
force needed to move a load. In Fig. 7.3, neglecting the weight of the pulley
itself, the load is supported by two upward forces, one on each side of the
pulley wheel, each equal to half the load. The force needed to raise the
load is half the load (because there is a constant tension force throughout
the string equal to the effort force). Both these features find application in
machines using pulleys.

7.3 THE INCLINED PLANE

A very ancient device for raising loads (used by the Pharaohs) is the
inclined plane, still to be seen on building sites, in the winding roads up
mountain passes or the sloping planks sometimes used to get beer barrels
onto lorries. For the inclined plane

Efficiency = Work got out (see equation (7.1))

Work put in
Load x h
(see Fig. 7.4)
Effort x d

fig 7.4 the inclined plane

Effort

Load

7.4 LEVERS

One kind of lever has already been mentioned at the beginning of Chapter
5. In the screwdriver example, the load is the force needed to move the tin
lid and the effort is the force exerted on the screwdriver handle.
66

Different lever systems can have different relative places for the effort,
fulcrum and load, as Fig. 7.5 indicates.

fig 7.5 notice the relative positions of the effort, fulcrum and load in the
given examples

Effort

Eh
Effort

Load Fulcrum

(a) Pliers (b) Wheelbarrow (c) Tweezers

WORKED EXAMPLE

An electric motor draws energy from the mains at a rate of 600 W. If the
motor is 50% efficient how far can the motor raise a load of 45 N in 3 s?

Power available to raise load = 600 l/s x 50 = 300 l/s

100
Energy available in 3 s = 300 l/s x 3 s = 900 1
If h is the height the load is raised in 3 s, then work done on load

= 45 N x h = 900 1 :. h = 900 N m = 20 m
45 N
The motor can raise the load 20 m.
 67

PART II
HEAT AND MOLECULAR
STRUCTURE
European Space Agency's European communications satellite. Solar panels convert
the Sun's rays into electrical energy (courtesy British Aerospace)
 CHAPTER 8 69

HEAT ENERGY

8.1 INTRODUCTION

If you laze on a beach in the sunshine you are aware of the heat energy
from the Sun falling on your body as you get hotter and hotter! This
experience is an example of a basic physical fact; heat energy supplied to a
body causes its temperature to rise.

8.2 FRICTIONAL HEATING

There is another rather different way whereby a body may be heated. After
a car has come down a steep mountain pass, the brakes are often quite hot
to touch. We explain this by saying that the brakes have increased in tem-
perature, and therefore gained in heat energy, because the car has lost
potential energy (in coming down the mountain). The means by which the
potential energy is converted into heat energy is the frictional force within
the brakes. Whenever there are frictional forces between two surfaces as
one surface moves across the other, work must be done against the fric-
tional forces and heat energy will be produced as a result.

8.3 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

The ideas expressed in the previous section may be made more precise using
the apparatus illustrated in Fig. 8.l.1t consists of a copper cylinder clamped
between two felt pads. A thermometer can be inserted into a hole in the
middle of the cylinder. A wooden disc is fitted to the top of the cylinder
and string may be wound round the circumference of this. The end of the
string is attached to a spring balance so that when the spring balance is
pulled the copper cylinder rotates. The friction between the copper cylin-
der and the felt pads produces heat energy and this causes a rise in temper-
ature of the cylinder.
70

fig 8.1 apparatus to determine the specific heat capacity of copper

to top disc

Suppose 5 m of string are wound round the circumference of the disc

and the spring balance is pulled so that it shows a steady force of 40 N. It is
pulled with this steady force until it has moved 5 m. The temperature rise
of the copper cylinder may be determined by reading the thermometer at
the beginning and the end. A typical set of readings is shown below:
Mass of copper cylinder = 100 g = 0.1 kg
Rise in temperature = 5.1 °C
Distance string was pulled =5 m
Reading on spring balance = 40 N
Work done when 40 N moves through 5 m is 40 x 5 J = 200 J. Hence
200 J cause 0.1 kg of copper to rise in temperature 5.1°C

200 J cause 1.0 kg of copper to rise in temperature 5.1 ° C

0.1

200 J cause 1.0 kg of copper to rise in temperature 1.0°C

0.1 x5.1

The quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a

substance through 1°C is called the specific heat capacity of the substance

So this experiment gives a value for the specific heat capacity of copper

200 J/kg K* =392 J/kg K

0.1 x 5.1
*An interval of one degree on the kelvin scale of temperature (K) is the same as an
interval of one degree on the Celsius scale ("C). Thus 392 J/kgOC and 392 J/kg K are
identical (see also section 10.9 et seq.).
 71

The specific heat capacities of some substances are given in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1 specific heat capacities (J/kg K)

Aluminium 900 Ice 2100

Copper 380 Methylated spirit 2500
Mercury 140 Water 4200
Lead 140

8.4 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY BY AN ELECTRICAL METHOD

A Simpler, if less direct, method of determining specific heat capacity than

the one just described, is one in which the energy is supplied electrically.
An aluminium block has two holes bored in it, one in the centre in which a
small immersion heater fits and another one in which a thermometer fits.
The immersion heater is connected to a 12 volt a.c. supply via a joulemeter
(Fig. 8.2).
The joulemeter is read and the initial temperature recorded. Then the
electrical supply is switched on. When the temperature has risen about
5°C the supply is switched off and the joulemeter read again. A typical set
of readings is shown overleaf:

fig 8.2 apparatus for determining the specific heat capacity of aluminium
electrically
Joulemeter

Immersion heater

From 12 Va.c.
supply
72

Mass of aluminium = 1.0 kg

Initial temperature = 20.0°C
Initial joulemeter reading = 122001
Final joulemeter reading = 166501
Final temperature = 25.0°C
From these readings it follows that
1.0 kg of aluminium is heated through 5.0°C by
(16650 - 12200) 1 = 44501
1.0 kg of aluminium is heated through 1.0°C by

4450 1 = 8901
5.0
Hence the specific heat capacity of aluminium = 890 1/kg K.
The specific heat of a liquid may be determined if the aluminium block
is replaced by a can containing the liquid (see worked example at the end
of the chapter).
In very accurate experiments allowance must be made for the heat
taken up by the can and for the heat lost to the atmosphere.

8.5 A BASIC EQUATION

If a substance has a specific heat capacity of c 1/kg K, then

c 1 are required to raise 1 kg of the substance through 1 K
mc 1 are required to raise m kg of the substance through 1 K
mct 1 are required to raise m kg of the substance through t K
In words we say that
Quantity of _ Specific heat Change in
heat energy -
Mass x x (8.1)
capacity temperature
The quantity (mass x specific heat capacity) is called the heat capacity and
is the quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of a body through
1°C.

8.6 DIFFERENT SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES

Different substances have quite different specific heat capacities, as Table

8.1 makes clear. In particular, the value for water is much greater than
other values listed.
The high specific heat capacity of water affects the climate near large
lakes and near the Sea. On a sunny day the water takes much longer to
heat than the surrounding land and this means that in spring the tempera-
 73

ture near large masses of water tends to remain lower than in other parts
of the country. In autumn the temperature near large masses of water will
be higher than that in other parts of the country.

WORKED EXAMPLE

An immersion heater is connected to a joulemeter and the heater is immer-

sed in 500 g of a liquid. 6000 J of heat raise the temperature of the liquid
from 20°C to 23°C. What is the specific heat capacity of the liquid?
Assume all the heat given out by the immersion heater goes into the
liquid, then using equation (8.1) we have,
Quantity of Specific heat Change in
Mass x x
heat energy capacity temperature
Specific heat
6000J 0.5 kg x x 3°C
capacity
Specific heat 6000 J = 4000 Jj(kg K)
capacity 0.5 kg x 3°C
74 CHAPTER 9

EXPANSION

9.1 DEMONSTRATION OF EXPANSION

The experiments illustrated in Fig. 9.1 demonstrate the expansion of (a)

a rod, (b) water and (c) air, when each is heated. When the rod is heated,
the straw rotates. Now a small rotation of the needle results in a much
larger movement of the end of the straw. If the length of the rod increases
by an amount equal to the circumference of the needle, the straw will
make one complete rotation. Solids expand very little on heating compared
with liquids or gases and hence some arrangement like that shown in Fig.
9.la is needed to magnify the movement.
When the flask in Fig. 9.1 b is heated, the expansion of the water is seen
as the water moves up the vertical tube. Gases expand very much more
than liquids or solids when heated, and the warmth from the hand (Fig.
9.lc) is sufficient to cause the air to expand and bubble up through the
water.

9.2 LARGE FORCES INVOLVED IN THE EXPANSION OF A SOLID

The very large forces involved in the expansion of a solid may be demon-
strated using the apparatus shown in Fig. 9.2. The cast iron rod is inserted
through the hole as shown and the knurled nut tightened so as to push the
cast iron rod against the pillar at the opposite end of the apparatus. When
the iron bar is heated with a bunsen burner, it expands and the tremendous
force involved will snap the cast iron rod.

9.3 EXPANSION-FRIEND OR FOE?

The expansion of solids can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. The

expansion is put to useful purpose when metal tyres are 'shrunk' on to
wheels of railway locomotives. The tyres are fitted over the wheels when
 75

fig 9.1 (a) the expansion of the retort rod is small, but a small rotation
of the needle produces a large movement of the straw end. (b) The
liquid expands up the tube when heated. (e) Heat from the hand
is sufficient to expand the air so that it bubbles out of the tube

Retort stand

Straw

(a)

~Longtube

Flask
containing

1
water
of air

(b) (c)

hot and when they cool they grip the wheel very tightly. The gear ring on
the flywheel of a motor car engine is also fitted in this way.
Engineers must make allowance for expansion or else the large forces
involved could cause their constructions to collapse. For example, in the
Hammersmith flyover, London, the road surface is mounted on large
rollers so that the whole of the surface of the flyover is able to move when
76

fig 9.2 breaking a cast-iron rod by the force resulting from the expansion
of the iron bar

Pillars

the temperature changes. The metal grid which runs across the flyover near
the midpoint allows the two parts of the flyover to expand towards each
other without buckling (Fig. 9.3).

9.4 LINEAR EXPANSIVITY

The linear expansivity of a material is defined by the equation:

. . . Change in length
Lmear expanslvlty = (9.l)
Original length x Temperature change
The unit of linear expansivity is just 'per degree' because the two lengths
in the formula merely give a fraction without units. If the linear expansivity
is known, then it is possible to calculate the amount of expansion of a
given sample for a given rise in temperature, because all the quantities in
equation (9.l) will be known except the 'change in length'. Table 9.1 gives
some values of the linear expansivity for different materials.
To measure the expansivity for a sample in the form of a rod of material,
all that is necessary is to measure the rod's original length at room tempera-
ture (this temperature must be measured), pass steam over it to heat it and
measure the change in length as a result of the heating. A convenient
apparatus is illustrated in Fig. 9.4. The initial length of the rod must be
measured using a ruler. The micrometer screw gauge is used to measure the
increase in length of the rod when heated. It is screwed up until it makes
contact with the rod. The reading is recorded and the gauge unscrewed.
The rod is heated and the screw gauge reading taken at regular intervals
 77

fig 9.3 diagrams to indicate how expansion of a road bridge can be

allowed for. (This method is used at the Hammersmith f/yover,
London)

Roadway fixed to this pillar Direction of movement

Cylinder on
which expanding
roadway rolls

Fixed supporting
pillar

Detail of the expansion joint

on the roadway surface. This
allows for safe relative
movement of the two parts
of the roadway

Table 9.1 linear expansivities (per K)

Aluminium 0.000025 Platinum 0.000009

Brass 0.000019 Glass (ordinary) 0.000009
Copper 0.000017 Glass (Pyrex) 0.000003
Steel 0.000012 Invar 0.000001

until it is constant. The difference between the initial and final reading on
the screw gauge is the increase in the length of the rod. The linear ex pan-
sivity is calculated using equation (9.1).
78

fig 9.4 apparatus for measuring the linear expansion of a rod of material

Thermometer

Steam out
Micrometer
screw

Lagged steam jacket

9.5 BIMETALLIC STRIP

If two equal lengths of aluminium and iron are rivetted together to form a
compound bar, when they are heated the bar will curve as illustrated in
Fig. 9.5. The bar curves in the direction shown because aluminium expands
more than iron when both are heated the same amount. Which way would
the bar curve if the aluminium and iron were cooled below room tempera-
ture?
Fig. 9.6 illustrates the principle of an oven thermostat. When the bar is
heated it curves downwards and no longer makes contact with the nail. The

fig 9.5 a bimetallic strip (above) at a lower and (below) at a higher tem-
perature

Aluminium

( Iron

/Aluminium

~ Iron
 79

fig 9.6 apparatus to illustrate the principle of an electric oven thermostat.

When the bar temperature rises, the bar bends and the electric
circuit is broken at the nail. This circuit is similar to the heating
aircuit for the oven

Nail

Ammeter

circuit is broken and the ammeter will no longer show a current. A similar
device in an oven or an iron switches off the current when the element
reaches a certain temperature.

9.6 CALI BRA nON OF A MERCURY THERMOMETER

A mercury thermometer depends for its functioning on the fact that mer-
cury expands more than glass, when heated. The level of mercury in the
capillary tube above a bulb can therefore be used to indicate the tempera-
ture of the thermometer and its surroundings.
In order to calibrate the thermometer, two fixed points are required.
These are defined as follows:
The lower fixed point is the temperature at which pure ice melts
at nonnal atmospheric pressure
The upper fixed point is the temperature of steam above pure
boiling water at nonnal atmospheric pressure
On the Celsius scale, the lower fixed point is called 0° C and the
upper fixed point is called 100° C
80

To calibrate a thermometer it is first put into melting ice and a mark

made on the glass to show the position of the mercury. This mark is labelled
O°C. The thermometer is then put into steam above boiling water and a mark
made at the new position of the mercury. This mark is labelled 100°C. The
distance between the two marks is then divided into 100 equal divisions
and labelled.
A thermometer may be made more sensitive by having a large bulb and
a thin capillary tube.

9.7 THE CLINICAL THERMOMETER

Clinical thermometers are usually calibrated over the range 35°C to 43°C.
Human body temperature is normally about 37°C. The thermometer must
be quick acting, and in order to achieve this the bulb must be made very
thin and small. This means that the quantity of mercury used is small and
hence the capillary tube running up the length of the thermometer must
be very thin. The front of the capillary glass is shaped like a lens so as to
produce a magnified image of the mercury thread. The constriction (Fig.
9.7) ensures that when the thermometer is removed from the mouth the

fig 9.7 a clinical thermometer

\. f
Bulb

35 37 43
)

Constriction

mercury in the capillary tube does not run back into the bulb. The mercury
thread breaks at the constriction and the mercury in the capillary tube
above the constriction remains in position so that the mouth temperature
can still be read. A clinical thermometer is an example of a maximum
thermometer.

9.8 MOLECULAR EXPLANATION OF EXPANSION

In a solid the atoms and molecules are arranged in a regular pattern and held
together by strong forces. Each atom is vibrating to and fro about a fixed
point and when a solid is heated they vibrate more violently and jostle
each other a little further apart. This increased jostling and vibration helps
us to explain the expansion of a solid when it is heated.
 81

In the liquid state the molecules are a little further apart than in a solid
and they do not form such regular patterns. Nonetheless increased move-
ment at higher temperatures makes the molecules take up more room as
the liquid temperature is raised.
In the gaseous state the molecules are much further apart and the attrac-
tive forces between them are now so small that the molecules move about
freely. Gases exert a pressure on the walls of a container because the mole-
cules collide with the walls. When the gas is heated the molecules move
faster and hence the pr~ssure increases. We discuss this further in Chapter
10, Sections 10.2, 10.3 and 10.11.
 82 CHAPTER 10

PROPERTIES OF GASES
AND MOLECULAR
STRUCTURE
10.1 MOLECULAR THEORY OF MATTER

Many physical properties of matter can be discussed without regard to

how matter is made up. But for a more complete discussion the nature of
.matter must be considered. The generally accepted theory is that:
Matter consists o/myriads o/tiny particles called molecules
The theory enables a wide variety of facts to be linked together, and we
begin with the differences between solids, liquids and gases.

10.2 MOLECULES IN SOLIDS

In solids, molecules are arranged in regular patterns and held together by

strong attractive forces between them. Each molecule can vibrate about a
fixed point. Fig. 10.1 shows a simple model of a solid. The molecules are

fig 10.1 a simple model of a. solid has balls to represent molecules joined
by springs. The spring forces are equivalent to forces between the
molecules
 83

represented as balls joined together by springs, and if the model is shaken

the balls vibrate backwards and forwards.
If the temperature of a solid is raised, the molecules are given more
energy and (as this model suggests) they vibrate backwards and forwards
with greater amplitude.
Notice that besides the strong attractive forces between the molecules
there must also be repulsive forces which come into action if the molecules
come very close together. It is these short-range repulsive forces which
prevent a solid from being easily compressed.
In solids, the molecules are packed very tightly together, which is why
the density of a solid is higher than that of the same substance as a liquid
or gas.

10.3 MOLECULES IN LIQUIDS

When a solid is heated, the molecular vibrations become more violent. In

the end the increased vibrations cause the regular pattern of molecules to
be broken up. Each molecule becomes able to move away from its near
neighbours. The material is melting. It is because of the relative freedom of
movement of the molecules that a liquid can take the shape of its container.
The attractive forces between the molecules are not strong enough to
give the liquid a definite shape, but nevertheless they are strong enough to
hold the material together. The molecules are not free to wander off in any
direction; they are held within the body of the liquid. At any given tem-
perature the liquid therefore has a definite volume. This volume increases
as the temperature increases, because at higher temperatures the molecules
are moving about faster and do not fit into so small a volume as at lower
temperatures.
At any particular temperature the molecules do not all move in the
liquid at the same speed. The faster molecules are continually breaking
through the liquid surface but most of them are attracted back again
(rather as a stone thrown up into the air is attracted back to the surface by
the Earth's gravitational force). However, some of the faster-moving mole-
cules escape and this gives rise to the phenomenon known as t<lIaporation.
The average kinetic energy of the molecules is a measure of the tempera-
ture of the liquid; higher temperature means higher average kinetic energy.
When the faster-moving molecules in a group escape, the average energy of
those left is decreased and the temperature of the remainder has fallen.
You can feel this effect when you put ether or some other volatile liquid
-onto your hand. The faster-moving molecules escape and the remaining
liquid cools.
84

lOA THE SIZE OF A MOLECULE

Some estimate can be made of the size of an oil molecule by performing

the following experiment. Prepare a carefully cleaned water surface in, for
example, a flat tray. Lightly dust the surface with lycopodium powder.
Carefully let one drop of olive oil from a small dropper fall onto the centre
of the water surface. It will rapidly spread out over the water surface,
sweeping the powder in front of it.
Measure the diameter d of the oil drop before it leaves the dropper, by
holding it close up against a millimetre scale. Measure also the diameter D
of the patch of oil which it creates on the water surface.
The calculation of the thickness of the oil patch on the surface is as
follows:
Volume of oil drop =Volume of oil on surface of water
~ Volume of oil drop = (Area of oil patch on surface) x h
where h is the oil film thickness on the water.

h Play be calculated since the volume of the oil drop {~1T (~J} and
the area of the oil patch on the surface {7T (~) 2} are both known.

The value of h can therefore be calculated from the measurements. If we

assume that the oil film spreads until the oil layer is just one molecule
thick, the value of h gives an estimate of the size of one molecule. A typical
value is about 10-9 m, a number almost inconceivably small. A thousand
million such molecules placed side by side would only stretch for one
metre.

10.5 MOLECULES IN GASES

When sufficient heat energy has been added to a liquid, the molecules have
enough speed to be able to break free from each other. The liquid has then
become a gas. The molecules now move about freely throughout the com-
plete space of their container, occasionally bumping into each other or the
walls of the container. It is the collisions between the moving molecules
and the walls of the container which cause the familiar gas pressure.
Fig. 10.2 illustrates an apparatus which demonstrates this model of gas
behaviour. The rubber sheet at the bottom of the tube is agitated and
moves up and down. The ball bearings resting on it are thrown about and
hit the loose-fitting cardboard disc. The force of the balls hitting the disc
causes it to rise until it reaches an equilibrium position.
 85

fig 10.2 an apparatus to demonstrate simple gas behaviour, in which ball

bearings in random motion are the equivalent of gas molecules

Glass tube

Cardboard
.
J:.~.~*- disc
Ball bearings in
~.J----random motion

.. . -.
"te:~~--- Rubber sheet
Rod which vibrates
......
~--
up and down

This apparatus can demonstrate a further gas property (see Section

10.11).

10.6 DIFFUSION

If some toast starts to burn in the kitchen, the smell quickly travels through
the house. This indicates that the substance which smells moves from the
kitchen to other parts of the house. The movement of one kind of sub-
stance through a volume already occupied by something else is known as
diffusion.
The most easily seen demonstration of gaseous diffusion involves the
diffusion of bromine (a dense, brown-coloured gas) through air (much less
dense). The apparatus, illustrated in Fig. 10.3, consists of a vertically
mounted glass tube which near its base has a side tube containing a tap and
ending in a closed rubber tube containing a sealed capsule of bromine.
The rubber tubing between the tap and the clip may be squeezed to
break the capsule containing the bromine. When this happens, bromine is
released into the space and as soon as the tap is opened it passes into the
main tube. Its slow diffusion through the air already present in the tube
may then be followed. If the tube is first evacuated, then when the capsule
is broken the fast-moving bromine molecules immediately fill the tube.
86

fig 10.3 an apparatus to demonstrate gaseous diffusion. Bromine is intro-

duced from the side to the main tube and its colour gradually
spreads up the main tube

Clip

rubber tube

Diffusion can also occur in liquids. If some blue copper sulphate solu-
tion is put into a tall jar and some distilled water added carefully on top,
the blue colour will be subsequently found to spread gradually through
the distilled water section.
The process of diffusion in gases and liquids supports the molecular
theory of matter. Molecules of one gas may pass easily between the mole-
cules of any other gas, the rate of diffusion being limited by collisions
between the molecules which are occurring all the time. There is lessspace
between neighbouring molecules in a liquid, but the fact that molecules do
not have fixed neighbours means that rearrangement continually takes
place.

10.7 BROWNIAN MOVEMENT

More direct evidence for molecular movement in gases or liquids comes

from Brownian movement, named after Robert Brown who first saw the
effect early in the 19th century.
The movement may easily be demonstrated using smoke particles sus-
pended in air, illuminated from the side and viewed under a microscope
 87

(Fig. 10.4). The particles can be seen darting about in a random or irregular
manner as the rapidly moving gas molecules collide with them. Notice that
the motion of the molecules themselves cannot be seen. What is seen is the
consequence of the molecular bombardment of the smoke particles, which
only shows up if the smoke particles are small enough.

fig 10.4 light from a small line filament lamp is focused by a cylindrical
lens onto a region in the centre of the small cell containing some
smoke-filled air. This cell is viewed from above through a micro-
scope

Lens

10.8 BOYLE'S LAW FOR A GAS AT CONSTANT TEMPERATURE

We now consider various properties of gases. We begin with the relationship

between the pressure and volume of a fixed mass of air, using the apparatus
illustrated in Fig. 10.5. The volume of the trapped air is read on the
graduated scale behind the air column; the pressure is read on the Bourdon
gauge.
The pressure may be varied by using the pump and a series of readings
of pressure and the corresponding volume obtained. Calculation shows that
the pressure multiplied by the volume is always constant. Alternatively,
Fig. 10.6 is a graph of pressure plotted against l/volume, and this gives a
straight line graph through the origin. These results are consistent with
Boyle's law which may be stated as follows:
For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, the pressure
is inversely proportional to the volume
88

fig 10.5 Boyle s law apparatus. (Redrawn from material kindly supplied
by Philip Harris Ltd)

Scale to read
volume of air

Trapped air

Bourdon gauge

To pump

Oil reservoir

As an equation this result may be expressed as

P a. _1 for a fixed mass of

V
gas at constant
or
temperature
pv = constant (lO.l )

fig 10.6 the graph of p plotted against 1Iv for a gas at a fixed temperature

v
 89

Using simple laboratory apparatus it seems that most gases obey Boyle's
law exactly. Using more accurate apparatus, slight deviations from the law
may be detected. However, at low pressure the deviations become less and
in this situation the gas is said to be behaving like an ideal gas.

10.9 GAS PRESSURE LAW AT CONSTANT VOLUME

We have already stated that, when heated, gases expand more than liquids
or solids (Section 9.1). An apparatus which enables gas behaviour to be
explored in more detail is illustrated in Fig. 10.7. When the temperature of
the air in the flask rises, the pressure as indicated by the Bourdon gauge
goes up. Notice that the volume of the gas trapped in the flask and gauge
stays constant.

fig 10.7 an apparatus for measuring how the pressure of a fixed volume of
gas changes as the temperature changes

Thermometer

Flask
containing
air

The variation of pressure with temperature as measured by a mercury

thermometer is illustrated by the graph in Fig.10.8. Notice that the pres-
sure falls as the temperature falls, and if the gas did not liquefy it is reason-
able to suppose that the pressure would eventually become zero. This
would happen at about -273°C for all gases.
Using this fact we can construct a new temperature scale. The tempera-
ture at which the gas pressure becomes zero we call the absolute zero. (It is
called the absolute zero because we cannot imagine a situation in which
90

the gas pressure becomes negative.) This temperature is called zero degrees
Kelvin, abbreviated to 0 K. Temperature intervals on this new scale are
chosen in such a way that a rise of 10° C is the same as a rise of 10K. So
the ice point, O°C (being 273°C above the absolute zero), is 273 K.

fig 10.8 the results obtained with the apparatus of Fig. 10.7

Pressure in N/m 2

---- -- -- --
-273 o 100
Temperature in °c

In general, to convert a Celsius temperature into its Kelvin temperature

add 273 to the Celsius temperature. To convert a Kelvin temperature to its
Celsius temperature, subtract 273 from the Kelvin temperature. So
100°C = 100 + 273 = 373 K
and
100 K = 100 - 273 = -173°C
Looking again at Fig. 10.8, you may notice that if we alter the tempera-
ture scale to Kelvin temperatures, this is equivalent to moving the y-axis of
the graph so that it passes through the intercept of the graph on the x-axis.
Consequently the experimental results may now be expressed by the
relationship.
(10.2)
where p is the pressure, T is the absolute (Kelvin) temperature and v is
kept constant, for a fixed mass of gas.
In other words, for a rIXed mass of gas at constant volume, the pressure
is proportional to the absolute temperature. This statement is sometimes
known as the pressure law.
If we represent the initial state of the gas by the suffixes I, that is PI
and TI and the final state by the suffixes 2, then

PI = Pz (I 0.3)
Tl Tz
 91

10.10 CHARLES' LAW FOR A GAS AT CONSTANT PRESSURE

For the next experiment the apparatus which is used is illustrated in Fig.
10.9. It consists of a wide-bore capillary tube, open at one end, contain-

fig 10.9 an apparatus for measuring how the volume of a fixed mass of gas
at constant pressure changes as the temperature changes

Scale to measure
length of
trapped-air colum

Concentrated Water
sulphuric acid
index
Beaker of water
Thermometer
Trapped air

----------------
----

ing some air trapped by a short index of concentrated sulphuric acid. The
pressure on the trapped air remains at atmospheric pressure throughout the
experiment.
The sulphuric acid has two functions. It ensures that there is a fixed
mass of air trapped in the tube; it also ensures that it is dry, free from
water vapour which would modify its behaviour.
The capillary tube and a thermometer are immersed in water. The tem-
perature of the water (and therefore of the air) varies and the resulting
volume of the air is measured by measuring the length of the capillary tube
occupied by the air. The volume is proportional to the length of the tube
occupied by the air.
92

fig 10.10 the results obtained with the apparatus of Fig. 10.9

Volume

-273
....... ... -..... ...... ... ---
o 100 Temperature in °C

The variation of volume with temperature as measured in this manner is

illustrated in Fig. 10.10. Notice that the volume falls as the temperature
falls and that, if the air did not first liquefy, its volume would become zero
at about -273°C.
It is therefore convenient, as in the previous section, to express the
results of this experiment using absolute (i.e. Kelvin) temperatures rather
than Celsius temperatures. The results of the experiment indicate the
following.
For a rIXed mass of gas at constant pressure, the volume is
proportional to the absolute temperature.
This statement is sometimes known as Charles' law.
In symbols the result may be expressed as
vr:r.T (1004)
where v is the volume of the gas, Tthe absolute (Kelvin) temperature and
the pressure, p, is kept constant.
If we represent the initial state of the gas by the suffixes 1, that is VI
and Tl and the final state by the suffixes 2, then

(10.5)

10.11 mE KINETIC THEORY FOR GASES

In Section 10.5 we discussed the picture of a gas consisting of an assembly

of molecules in rapid and random motion. The picture is sometimes refer-
red to as the kinetic theory ofgases.
Is the theory consistent with Boyle's law? An approximate answer to
this comes from a more detailed use of the apparatus illustrated in Fig.
10.2. With the apparatus switched on, the disc settles out at an equilibrium
 93

position. The 'gas' volume may be measured in arbitrary units on a scale

alongside the tube. The gas 'pressure' may be altered by loading the disc
with extra mass. When that happens the volume of the 'gas' of ball bear-
ings also changes.
It is found that as the mass on the disc is changed, so that the effective
pressure changes, the volume occupied by the ball bearings in equilibrium
also changes in such a way that the product pv remains approximately
constant. This model therefore shows that the moving ball bearings approxi-
mately obey the Boyle's law equation. Boyle's law is, in fact, in accord
with the kinetic theory.
This may be seen by the following alternative argument. The pressure
which a gas exerts on the walls of its container is caused by the impact of the
gas molecules on the walls. Now if the volume of a gas is halved then there
will be twice as many molecules per unit volume. There will therefore be
twice as many impacts per second on unit area of the container walls, so
that the pressure will have doubled. Hence, when the volume is halved the
pressure will double and Boyle's law is obeyed.
When the temperature of the gas is increased, the molecules gain energy
and move faster. If there is a fixed volume this increase in speed will cause
an increase in the number of impacts per second and also a greater force
on the wall for each impact. Consequently, the gas pressure will go up. This
is in agreement with the experimental results obtained with the apparatus
of Fig. 10.7.
The kinetic theory of gases is, in fact, consistent with the gas properties
described in this chapter. At a more advanced level, equations 10.3 and 10.5
can be derived by applying the laws of motion to simple model molecules,
and this affords a very important reason for belief in the theory.
Just as an increase in temperature means an increase in the average
molecular speed, so a decrease in temperature means a decrease in the
average speed. The absolute zero therefore represents the temperature at
which the molecules have their lowest possible kinetic energy. On the other
hand there seems to be no upper limit of temperature. The more kinetic
energy the molecules have the higher is the temperature necessary to d-es-
cribe their condition.

WORKED EXAMPLES

1. A bubble of air doubles its volume in rising from the bottom to the
surface of a lake. If the atmospheric pressure is 76 cm Hg and the density
of mercury is 13600 kg/m 3 what is the depth of the lake? Assume the
temperature at the bottom and the surface of the lake are the same. The
density of water is 1000 kg/m 3 .
94

As the bubble rises its volume doubles, therefore the pressure of air inside
it has halved (Boyle's law). So the pressure at the bottom of the lake is
twice its value at the surface. Therefore the added pressure caused by the
water is equal to the pressure of 76 cm Hg. Using equation 2.2 (section 2.3)

(10 x h x P)water = (10 x h x P)mercury

:. (h x P)water =(h x P)mercury
:. 1000 kg/m 3 x hwater == 13 600 kg/m 3 x 0.76 m

. ~ == 13600 kg/m 3 x 0.76 m == 10.3 m

.. water 1000 kg/m3

:. Depth of lake == 10.3 m

2. A gas has a volume of 100 cm" at O°c. The pressure is kept constant
and the temperature is changed to 1000 e. What is the new volume?
We use equation 10.5

VI V2

TI T2
Don't forget that in this equation T must be in Kelvin. (See sections 10.9
and 10.10). We have
Vl == 100 cm 3
Tl == 273 K
100 cm 3 Vz
Hence - - - - - - -
273 K 373 K
100 cm3 x 373 K
V2 ==
273 K

== 137 cm 3
 CHAPTER 11 95

THE TRANSFER OF HEAT

ENERGY

11.1 INTRODUCTION

We are all familiar with the fact that heat energy can travel from one place
to another. We can, for example, on sll1tny days feel the warmth from the
Sun's rays which have travelled millions of miles across space. In the winter,
houses are kept warm by heat energy which travels from fires and radiators
to other parts of the buildings.
This chapter deals with the three different methods by which heat
energy can travel from place to place, namely by conduction, convection
or radiation.

11.2 CONDUCTION

Conduction is the flow of heat energy through a body which is not at a

uniform temperature, the energy flowing from places of higher
temperature to places of lower temperature without the
body as a whole moving

The flow of heat energy through the bottom of a saucepan (from the
outside heat source to the inside contents) and the flow of heat energy
along a teaspoon, one end of which is in a hot liquid, are examples of con-
duction.
Some substances conduct heat energy better than others. Fig. 11.1
shows an experiment to demonstrate this. The rods are made of different
materials and one end of each rod is heated in a bunsen flame. After a little
while, if you touch the cold end of each rod and slide your finger carefully
towards the hot end. you will discover that some of the rods are conduct-
ing heat energy to their cold ends much better than are others.
Saucepans are made of metal because metals are good conductors of
heat energy. Handles of cooking utensils, on the other hand, are made
96

fig 11.1 an experiment to compare the conductivities of different materials

from bad conductors so that they are not too hot to hold when the utensil
is being used.
The experiment in Fig. 11.2 demonstrates that water is a bad conductor
of heat energy. The ice is held in position at the bottom of the tube by a
piece of wire gauze. The water at the top can be made to boil while ice
remains at the bottom of the tube. The good conductivity of copper may
be demonstrated by using a copper gauze as illustrated in Fig. 11.3. The
gauze is held above the bunsen burner. If the gas is ignited above the gauze,
the gas below the gauze does not ignite. This is because the gauze is a good

fig 11.2 ice remains at the bottom of the test tube while water boils at the
top, showing that water is a bad conductor of heat

Ice
 97

fig 11.3 if the gas is lit above the gauze, the gas below the gauze does not
ignite

A ~ Gauze
----{~\_----

conductor of heat energy and quickly conducts energy away from the
flame. The gas below the gauze therefore does not get hot enough to ignite.
Air is a bad conductor of heat energy and it is because of this property
that cellular blankets, string vests, and fur coats are effective in keeping
people warm. They all contain trapped air and are therefore bad conductors
of heat energy.

11.3 AN EXPLANATION OF CONDUCTION

The conduction of heat energy along a rod from the hotter to the colder
end can be explained using the molecular picture of matter discussed in
the previous chapter. The molecules at the hot end are vibrating most
vigorously and jostling the other molecules near to them. The heat energy
is thus passed along the rod by interaction between the more vigorous
molecules and the less vigorous ones. Metals are good conductors of heat
energy (as well as being good conductors of electricity) for another quite
different reason. Any metal contains large numbers of 'free' electrons which
wander about within the metal rather like gas molecules inside a gas con-
tainer. At the hot end of a rod of metaL the electrons have a higher kinetic
energy than at the cold end. This kinetic energy is directly transferred to
the colder parts of the metal rod. Because of the very large number o'f free
electrons in a metal, and because of the high speed with which they move.
heat energy is conducted very rapidly within a metal.

II A CONVECTION

Convection is the transfer of heat energy by the circulation of a fluid

due to temperature differences within it
98

Figs 11.4, 11.5 and 11.6 illustrate experiments which demonstrate con-
vection.
In Fig. 11.4 a tiny crystal of potassium permanganate is dropped to the
bottom of a flask filled with water. When the bottom of the flask is gently
heated, purple streaks are seen to rise from the slowly dissolving crystal.
The upward movement of the streaks in the liquid indicates that the warm,
less dense, water at the centre of the flask is rising. The colder, more dense,
water moves downwards near the outside of the flask to take the place of
the rising hotter water.

fig 11.4 the arrows indicate the direction of the convection currents

fig 11.5 the arrows indicate the direction of the convection currents

"" ( sm~~d:ing rope

\, C))
(-:\1 ~\
l ~~--.,~(/)
~-~

The apparatus shown in Fig. 11.5 consists of a closed box with two
chimneys. A burning candle is placed under one chimney and a piece of
smouldering rope held over the other. The movement of the smoke shows
 99

fig 11.6 with the T-piece present, convection currents, indicated by the
arrows, keep the candle alight. With the T-piece removed there is
no circulation of fresh air past the flame and the candle goes out

that the hot air is rising above the candle and cold air is coming down from
the other chimney to take its place.
A very striking demonstration of convection currents in air may be given
by using the apparatus shown in Fig. 11.6. In the absence of the T-piece,
the burning candle goes out because there is not enough oxygen supply to
keep it burning. When the T-piece is in place, the candle continues to burn
because of the convection currents set up. Why do you think it works
better if the T-piece is positioned so that it is not central but just to one
side of the flame?

11.5 RADIATION

The heat energy which reaches us from the Sun cannot have reached us by
either convection or conduction. Neither convection nor conduction can
take place in a vacuum, and yet the heat from the Sun does reach the
Earth. This third method by which heat energy can be transferred from one
place to another is called radiation. If heat energy is manifested as molecu-
lar motion, it is clear that what travels through the space between the Sun
and the Earth is not heat. It must be some form of energy since it becomes
heat energy on reaching the Earth. The fact that, during an eclipse of the
Sun, light and heat reaching the Earth are both cut off at the same time
suggests that the heat energy which comes to us from the Sun is an electro-
magnetic radiation similar to light. This is in fact the case, so that
Radiation is the transfer of heat energy from one place to another
by means of electromagnetic waves
100

11.6 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF RADIATION

Most people will at some stage have set fire to a piece of paper by using a
magnifying glass to focus the Sun's rays on the paper. The radiation and
the light are both refracted by the lens.
Fig. 11.7 shows how the radiation from a heating element may be focused
by concave reflectors onto the head of a match. The heat energy is concen-
trated at the match head sufficiently for the match to light.

fig 11.7 the match is placed at the focus of the right-hand mirror and the
radiation from the electric heater is concentrated enough to light
the match
Concave
mirrors

11.7 EMITTERS AND ABSORBERS OF RADIATION

The emission of radiation may be investigated using the apparatus shown in

Fig. 11.8. A copper sheet which is shiny on one side and blackened on the
other is heated with bunsen burners. The sheet is then turned into a vertical
plane and by placing the face first on one side of the sheet and then on the
other the radiation emitted by the blackened and shiny surfaces can be com-
pared. The blackened surface is a much better emitter of radiation than
the shiny surface.
The absorption of radiation may be investigated by using a heating ele-
ment and a screen with a hole at its centre, as shown in Fig. 11.9. The
absorption properties of glass may be investigated by putting your cheek
close to the hole on the opposite side to the heating element and interpos-
ing a sheet of glass between the hole and your cheek.
Next hold the back of your hand near to the hole and repeat this with a
very thin sheet of aluminium foil on the back of your hand. The aluminium
foil may be fIxed to the back of the hand by licking the hand before placing
it on the foil. Finally coat the foil with a mixture of lampblack and
methylated spirit and again hold your hand near to the hole. By these and
similar experiments the following three conclusions may be drawn:
 101

fig 11.8 the copper sheet is polished on one side and blackened on the
other. The face can sense which side radiates more energy

Blackened side
Pol ished side

fig 11.9 when the glass sheet is interposed between the heater and the
cheek, the face temperature immediately goes down
102

Shiny or white surfaces are not as good absorbers of radiation

as black or dark surfaces
Polished or smooth surfaces are not as good absorbers of radiation
as rough surfaces
Black, rough surfaces are good emitters of radiation but light,
shiny surfaces are poor emitters of radiation

11.8 THE VACUUM FLASK

A vacuum (Thermos) flask is illustrated in Fig. 11.10. It may be used to

keep hot liquids hot or cold liquids cold, because it is designed to reduce
to a minimum the heat energy ~ntering or leaving the flask. The container
consists of a double-walled glass vessel with a vacuum between the walls.

fig 11.10 a vacuum (Thermos) flask

Cork

Metal
case
Vacuum

Felt pad

Felt pad

Since conduction and convection cannot take place in a vacuum, heat

energy cannot be lost from the container walls by either of these means.
In order to reduce the heat lost by radiation the inside surfaces of the glass
are silvered. We have already seen that shiny surfaces are bad emitters of
radiation, so that the radiation from the flask is reduced. The small amount
of radiation which is emitted is reflected back by the silvering on the other
surface. The main way whereby heat is lost from such a flask is by conduc-
tion up the walls and conduction through the cork.

11.9 HEAT PROBLEMS IN SUPERSONIC AIRCRAFT AND

SATELLITES

The surfaces of fast-moving supersonic aircraft become heated as a result

of friction with the atmosphere. Consequently, heat energy is conducted
 103

from the outside to the passenger cabin in Concorde, and without some
cooling system the cabin temperature would become too high. The fresh
air for use in the cabin during flight is taken from the outside air through
which the aircraft is flying. This is compressed and cooled to a suitable
temperature by allowing its excess heat energy to warm up some of the
fuel in the fuel tanks. (The fuel temperature therefore gradually rises, from
about 15°C to about 75°C during supersonic cruise.)
When the Apollo space capsule re-entered the Earth's atmosphere after
the· journey from the Moon, the frictional forces caused a tremendous in-
crease in the surface temperature of the capsule. The blunt end of the
capsule (the back end in the original launch position) was covered with a
badly conducting material which was a honeycombed glass resin construc-
tion, called the heat shield. It was important that when the capsule re-
entered the atmosphere the heat shield was pointing forwards, so that it
and not the unprotected parts of the capsule got hot. The intense heat
generated made the resin melt and the liquid resin dripped off and was
swept away, taking its heat energy with it.
The Space Shuttle experiences similar heating problems on re-entry to
the Earth's atmosphere. In this case the 'heat shield' consists of myriads of
special low-conductivity tiles, which in the first Shuttle caused problems
because they were not stuck on very successfully. On re-entry they per-
form the same function as the heat shield on the earlier capsules in that
they protect the astronauts and the equipment from the intense frictional
heating.

11.10 THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

The radiation from the Sun and other very hot bodies contains short-wave-
length infra-red radiation as well as visible and ultra-violet radiation.
Radiation from less hot bodies, a hearth fire for example, is mainly infra-
red radiation of longer wavelength. Glass absorbs long-wavelength infra-red
radiation but short-wavelength infra-red radiation passes through it. In a
greenhouse the shorter-wavelength infra-red radiation and visible light
from the Sun pass through the glass and are absorbed by the soil and the
plants, raising the temperature. The infra-red radiation emitted by the soil
and plants is of longer wavelength and does not pass through the glass. It is
trapped in the greenhouse and the temperature of the greenhouse and con-
tents therefore rises.

11.11 HOT WATER AND CENTRAL HEATING

Fig. 11.11 shows the principle of a domestic hot water system. A convec-
tion current of hot water rises up the pipe leaving the top of the boiler. It
104

fig 11.11 a simple domestic hot water supply system

Expansion
pipe Main

11
suppry
l'i:···:··:\o:·
L I
::::~

Wash if
basin li
~

-"
r-.=
c.=..J
Bath

"X.-
r:.=
~
Sink Hot water
tank

t Boiler
~ Water flow

~ .... Circulation pump

passes through a spiral (the heat exchange coil) in the hot water tank, and
heats the water in the tank. It returns at a lower temperature to the bot-
tom of the boiler. Notice that the pipe going to the taps leaves from the
top of the hot water tank and the cold water from the supply tank enters
at the bottom of the hot water tank.
If a central heating system is included, a separate pipe leaves the top of
the boiler taking water to the radiators and returns to the bottom of the
boiler.
There are two main ways in which heat loss to the atmosphere from
houses can be reduced . These are by filling cavity walls with a foam and
putting an insulating material like fibreglass in the roof. Foam and fibre-
glass are bad conductors of heat and their presence minimises heat loss by
convection currents in the air. Double glazing is also sometimes used. A
layer of air is trapped between the two layers of glass and the poor con-
ductivity of air minimises the heat loss.
 CHAPTER 12 105

CHANGE OF STATE

12.1 LATENT HEAT

If some ice cubes from a refrigerator are put in a beaker of water and the
mixture stirred, the temperature will be O°C. If the beaker is now put on a
tripod and heated very gently with a bunsen burner it will be found that the
temperature remains at O°C until all the ice has melted. The temperature
of the water then begins to rise and goes on rising until it reaches 100°C.
Heat energy is still being supplied to the beaker from the bunsen burner
but the temperature remains steady at lOO°C (Fig. 12.1). What is happen-
ing to the heat energy being supplied by the bunsen burner when the tem-
perature remains at lOO°C?
Before the temperature reached 100° C the heat energy was raising the

fig 12.1 graph showing temperature against time for a beaker of heated
ice/water

Temperature
in °c

100

a
Time
All ice Boiling
melted starts
106

temperature of the water. When it reaches 100°C the heat energy is chang-
ing the state of the water; water is changing to steam and heat energy is
needed to do this. The heat energy needed to change the state of a sub-
stance, that is to change it from solid to liquid or liquid to vapour, is
known as the latent heat.
In order to change from the liquid state to the vapour state, the mole-
cules must be given more energy so that they can break away from the
attractive forces between them. The energy needed to do this is supplied
by the heat energy. When the water is at 100°C, the further heat energy
supplied to the water gives the molecules more kinetic energy, they move
faster and can escape into the atmosphere.
The quantity of heat energy needed to change the state of 1 kg of a
substance without change in temperature is known as the specific
latent heat of the substance. It is measured in J/kg
It follows from this definition that the
Quantity of = Mass x
Specific latent
(12.1)
heat energy heat
Some typical values of specific latent heats are given in Table 12.1.
The latent heat of fusion is the heat energy needed to change a solid into
a liquid, and the latent heat of vaporisation is the heat energy needed to
change a liquid into a vapour.
Table 12.1 specific latent heats (J/kg)

Fusion Vaporisation

Lead 21000 Ether 370000

Copper 181000 Sulphur 1510000
Ice 336000 Water 2260000

12.2 MEASURING SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT

The specific latent heat of vaporisation of water may be determined by

boiling water in a beaker. A convenient way of boiling the water is to put
an immersion heater in it. The energy supplied by the immersion heater
may be determined by connecting the heater to the electrical supply via a
joulemeter.
The experiment is illustrated in Fig. 12.2. The mass of water boiled off
by a certain quantity of energy is determined using the balance. A typical
set of readings is shown below.
 107

fig 12.2 apparatus with which to measure the specific latent heat of
vaporisation of water

To supply and Joulemeter

Immersion
heater
Masses
Metal can

Balance to determine mass

of liquid boiled away

Readings
Mass of water boiled away = 200g
Heat supplied by immersion heater = 4.6 X 10 5 J
Calculation
0.2 kg water are boiled away by 4.6 X 10 5 J

1.0 kg water is boiled away by 4.6 X 10 5 J

0.2
= 2.3 x 106 J
Specific latent heat of vaporisation
of water = 2.3 X 106 J/kg

12.3 WHEN A LIQUID EVAPORATES, IT COOLS

In the experiment illustrated in Fig. 12.3, some ether is placed in a metal

crucible and the metal crucible placed on a drop of water which is on a
wooden block. When air is blown through the ether, the ether evaporates
and the water freezes. The evaporating liquid has taken up its latent heat
and this heat was supplied by the water. Heat energy is thus withdrawn
from the water and the water freezes.
We may use the molecular theory of matter to explain the cooling (see
section 10.3). The average energy of molecules in a liquid is a measure of
the temperature of the liqUid. If the average energy of the molecules de-
creases, the temperature falls. When air is blown through the ether, this
108

fig 12.3 the cooling caused by evaporating the ether can freeze the water

Air

/
\1:!1'Z~I.---- Ether

helps the faster-moving molecules to escape from the surface and the
average kinetic energy of the remaining molecules is thus decreased. The
temperature therefore falls.
If a drop of ether or petrol is placed on the hand, it immediately feels
very cool. This is because the ether or petrol evaporates and the latent heat
needed for it to evaporate is extracted from the hand.

12.4 DISTINCTION BETWEEN EVAPORATION AND BOILING

The main differences between boiling and evaporation are shown in Table
12.2.
When boiling is taking place, bubbles of vapour are forming in the
liquid. Until the boiling point is reached, any bubbles which form quickly
collapse because the pressure of the atmosphere is greater than the pres-
sure of the vapour. As the temperature rises, the pressure of the vapour in
the bubbles increases, and when it is equal to the atmospheric pressure the
bubbles can grow. Boiling is then taking place.
Table 12.2 differences between boiling and evaporation

Boiling Evaporation
Takes place at a definite Takes place at any
temperature called the temperature
boiling point
Takes place in the body of the Takes place only at
liquid. Bubbles can be seen the surface
forming throughout the liquid
 109

Up a mountain, where the atmospheric pressure is lower than at sea level

of the Earth, the boiling point of a liquid is lower. The vapour pressure
reaches the atmospheric pressure at a lower temperature and hence the
liquid boils at a lower temperature. An experiment to illustrate this is
described in Section 12.8.

12.5 THE BODY'S COOLING SYSTEM AND REFRIGERATORS

The evaporation of perspiration from the body helps to cool the body and
keep it at a constant temperature. This evaporation prevents overheating
of the body which, if it occurred, could cause irreversible damage and even
death. Evaporation of water (or rather, the watery liquid secreted by the
sweat glands) from the surface of the body is affected by the surrounding
temperature, humidity (that is, the amount of water vapour in the atmos-
phere) and air currents. At an air temperature of 21°C a man can lose up
to 25% of his heat energy loss by evaporation. (The great majority of his
heat loss, up to 60%, will be by radiation.)
The ice compartment of a refrigerator is kept cool by the evaporation
of a liqUid contained in a special closed circuit in the refrigerator. The pro-
cess is illustrated in Fig. 12.4. The compressor reduces the pressure on the
left-hand side of the expansion valve and the liquid evaporates, taking up

fig 12.4 the principle of operation of the refrigerator. By evaporation and

condensation round a cycle the refrigerant extracts heat energy
from the insulated compartment and delivers it to the outside

Insulation Ice

Narrow
expansion jet
(expan;ion valve)
~~~'::;"':;:;::"r:l': High·pressure
:· ... ~side
..,::
Evaporator
(liquid takes up
its Iatent heat)
Condenser
(vapour liquefies
and gives out
its latent heat)

Compressor
110

its latent heat from its surroundings. Heat energy is thus extracted from
the refrigerator. On the opposite side of the compressor, the liquid is com-
pressed and condenses, giving out its latent heat. The condenser is outside
the refrigerator and thus this heat, having been extracted from the refrig-
erator, is passed into the surrounding atmosphere.

12.6 AN INCREASE IN PRESSURE LOWERS THE MELTING POINT

In the experiment illustrated in Fig. 12.5 a thin wire with heavy weights
on each end is hung over a piece of ice. The wire exerts a large pressure on
the ice and gradually passes through the block, yet the block still remains a

fig 12.5 the wire gradually cuts its way through the ice block, which re-
freezes after the wire has passed

Wire Ice block

Weights

solid piece of ice. Why is this? The reason is that the large pressure on the
ice lowers the melting point and the ice melts. Once the wire has passed
through, the pressure on the water now above the wire is released so this
water is now at a temperature below its freezing point and again freezes.
The re-freezing is known as regelation. The good conductivity of the metal
wire plays an important part in the process. When the water above the wire
freezes, it gives out its latent heat. This heat is conducted through the wire
and melts the ice below.

12.7 THE BINDING OF SNOWBALLS

There are occasions when the making of snowballs is difficult because the
snow does not 'bind'. It is sometimes said that compressing the snow lowers
the freezing point so that the snow melts, freezing again when the pressure
is released. In fact the pressure needed to melt snow at _1°C is over 100
 111

atmospheres and it is unlikely that this pressure could be produced by the

hands. The more likely explanation is that when snowflakes are spiky they
easily interlock when they are compressed. Older snowflakes become more
rounded and the formation of a snowball is consequently more difficult.
Snowballs are easily formed on a day when the snow is beginning to melt
because of the binding action of the water (compare the binding of damp
and dry snow).
Skating is another example where melting and freezing are important.
When an ice skate runs across an ice surface there is friction between the
skate and the ice. This results in frictional heating and melting of a thin
layer of ice just below the skates. There is therefore a lubricating layer of
water for the skates to glide over.

12.8 A DECREASE IN PRESSURE LOWERS THE BOILING POINT

The experiment illustrated in Fig. 12.6 shows the decrease in boiling point
as the pressure is lowered. The water in the flask is boiled and the clip

fig 12.6 this experiment demonstrates that water can boil at a tempera-
ture considerably below 100° C

Clip

Thermometer
112

closed to seal the flask. The flask is then inverted under a (cold) tap. When
the tap is turned on, the temperature of the flask and contents decreases
and the water begins to boil. In this way water may be made to boil at a
temperature as low as 30°C. How does pouring cold water onto a flask
cause the water in it to boil? The answer is that when the water was boiled
initially, most of the air in the flask was driven out by the steam. When the
clip was closed the flask was therefore full of water and steam. When cold
water is poured onto the flask, the steam condenses and the pressure inside
the flask therefore falls. At a lower pressure the water boils at a lower tem-
perature; so it boils in the flask.

12.9 PRESSURE COOKERS

Pressure cookers make use of the fact that with an increase in pressure
water boils at a higher temperature. In many pressure cookers, the pressure
inside can have a maximum value of about 2 atmospheres and at this pres-
sure the boiling point of water is about 120°C. At this temperature the
chemical processes known as cooking take place considerably faster than
they do at 100°C.

WORKED EXAMPLE

A test-tube containing 4 g of ether is in a beaker of water at O°C. Air at

O°C is blown through the ether until it has all evaporated. The ice formed
on the test-tube has a mass of 4.2 g. Calculate the latent heat of evapora-
tion of ether (latent heat of fusion of ice is 3.3 x 105 J /kg).
Let L be the latent heat of evaporation of ether.
Heat needed to Heat given by water
==
evaporate ether turning to ice
0.004 kg xL == 0.0042 kg x 3.3 X 10 5 J/kg
(see section 12.1)
L 3.5 X 10 5 J/kg
 113

PART III
WAVE MOTION, LIGHT AND
SOUND
Approach and runway lights as seen from the flight deck of an aircraft (courtesy
British Aerospace)
 CHAPTER 13 115

WAVES

13.1 INTRODUCTION

A wave is a travelling disturbance which carries energy away from its source.
Some waves, such as light waves and radio waves, can pass through an
evacuated or empty space. In this way we receive energy from the Sun and
other more distant stars.
Sound waves do not pass through a vacuum. Like some other waves,
sound needs a medium or substance through which to travel; and it readily
passes through many substances.
When waves pass through matter, the medium itself does not flow along
in the direction of the waves. Water waves on a swimming pool, for example,
do not cause the water to pile up at one edge of the pool; and a floating
stick only bobs up and down as ripples flow past it on the water's surface.
The stick does not move along with the waves.

13.2 DESCRIBING WAVES

(a) Frequency
When the term frequency is applied to waves, it refers to the rate at which
they are produced by their source.

The frequency of a source is the number of waves it emits every second

The term is also used to refer to the number of waves reaching an observer
every second. It is measured in hertz (Hz) or cycles per second. One par-
ticular radio transmitter for example, broadcasts by emitting 200000
radio waves per second; so its frequency is 200 kHz. Radio receivers pick
up the transmission, provided they are tuned to this frequency. The fre-
quency of waves does not change as they travel away from their transmitter.
It is an unchanging quality retained by the waves as they travel, even when
they pass through different substances.
116

(b) Wavelength
Fig. 13.1 shows a cross-section of water waves made up of alternate crests
and troughs flowing from left to right in the figure.
The wavelength, A, of the waves is the distance between consecutive
, crests or consecutive troughs
Water waves can have wavelengths as small as a few millimetres or as
large as a hundred metres or more. The wavelength of waves can change as

fig 13.1 the amplitude a and wavelength A of transverse water waves are
shown. The vertical arrows show by how much the water's
surface is displaced

~--A--~ Direction of

~---A---...j

they flow from one medium to another (Section 13.9(b)); but where the
waves travel at a constant speed, their wavelength does not change.

(c) Amplitude
The term amplitude is used to describe the size of a wave. It is represented
by the letter a in Fig. 13.1 where it measures the height of a crest or the
depth of a trough from the average or undisturbed level of the water.
The amplitude of waves is their biggest displacement from the
undisturbed level
Waves at sea have sometimes been described as four metres high, as
their crests stood four metres above the level of their troughs. The ampli-
tude of these waves would have been only two metres however. Can you
see why?

13.3 TRANSVERSE WAVES

The disturbances in transverse waves take the fonn of displacements

perpendicular to the direction in which the waves travel
In Fig. 13.1, for example, the surface of the water is displaced vertically
as shown by the arrows; but the crests and troughs travel horizontally,
that is, in a perpendicular direction. These are transverse waves; and so are
 117

most of the waves we come across. Radio waves and light are typical trans-
verse waves. The sideways ripples that can be made on a stretched rope are
transverse waves. The displacement of the rope may be up and down, or
left and right, or some combination of the two. When these displacements
are limited to just one line, such as up and down for example, the waves
are said to be polarised. All transverse waves, including light can be polari-
sed, and it is well-known that the polarisers in polaroid sunglasses reduce
the intensity and the glare of sunlight.

13.4 LONGITUDINAL WAVES

In longitudinal waves the disturbances are displacements backwards

and forwards along the direction in which the waves travel

Sound waves and compression waves are longitudinal; Fig. 13.2 illus-
trates this type of wave in a 'slinky' supported by strings at various intervals
along its length. If one end of the slinky is displaced sharply backwards

fig 13.2 compression waves in a slinky are caused by longitudinal displace-

ments of one end of the spring

and forwards along its length, a compression and then a decompression or

rarefaction can be seen moving along the spring. Longitudinal waves can-
not be polarised.
118

13.5 OBSERVING AND MEASURING TRAVELLING WAVES

(a) Seeing how the waves move

The motion of water waves may be studied by looking at ripples in a ripple
tank. This is a shallow tray of water supported on legs above a horizontal
screen of white paper. The bottom of the tray is clear glass, and above it
there is a small lamp as shown in Fig. 13.3a. In a dimly lit room the lamp
projects the shadows of ripples in the tray onto the white screen below.

fig 13.3 (a) a ripple tank. (b) Waves move in directions perpendicular to
wavefronts

Lamp

(a) (b)

The edges of the tray are lined with gauze which absorbs the energy in the
ripples so that they are not reflected back across the tank. Circular ripples
can be made by dipping a finger-tip into the water, and straight ripples by
using a ruler. The direction in which each part of a wave moves may be
studied. Fig. 13.3b shows typical positions of the waves, called wavefronts.
The arrows show their directions of travel, which are in each instance per-
pendicular to the wavefronts themselves.

(b) Comparing wave velocities

Using a ripple tank the speed of a single ripple can be compared with the
speed of a group of several ripples close together. The back ripples in the
group neither catch up nor fall behind the front ones, as all the ripples
move with the same speed.
 119

The tank may be tilted by putting books under the legs at one end. The
water is then deeper at one end of the tank. In deep water the waves are
seen to move faster than in shallow water. As the waves move from the
deep end to the shallow end, their speed decreases and their wavelength
gets shorter. Light waves behave in a similar way and are slowed down
when they pass from air into glass, but they regain their original speed
when they emerge from glass back into air. It is the medium which deter-
mines the speed at which the waves travel (Section 13.9(b)).

(c) Measuring the wavelength of waves

In a level ripple tank equipped with a regular vibrator, the ripples are uni-
formly spaced. Their apparent wavelength is measured using a stroboscope
and a rule. The stroboscope is a circular disc with regularly spaced radial
slots cut in its edge. It is held by a handle and the disc is rotated beneath
the lamp of the ripple tank, as illustrated in Fig. 13.4. This regularly inter-
rupts the view of the shadows on the screen below. If the disc's rate of
rotation is adjusted correctly, the intervals in which the light is blocked off
are just enough for one ripple to move into the position previously taken
up by its neighbour. In this way the shadows of the ripples on the screen
appear to stand still, and their wavelength can be measured using the half-
metre rule.

(d) Measuring the frequency of waves

Waves generated by an electrical vibrator have the same frequency as their
source. A flashing light stroboscope may be used for measuring this fre-
quency. It has a light which can be flashed many times a second at an
adjustable and known rate. In this light, ordinary movements appear jerky:
it is used here to make the vibrating source of waves appear at rest. If the
operating frequencies of the vibrator and stroboscope coincide, the vibrator
completes just one cycle in each interval between the flashes of light, so
the vibrator is repeatedly seen in the same position.
The same stationary image is seen if the stroboscope frequency is
halved. The dark intervals between the flashes are then twice as long, and
the vibrator completes two cycles between one flash and the next. With
even longer dark intervals, the vibrator could make even more vibrations
and still be seen in the same position each time the light flashed.
A single static image is not produced if the frequency of the flashing
stroboscope exceeds that of the vibrator. To measure the frequency of the
vibrator we must therefore find the highest frequency of the stroboscope
that results in a single static image. This tells us the frequency of the waves
being generated.
120

fig 13.4 a stationary pattern of wave shadows is produced on the screen

with the aid of a hand-held stroboscope

f---- ------
l -----...-------------
---- _.. _.

- --------~
\
~

Wave pattern
rule

13.6 THE WAVE EQUATION

How are the wavelength, A, and the velocity, v, of waves related? Fig. 13.5
shows a source of straight waves at A, which emits eight waves in one
second. Their frequency is therefore 8 Hz. Their forward velocity is v mis,
so the first wave has reached the position B after 1 s, where AB = v m. All
eight wavelengths are contained in the distance AB, so the wavelength is
vl8 m. If the frequency had been 16 Hz, then all sixteen wavelengths
would have been contained in v m after 1 s, and their wavelength would
have been v/16 m. In general where the frequency of waves is! Hz, their
wavelength can be written as
A= vi!
 121

fig 13.5 straight waves of frequency 8 Hz are emitted at A, and they fill
the space AB after 1 s

~.r------------------v------------------,-~

A 8

or
v = fA (13.1)
This' is called the wave equation. It applies to all types of waves.

13.7 WAVE VELOCITY

There are two common methods of measuring the velocity of waves. The
first" requires a timer to time the passage of a single wave over a measured
distance. We use the equation
Distance gone
Velocity = (13.2)
Time taken
to calculate the velocity.
The measurement is sometimes easier in practice if an echo technique is
used. The wave is reflected back to its source from a barrier at a known
distance. The interval between the outgoing and reflected waves as they
pass the timer is measured, and the wave velocity is found from the
equation
2 x Distance from timer to barrier
Velocity = ---------------- (13.3)
Time taken
We assume that the reflection process does not take up a significant amount
of time. It is an assumption which can be checked by repeating the experi-
ment with the barrier at different known distances from the timer. If the
results for the velocity do not vary significantly, the assumption is justified.
The second method of measuring the speed of waves relies on the wave
equation (13.1). Measurements of the frequency and wavelength of waves
enable their velocity to be calculated. For example, we can find the speed
122

of radio waves in air from the knowledge that the transmission of frequency
200 kHz has a wavelength of 1500 m. Since
Velocity = Frequency x Wavelength
we have
v = 200000 Hz x 1500 m
= (2 x 1.5 x 108 ) mls
= 3 x 108 m/s
No waves have been found to carry energy faster than this. This speed is
the speed oflight and of radio waves in free space. Sound waves travel much
more slowly than this in air, as we know from the time interval between
the lightning we see and the thunder we hear.

13.8 ENERGY IN WAVES

Waves carry energy, and a source therefore uses up energy when it creates
a wave. Big waves carry more energy than small ones, and experiments
have shown, that for all wave motion in a given length of wavefront the
energy carried is proportional to the (wave amplitude?
As a circular water ripple spreads out, its amplitude decreases. This is
true of all waves spreading out from their sources. The energy the waves
carry is distributed along an ever-increasing wavefront, and eventually it
may become so spread out that the waves can no longer be detected.

13.9 PROPERTIES OF TRAVELLING WAVES

All known wave motions share four common properties. They can be
reflected, refracted and diffracted, and can exhibit interference.

(a) Reflection
Fig. 13.6a shows how plane (straight) waves rebound from a straight bar-
rier. The waves retain their speed and wavelength, as they remain in the
same medium. Their directions of motion before and after reflection make
equal angles with the 'normal', which is drawn at 90° to the barrier. The
waves themselves lie perpendicular to their directions of motion.
Fig. 13.6b shows circular waves rebounding from a straight barrier.
Again their wavelength and speed are unchanged: the curvature of the
waves is altered, however, so that the reflected waves are centred at S',
which is the 'image position' of the source S behind the barrier.
Fig. 13.6c shows plane waves being brought to a focus after reflection
at a curved surface. This property of a curved surface is applied in the
design of radio telescopes (see section 17.4).
Reflection is the subject of Chapter 14.
 123

fig 13.6 (a) the directions taken by incident and reflected waves make
equal angles with the normal to the reflecting surface. (b) After
circular waves from S are reflected at a straight barrier, they travel
as if they had come from S'

Normal

++-+t,*-+ S'

(a) (b)

Reflecting

Direction F
of travel
of plane
waves

(el
(b) Refraction
On passing from one medium to another, waves undergo changes of speed
and wavelength; but their frequency remains unchanged. Fig. 13.7a shows
a special instance of this when straight ripples enter a region of shallower
water. Changes of speed and wavelength occur at the boundaries between
124

fig 13.7 (a) waves travelling along the normal to a boundary are not
deviated when they undergo changes of speed and wavelength.
(b) Waves crossing a boundary obliquely are refracted and travel
in a new direction

Shallow water

Waves Speeded up
Slowed down

(a)

Normal

Shallow water

(b)

the shallow and the deeper regions, but the waves continue to move in the
same direction as before. The wavelength of the waves is greatest where
they travel fastest.
Fig. 13. 7b illustrates the effect when straight ripples meet the boundary
between the shallow and deeper water obliquely. In addition to the
previous effects we can see the marked change in the direction of travel of
 125

the waves. The wavefront AD becomes the wavefront BC in the shallower

water. The distances AB and DC are travelled in the two media in equal
times, and their ratio is the ratio of the two wave speeds VI :Vl' As AB is
greater than DC, we can tell that VI is greater than Vl'
The wave equation V = fA applies to the waves each side of the bound-
ary BD where they have the same frequency; it follows that their wave-
lengths are in the same ratio as their velocities:

Al = VI = AB (13.4)
Al Vz DC
This ratio could also be written
AB BD AB BD
-x - or x
DC BD BD DC
In the right-angled triangles ABD and CDB in Fig. 13.7b, the ratio
AB BD sm I
-x-=--
BD DC sin r
where i is called the angle of incidence and r the angle of refraction:

Al =~ = sin i (13.5)
sin r
Whatever the angle of incidence of the waves crossing this boundary, the
ratio sin i/sin r remains constant, since the ratio VI/V2 is a constant deter-
mined by the two media. For light waves the ratio is called the refractive
index from medium 1 to medium 2 (see Section 15.2). Refraction is always
associated with a change in velocity of waves on entering a new medium.

(c) Diffraction
Fig. 13.8a and b illustrate the passage of waves through gaps in a barrier.
Waves in a ripple tank passing through the centre of a gap continue straight
on; but there is a tendency for the end of each wavefront to deviate into
the geometrical shadow area behind the barrier. The waves remain in the
same medium, so there is no change in their speed or wavelength. In Fig.
13.8a where the gap is much wider than the wavelength of the waves, the
effect is not very pronounced. It is much more noticeable in Fig. 13.8b,
where the width of the gap and the wavelength of waves are similar. In
general, we can say that there is very little diffraction when apertures are
wide compared with the wavelength of the waves. A similar situation arises
if an object blocks the path of the waves. If the object is large compared
with the wavelength, there is an effective region of 'shadow', but if the
object is small the diffraction effect can be so great that after a few wave-
 126

fig 13.8 (a) waves passing through a gap much wider than their wave-
length show slight diffraction effects. (b) Waves passing through a
gap comparable in width with their wavelength show marked dif-
fraction effects

Waves

(a)

Waves

(b)

lengths the wavefront appears completely undisturbed, just as if there had

been no object in its path.
All waves exhibit diffraction effects and we now discuss three examples.

(i) Visible light

In air, visible light has wavelengths close to 5 x 10-7 m. The wavelength
varies with colour, however, that of red light being about 1.7 times the
wavelength of blue light.
 127

To observe the diffraction of light, we view the distant filament lamp

through a narrow scratch on a blackened microscope slide. The scratch
which lets through the light is set parallel to the long bright filament of
the bulb (Fig. 13 .9). Fig. 13.10 illustrates the paherns of light and dark
bands which the observer sees when first a red filter, and then a blue filter
is placed in the path of the light. These are called 'single-slit diffraction

fig 13.9 a tall filament is viewed through a narrow scratch on a darkened

slide. Light from the filament is diffracted on passing through the
slit producing a single-slit diffraction pattern

Dark slide

Lamp

30r4m
5mm

fig 13.10 single-slit diffraction patterns in red and blue light each have a
broad central band of light with narrower bands on each side. If
the wavelength of red light is 1.7 times that of blue light, then
the bands of red light are 1.7 times as wide as the corresponding
bands in the blue diffraction pattern

Red light

Blue light
128

patterns'. Each is comprised of several light and dark bands with a broad
central band of colour twice as wide as its neighbours on either side. Apart
from their colour, the chief difference between the patterns is in the
widths of the bands. The red bands of colour are about 1.7 times as wide
as the corresponding bands in the blue pattern. This is entirely due to their
wavelength ratio (1.7); a comparison of unknown wavelengths can be
made by this method.
Closer study shows that the widths of the bands of light in a diffraction
pattern depend on both the wavelength of the light and the width of the
scratch on the slide. If"we increase the wavelength for a given width of
scratch, the pattern widens; if we use a wider scratch and the same wave·
length, the pattern narrows.

(ii) Sound waves

These are diffracted around obstacles and are clearly heard on the opposite
side to the source (e.g. round corners of buildings). The effect is heard best
if obstacles are about a metre across, as this is similar to the wavelength of
sound. Light, whose wavelength is very much smaller than a metre, would
cast shadows of such obstacles.

(iii) Radio waves

These have longer wavelengths than sound waves and are diffracted around
much larger obstacles. Medium waves of say, 300 m wavelength are diffrac-
ted around hills and into valleys to receivers, which would otherwise have
been 'shaded' from the transmitter. The same good fortune does not apply
where TV transmissions are concerned. Their wavelengths, being a good
deal less than a metre, are not comparable with the sizes of hills. Ideally,
TV receivers should have aerials in 'line-of-sight' positions from the trans-
mitter aerial.

(d) Interference
Interference occurs where two or more similar sets of waves are super-
imposed on each other. The result of two wave crests arriving simultan-
eously at a point is a larger crest; and two troughs arriving together result
in a larger trough. This is called constructive interference, and the waves
are said to be 'in phase'.
Constrnctive interference occurs where two overlapping waves are
in phase with each other
Where a crest and a trough of equal amplitude arrive at a point simul-
taneously, the effect is to produce a resultant displacement of zero. This
is called destructive interference, and the waves are said to be out of phase.
 129

Destructive interference occurs where two overlapping waves are

exactly out of phase with each other
The general principle of superposition of waves is that
The total displacement at a point at any instant is the sum of the
individual wave displacements arriving at the point at that time
We now consider two particular cases of interference.

(i) Water ripples

These create an interference pattern in a ripple tank equipped with two
small round dippers and an electrical vibrator. Fig. 13.11 illustrates instan-
taneous positions of the waves emitted by two identical sources, and it
shows the paths of constructive and destructive interference. The waves

fig 13.11 an interference pattern of waves emerging in phase from two

identical slit sources. Paths marked 'c' indicate constructive inter-
ference and those marked 'd' indicate destructive interference

Waves

d
130

have double the amplitude of waves from one source alone, wherever con-
structive interference occurs. The rate of energy flow along these paths is
therefore greater than for one source alone. Where destructive interference
occurs, the wave amplitude tends to zero, and there is no flow of energy
along these paths.

(ii) Monochromatic light

This is light of one colour, and so it is all of one wavelength, A, in air. In
the experiment referred to as 'Young's slits', monochromatic light passes
through a single slit and then through two narrow parallel slits no more
than half a millimetre apart. Beyond the double slits the light emerges in
two sets of waves which overlap and cause interference. In Fig. 13.12 the
interference pattern is examined through an eyepiece focused in the plane
OP, where a series of light and dark parallel lines or 'fringes' can be seen. If
the waves leaving the slits S1 and S2 are in phase, they travel equal dis-
tances to 0 and arrive there in phase too; so 0 will be in a position of con-
structive interference, and the line at 0 will be bright.
If P is also to be a bright line, the waves reaching P must arrive there in
phase. This only happens if the distances S2P and S1P differ by a whole
number of wavelengths of the light. So the condition for brightness at Pis:
S2 P - S 1 P =nA where n is an integer (13.6)
It will be dark at P if:

S2 P - S1P =(n+t)A (13.7)

fig 13.12 Young's slits apparatus, which is not drawn to scale. Light and
dark fringes are observed in the plane OP, resulting from the
interference of light from the slits S1 and S2

t
Light
source
 131

Fig. 13.12 is not drawn to scale for the sake of clarity. In reality the
distances s, y, and the wavelength A, are all very much less than the distance
D; and the angles A and B are small and approximately equal angles. In
these conditions
(13.8)
Using these approximations, we can write the condition for P to be
bright as:
S2 R =nA (13.9)
As the angles A and B are small, and approximately equal
tanA '::::' sin B (13.10)
(the tangent and the sine of an angle are equal, for small angles.) Substitut-
ing, this becomes:

Y nA
if P is bright (13.11)
D s
So the condition for P to be bright is.
nAD
y=-- where n is an integer (13.12)
s
The spacing between one bright line and the next is given by the increase
in y when n becomes larger by 1. From equation (13.12) we can see that
the lines are AD/s apart, so this experiment enables us to measure the wave-
length of monochromatic light by measuring the distances y and s using a
travelling microscope and D using a ruler.

13.10 STANDING WAVES

A standing wave pattern is created whenever identical sets of travelling

waves pass along the same line in opposite directions. The pattern has
equally spaced points called 'nodes', where the wave amplitude remains
zero. Midway between the nodes are 'antinodes', where the amplitude is
greatest. Between the nodes and antinodes the amplitudes gradually in-
crease.
Fig. 13.13 indicates two extreme positions of a string on which a stand-
ing wave has been produced by means of a vibrator. The waves reaching
the far end are reflected back along the string. The nodes in the figure are
marked 'n', and the antinodes 'a'. The nodes are spaced at half wavelength
intervals.
In the standing wave pattern the displacements between adjacent nodes
are all in phase, but their amplitudes vary. The energy of this type of wave
132

fig 13.13 a standing wave pattern on a vibrated string has nodes marked
'n' and antinodes marked 'a'. Two extreme positions of the
string are shown

Vibrator

is contained mostly at the antinodes where the amplitude is greatest, and

there is none at the nodes.
Standing waves are important in many musical instruments, as they give
rise to the travelling sound waves from stringed instruments and organ
pipes.

WORKED EXAMPLE

What is the wavelength of sound waves produced in air by a tuning fork

whose frequency is 256 Hz on a day when the velocity of sound in air is
330 m/s?
Using equation 13.1, we have
v =fA
330 mls = 256 Hz x A

=> A = 330 = 1.29 m

256
 CHAPTER 14 133

REFLECTIONS AND
SHADOWS

14.1 RAYS OF LIGHT

Light energy travels outwards from its source, and a line showing its
direction of travel is called a ray. When light from a bright source passes
through a narrow slit in front of it, the light is easily seen where it falls on
a surface, for example· a sheet of paper (Fig. 14.1). The bright line across
the paper from the slit marks the path of the ray, which is a straight line.
Light travels in straight lines
In diagrams, rays are represented by unbroken lines each bearing an
arrow pointing along the path travelled by the light.

fig 14.1 the ray's path is a straight line

Sheet of paper

Lamp

14.2 LAWS OF REGULAR REFLECTION

Regular reflection occurs at surfaces so smooth that the path of a reflected

ray is even more predictable than the path of a billard ball rebounding from
134

a cushion at the side of the table. Glass and polished metal surfaces are
normally good regular reflectors of light; you may be able to think of
others.
With the apparatus illustrated in Fig. 14.2, rays can be plotted before
and after they meet a plane mirror. The incident ray meets the mirror at
the point of incidence, and the reflected ray marks the path of light away
from the mirror after reflection. Fig. 14.3 shows the rays seen from above.
The reflected ray lies in the plane of the paper, being neither directed up

fig 14.2 apparatus for plotting the paths of incident and reflected rays
near a plane mirror

Mirror
and stand
Incident
ray

Slit

fig 14.3 where a typical incident ray is reflected the angle of incidence
equals the angle of reflection

Normal at the point

of incidence

Point of
incidence

Angle of Angle of
incidence reflection

Incident Reflected
ray ray
 135

out of the page nor down into it. The normal to the surface at the point of
incidence is a line perpendicular to the mirror. It lies between the two rays.
These properties are stated in the }lTst./aw of reflection:
The reflected ray lies in the plane formed by the incident ray and the
normal to the surface at the point of incidence. The two rays lie
on opposite sides of the normal
In Fig. 14.3 the angle of incidence i between the incident ray and the
norinal is found to equal the angle of reflection r between the reflected
ray and the normal. The second law of reflection is:
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

14.3 THE IMAGE IN A PLANE MIRROR

When you look at a plane mirror you see your reflection or image.
An image is where an object appears to be

(a) The image position

In the experiment illustrated in Fig. 14.4 a small torch bulb 0 placed about
10 cm in front of a plane mirror acts as a point source of light. Narrow
slits in a flat card enable the paths of three incident and reflected rays to

fig 14.4 the position of the image I is found by drawing the virtual rays
behind the mirror to the point where they meet
136

be plotted. It is found that the equal angles property is obeyed at each

point where the rays are reflected. Dotted construction lines are drawn ex-
tending the reflected rays behind the mirror to the point where they meet.
They appear to come from I, which is the image position of O. The line OI
joining the point object to its image is a normal to the mirror's surface,
and the mirror line bisects 01.
The image is as far behind a plane mirror as the object is in front of
the mirror
The results can be tested by standing a tall vertical pin at 0, and a second
tall pin which can be seen above the mirror, at I. An observer sees the
image of the object pin in line with the top half of the pin at I; and when
the observer moves his eye to a new position, the alignment remains un-
changed. The image of 0 appears to be at I, when it is viewed from many
different directions. We say that there is no parallax between the object
pin and the image pin.

(b) The nature of the image

In Fig. 14.4 the dotted lines behind the mirror mark the directions from
which the reflected rays appear to come, but the light does not come from
I. It only appears to come from I and the dotted lines are called virtual
rays. Since the rays do not actually pass through the image, it is not pos-
sible to form this image on a screen. The image is called a virtual image.
Images behind a plane mirror are virtual images

(c) The appearance of 'the image

Look at the cover of this book in a mirror, and you will see that the title

appears as ClVlIA3T2AM When viewed in a mirror everything on the

2JI2YH9
cover is reversed from left to right. The image is said to be laterally inverted.
Your own image in the mirror is also laterally inverted, and if you lift your
right hand you will see that the image lifts the left hand. Your image is
the right way up and the image of print is also the right way up. They are
described as upright or erect images.
The image behind a plane mirror is upright but laterally inverted

(d) The size of the image

In Fig. 14.5 the image of the straight line 00' is the straight line II'; the
image is the same length as the object, being neither magnified nor dimin-
ished.
The object and its image in a plane mirror are the same size
 137

fig 14.5 the image of the line 00' in the mirror is /I'. The object and its
image are the same length

Mirror

14.4 USES OF PLANE MIRRORS

Plane mirrors are commonly used in bedrooms and bathrooms and as hand
mirrors. They are also used in scientific instruments which have pointers
that move over a scale. In order to read the instrument correctly the eye
must be directly over the pointer. Hold a pencil about 5 em above a ruler
in line with your eye. Then as you move your eye from side to side, the
scale reading behind the pencil will appear to change, causing a reading
error known as the parallax error. If an instrument is fitted with a plane
mirror, the scale reading should only be taken when the image of the pointer
in the mirror is hidden behind the pointer. This ensures that the observer's
eye is correctly placed and an error due to parallax is avoided.

14.5 DIFFUSE REFLECTION

When light rays are reflected at a rough white surface, the reflection is no
longer regular. In Fig. 14.1 the ray which falls on white paper can be seen
by observers on all sides. The paper's surface receives the ray, and scatters
its light making reflected rays in all directions. Fig. 14.6 shows how a
rough or granular surface does this to a parallel-sided incident beam of
light. This sort of reflection is called diffuse reflection.

fig 14.6 an illustration of diffuse reflection where a parallel-sided incident

beam is reflected at an irregular surface
138

Diffuse reflection occurs at surfaces which scatter the light

they receive in all directions
A cinema screen is a diffuse reflector. It receives light from a film pro-
jector, and scatters it so that people sitting anywhere in the cinema can see
the picture focused on the screen. A painted wall with a matt surface also
has this property, as tiny particles in the paint diffusely reflect the light.
The Moon's surface is a diffuse reflector of sunlight. At any instant, one-
half of its surface is in direct sunlight, and the other half is in shadow. The
Moon's orbit takes it around the Earth in a lunar month, which is a period
of about 28 days. The Moon's appearance varies according to how much of
its illuminated surface is turned towards Earth. If you were at the centre
of the Moon's orbit illustrated in Fig. 14.7, and you looked towards the
Moon in each position shown in that figure, you would see one new Moon
and one full Moon during the 28 day orbit.

fig 14.7 the Moon's appearance from Earth varies during its 28 day orbit
(not drawn to scale)

~
~
~ Sun'srays

~
~
~

14.6 SHADOWS

(a) Shadows cast by point sources of light

A point source of light casts a sharp shadow of an object onto a screen as
in Fig. 14.8. The object in the figure is spherical, and its shadow appears
on the screen as a dark circle on a light background. Shadow receiving no
light from the source is called umbra.

(b) Shadows cast by extended sources of light

An extended source of light is a source which emits light in all directions
from many different points. A frosted glass window, for example, and a
 139

fig 14.8 a circular sharp shadow of a sphere is cast by a point source of

light

•
strip lighting tube behave as extended light sources. Each point of an
extended source casts a shadow behind the object; but the many shadows
do not exactly coincide. The result is a shadow like that in Fig. 14.9. In
the zone surrounding the umbra there is an area only partly lit by the
source. It is partly lit as it receives light from only a fraction of the area of
the extended source. The partial darkness surrounding the umbra is called
penumbra. In general extended sources of light reduce the area of umbra
and soften the edges of the shadow. This makes strip lighting very suitable
for use in factories and workshops.

fig 14.9 with an extended source the area of umbra is reduced and a zone
of penumbra (partial illumination) surrounds it

Penumbra

~
~ Fluorescent
tube Screen
~
140 CHAPTER 15

REFRACTION

15.1 INTRODUCTION

A swimming pool viewed from a spring board vertically above its surface
seems shallower than it really is; and to an observer looking across the pool
from one side, it appears even shallower. The effect is caused by the refrac-
tion or bending of light.
Refraction occurs where light crosses a boundary and enters a
different medium in which it travels with a different velocity
In this chapter we study refraction at plane surfaces, beginning with an
experiment in which rays pass from air into glass.

15.2 REFRACTION AT AN AIR-GLASS INTERFACE

Fig. 15.1 illustrates the apparatus used for plotting the path of a ray through
a thick semicircular block of glass. The straight edge of the glass is posi-
tioned on a line drawn on the paper, and a ray is directed towards a point
halfway along the vertical plane face of the block. The paths of the rays are
marked on the paper. Fig. 15.2 illustrates a typical set of rays. The follow-

fig 15.1 apparatus used for plotting the path of a ray incident at a plane
glass surface. The glass block has a semicircular section
 141

fig 15.2 three rays and the normal are drawn where an incident ray meets
the plane glass surface
Reflected ray Incident ray

Refracted ray

ing properties may be observed:

(i) the incident ray is partially reflected,
(ii) refraction occurs where the ray enters the glass,
(iii) the incident ray and the refracted ray are on opposite sides of the nor-
mal to the surface at the point of incidence,
(iv) the plane of the figure includes all three rays as well as the normal at
the point of incidence.
The observations (iii) and (iv) illustrate the first law of refraction,
which may be stated as follows:
The refracted ray lies in the plane formed by the incident ray and the
normal to the surface at the point of incidence. The two rays are
on opposite sides of the normal
The readings shown in Table 15.1 were obtained by measuring the angle
of incidence i, the angle of refraction r, and then by repeating the experi·
ment for different angles of incidence.

Table 15.1

Angle of incidence, i (deg) 72 61.5 50 32.5 23.5 11.5

Angle of refraction, r (deg) 38 35 30 20.5 15 7.5

Fig. 15.3a is a graph of the angle of incidence i plotted against the angle
of refraction r. Three details should be noted. First. the lower portion of
the graph is a straight line through the origin having a constant slope of ilr.
Secondly, the slope increases at larger angles of incidence; and, thirdly,
angles of incidence from 0° to 90° give rise to angles of refraction from 0°
to only about 42°.
142

fig 15.3 (a) angles of incidence i, plotted against the corresponding angles
of refraction r, for a ray entering glass from air. (b) Sin i plotted
against sin r for the same block of glass, and also for water and
diamond

l-
V
80

60
- j
I.Glass
... 40
I-
/
V
20
l-
/'
V
~

o 10 20 30 40
r in degrees
(a)

1.0

0.8

...
&::
0.6 Water
·iii
0.4

0.2

o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

sin r
(b)
 143

Fig. 15.3b shows the graph of sin i plotted against sin r for the same
experiment, and also for similar experiments with water and diamond. At
small angles of incidence the two graphs for glass (Figs lS.3a and b) have
the same slopes, because ilr = sin i/sin r for any pair of small angles. In
Fig. IS.3b, however, the graph for glass has constant slope throughout its
entire range; so sin i/sin r remains a constant ratio for all angles of incidence.
The ratio is called the refractive index from air to glass and given the
symbol n. Different substances have different refractive indices; the values
of n for diamond and water may be determined from the slopes of the
graphs in Fig. IS.3b. It is found that the value of the refractive index n for
a $ubstance varies slightly with the colour of the incident light. Snell's law,
which is known as the second law of refraction, may be stated as follows:
When a ray of light of one colour crosses the boundary from medium
1 to medium 2, the ratio sin i/sin r is a constant called the refractive
index from medium 1 to medium 2, for light of that colour
In symbols,
sin i
n= - -
sin r

15.3 REFRACTIVE INDICES

The absolute refractive index of a substance is the ratio sin i/sin r when
the incident ray is in a vacuum. Its value is very nearly the same as the re-
fractive index from air to the substance. When a refractive index is given
for a different boundary, the media on each side of the boundary must be
named. Thus waternglass = 1.12 states that for a ray passing from water into
glass, the refractive index is 1.12. Some refractive indices of substances in
air are given in Table 15.2.
The composition of glass can be varied according to the use to be made
of it, and its refractive index varies with the composition. Diamond has a
very high refractive index, and it is said to be 'optically more dense' than

Table 15.2

Substance Refractive index in air

Glass 1.50-1.56
Water 1.33
Carbon bisulphide 1.63
Diamond 2.42
144

substances whose refractive indices are lower. Optical density differs from
the mass per unit volume of a substance; and a substance of lower density
does not always have a smaller refractive index.
In Section 13.9(b) the ratio sin ilsin r for waves was shown to equal the
ratio
Wave velocity in medium 1
Wave velocity in medium 2
So ·the refractive index 1 n2 is equal to v dV2 , where v1 and V2 are the wave
velocities in medium 1 and medium 2 respectively:
sin i VI
In2 = -- =- (15.1)
sin r V2

The velocity of light in a substance can be calculated from the refractive

index of the substance in air, since the speed of light in air is known. For
example, the velocity of light in glass of refractive index 1.5 can be found
using equation (15.1), given that the velocity of light in air is 3 x 108 m/s:
airng1ass =V air/v g1ass
1.5 = 3 x 108 / vg1ass
Vg1ass = 3 X 108 /l.5
= 2 x 108 mls
The velocity of light is least in substances of highest refractive index.

15.4 THE REVERSIBILITY OF A RAY OF LIGHT

If the glass block in Fig. 15.1 having a semicircular cross-section is replaced

by a parallel-sided glass block, then the emergent ray is parallel to the inci-
dent ray but laterally displaced from it. The paths of the incident and
emergent rays can be marked with pins at A, B, C and D illustrated in Fig.
15.4, after which the lamp and slit can be removed. The pins are not really
in line, but they appear so when viewed through the glass block in either
direction. Rays can travel each way along this path.
The path of a ray of light is reversible
The refractive index from air to glass can be found from measurements
of the angles ofincidence and refraction at the first face of the glass. Similar
measurements at the second face enable the refractive index from glass to
air to be found. The results are:
 145

sin 50°
airnglass - - - - = 1.53
sin 30°
and
sin 30°
glassnair - - - - - - -
sin 50° 1.53

fig .15.4 a ray can pass in either direction along the same path

One refractive index is the reciprocal of the other. In general:

1
In2 = - (15.2)
2nl

The result agrees with the expression for refractive index given in equation
(15.1), where In2 =vt/v2;but2nl =V2iVI'

15.5 INTERNAL REFLECTIONS

A ray in air meeting a glass surface is partially reflected (Section 15.2).

What happens when the incident ray in glass meets the glass-air surface from
the other side? Fig. 15.5 illustrates three rays making different angles of
incidence. In Fig. 15.5a where the angle of incidence is small, there is a
refracted ray in air as well as a partially reflected ray which remains in the
glass. Fig. 15.5b illustrates the same rays as the angle of incidence approaches
42°. The refracted ray skims across the surface of the glass with an angle
 146

of refraction of 90°. This particular angle of incidence is called the critical

angle C.

fig 15.5 (a) an incident ray making a small angle of incidence at a glass-
air interface gives rise to reflected and refracted rays. (b) When
the angle of incidence inside the glass reaches the critical angle, C,
the angle of refraction is 90°. (c) Total internal reflection occurs
when the angle of incidence inside the glass is greater than the
critical angle

I
I
~ I
I
I I
(b) (e)

The critical angle is the angle of incidence for which the

angle of refraction is 90°
The numerical value of C can be calculated from the refractive index of
the glass. Imagine the rays in Fig. 15.5b are reversed, so that light passes
from air into glass where airnglass = 1.5. Then sin 90° /sin C = 1.5 and there-
fore sin C = sin 90°/1.5. Sin C = 1/1.5 = 0.67, from which the angle C = 42°.
In general, if n is the refractive index in air of a substance whose critical
angle is C, then:
sinC=I/n (15.3)
Fig. 15.5c illustrates the result of increasing the angle of incidence
beyond the critical angle in glass. There is no refracted ray, and all the light
is reflected. This condition is called total internal reflection.
Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence is
greater than the critical angle for a ray meeting the surface
from the optically denser side

15.6 SOME APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

The prism illustrated in Fig. 15.6 is a thick glass block having a cross-
section in the form of an isosceles right-angled triangle. The rays in the
 147

fig 15.6 the reflecting prism inverts the rays a and b

figure are inverted (top to bottom), but not laterally inverted (left to right).
Total internal reflection occurs inside the prism since the angles of inci-
dence of 45° are greater than the critical angle for a glass-air interface.
Two pairs of prisms like this (one pair for each eye) are used in prismatic
binoculars. In each prism pair, one prism inverts the image which would
otherwise be upside down, and the other prism inverts the image laterally.
By using prisms the designers have kept the instrument small and easy to
handle.
A periscope can be made of two right-angled prisms arranged as in Fig.
15.7. Their totally reflecting surfaces reflect more light than silvered mirror
surfaces, and there is no problem of the silvered surfaces flaking off with
age. For these reasons the periscopes of submarines incorporate reflecting
prisms which need little or no maintenance, and have a much longer life
than silvered mirrors.

fig 15.7 a periscope made with right·angled prisms needs no silvered

surfaces

b
148

Total internal reflection is important in fibre optics. Imagine a 'cable'

of thin parallel glass fibres all closely bound together. What happens when
light is admitted into the fibres at one end? Each time a ray meets the wall
of a fibre at an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle, as in Fig.
15.8, it is totally reflected to another point of incidence further along the

fig 15.8 a ray is totally internally reflected at the walls of a glass fibre.
(Not drawn to scale)

fibre. Here the same thing happens again, and so on until the ray emerges
at the far end of the fibre. The fibres in the cable combine to provide a spy
hole into the world at the far end. A picture is forme~, made up of the in-
formation transmitted along the many fibres. Furthermore, the cable is
flexible; it can carry its information around curves, but not where there is a
sudden kink in it.
Optical fibres have been used in medicine, and more recently for com-
munications purposes. The light passing along glass fibres can carry more
information than electric currents in wires. It is possible to replace some of
the many wires in a telephone network with fewer optical cables each of
which can carry several conversations at the same time.

15.7 REAL AND APPARENT DEPTHS

When a straight stick is dipped into water as illustrated in Fig. 15.9, the

fig 15.9 a straight stick appears bent where it enters the water, because of
refraction at the water's surface
 149

stick appears bent at the water's surface. The immersed parts of the stick
appear closer to the observer's eye than they really are. Fig. 15.1 0 illus-
trates an experiment to investigate the effect, using a thick parallel-sided
glass block standing on a ruled line. Viewed from directly above, the line

fig 15.10 apparatus for measuring the apparent thickness of a tall parallel-
sided block of glass

-A

appears closer to the top surface of the glass than it really is. Its virtual
image is found by holding a horizontal pin above the line, and viewing
both the pin and the line. When the pin is the same height above the paper
as the line's image, the pin appears as an extension of the line; and move-
ment of the observer's eye does not upset this alignment. Fig. 15.11 illus-
trates the position of the line at 0, and its virtual image at I. The ratio of
the real depth (dr ) to the apparent depth (d a ) is
(15.4)
If the block is viewed along the normal to its top face as shown in Fig.
15.11 we can apply the result to find the refractive index of a su bstance in
air. Suppose d r is the real thickness of a glass block and equals 11.0 cm,
and d a is the apparent thickness of the glass block and equals 7.3 cm. Then
applying equation (I 5.4):
_
airnglaM -
Real depth = 11.0 = 1.S
Apparent depth 7.3

WORKED EXAMPLE

A ray of light travelling in a liquid of refractive index 1.75 makes an an(~

of incidence of 30 0 at liquid/air interface. Calculate (a) the angle of refrae-
150

fig 15.11 rays from the line at 0 emerge from the block as if they had
come from its virtual image at I

L
Eye

tion and (b) the speed oflight in the liquid, if the speed in air is 3 x 108 m/s.
1 sin 30 0 0.5
(a) liquidnair = 1.75 = ~ = sin r

:. sinr=1.75xO.5=0.875
:. r = 61 0

Vair
(b) airnliquid =-- (see section 15.3)
Vliquid

1.75 = 3 x 108
Vliquid

:. Vliquid = 1.7 x 108 mls

 CHAPTER 16 151

THIN LENSES AND CURVED

MIRRORS

16.1 ACTION OF A LENS

The passage of light through a thin converging lens is illustrated in Fig.

16.1. The light is refracted at both surfaces of the lens, but the rays emerge
just as if they had suffered a single refraction at a plane somewhere inside
the glass. For the purposes of ray constructions we represent a thin lens by
a single line (AB in Fig. 16.1), where the refraction is considered to take
place.
fig 16.1 rays from 0 arrive at I as if they had been refracted at the plane
AB inside the convex lens. The curves W, w' and W" represent a
sequence of wavefront positions

w"

B
The curves labelled W, W' and W" in Fig. 16.1 illustrate a sequence of
wavefront positions for light waves spreading out from a point object at
0, converging on its image position at I, and finally passing beyond the
image position. The action of the lens is to change the shape of the wave-
front, by slowing down the central portion so that it is overtaken by the
outer edges. The central portion passes through the thickest part of the lens;
and as light travels more slowly in glass than in air, the centre of the wave
moves forward more slowly.
152

16.2 OPTICAL CENTRE AND FOCAL POINT

The axis of symmetry of a lens is called its optical axis, or principal axis.
If we think of a thin lens as a single refracting plane, the point where the
principal axis meets this plane is called the optical centre, or pole P, of the
lens. Fig. 16.2 illustrates the passage of rays through this point. They pass

fig 16.2 rays a, band c pass undeviated through the optical centre of the
lens

a
,
c Optical or
b
c b' principal axis
,
a

straight through the optical centre of the lens undeviated (this part of the
lens behaves as if it were a thin pane of parallel-sided window glass).
The optical centre or pole of a thin lens is the point of the lens
through which rays of light pass undeviated
Figs 16.3a and b show how rays of light initially parallel to the principal
axis pass through a convex lens and a concave lens respectively. In Fig.
16.3a the convex lens causes the rays to converge and pass through the
point F on the principal axis. The convex lens is therefore a converging
lens. F is called the focal point or principal focus of the lens. In Fig. 16.3b
the concave lens causes the rays to diverge and appear to come from F'.
The concave lens is a diverging lens. F' is its principal focus.

fig 16.3 (a) and (b) the focal length f of a lens is the distance between its
optical centre and its focal point

(a) (b)
 153

The principal focus or focal point of a lens is the point towards

which, or from which, light travels when incident rays parallel
to its optical axis are refracted by the lens
The focal length f is the distance between the optical centre
and the principal focus of a lens
The focal plane of a lens is the plane through the principal
focus perpendicular to its optical axis
A rigid lens has a fixed focal length determined by the substance of the
l~ns and the radii of curvature of its surfaces. A lens of short focal length
normally has tightly rounded surfaces; but a lens of long focal length has
surfaces with larger radii of curvature. A flexible lens such as the lens in
the human eye can change its shape and therefore its focal length.

16.3 THE POWER OF A LENS

The shorter the focal length of a lens, the more it converges or diverges the
light passing through it. Power is defined so that a lens of short focal length
has a higher power than one oflong focal length (Fig. 16.4). The power is
defined by the equation:

Power in dioptres (D) = (16.1 )

Focal length in metres

fig 16.4 a lens of short foca/length bends the light more, and has a higher
power than a lens of long focal length

\_f __

Short focal length

: t>F~
Long focal length
High power Low power

For example, a converging lens whose focal length f is one metre, has a
power of l/f = 1/1 = 1 0, whereas a lens whose focal length is only 10 cm,
or 0.1 m, has a power of l/f= 1/0.1 = 10 D.
A diverging lens and a converging lens have opposite effects, and so a
negative value is given to the focal length and power of a diverging lens.
154

A lens whose principal focus lies 20 cm from its optical centre has a focal
length of -0.2 m, and a power of l/f= 1/(-0.2) = -5 D.

16.4 MEASURING THE FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVERGING LENS

Rays from a bright object a long way from a converging lens give rise to a
real image in the focal plane of the lens. An approximate value for the focal
length of the lens can be obtained by focusing the image of the distant
obje'ct on a screen. The distance from the lens to the screen is the focal
length of the lens (see Fig. 16.6a).
Alternatively a plane mirror and an illuminated cross-wire mounted on
card are positioned on opposite sides of the lens (Fig. 16.5). The object

fig 16.5 measuring the focal length OP of a converging lens. The object 0
and its image I lie in the focal plane

::\
I \
\
\
I

0 pi M
I
I

\ /

~f ·1
distance OP from the centre of the lens is adjusted so that the object and its
image coincide. Rays from the centre of the cross form a parallel beam
after passing through the lens. Each part of the beam meets the mirror
normally, and is reflected back to its source along its original path. In this
adjustment the distance OP is the focal length of the lens, since rays parallel
to the optical axis are refracted towards the principal focus. The distance
PM from the lens to the plane mirror is not important, and it can be any
convenient distance.

16.5 IMAGES PRODUCED BY LENSES

(a) Using converging lenses

Figs 16.6a-f illustrate the formation of images for objects set at decreasing
distances from the optical centre of a converging lens. Both objects and
images are represented by arrows set on the principal axis.
The object distance u is the distance OP between the object and the
optical centre of the lens, measured along its principal axis. The image
 155

fig 16.6 as the object 00' gets closer to the converging lens, the image
moves further from the lens and gets bigger. When the object is
closer than one focal length from the lens, the image is virtual,
magnified and erect

(a)
u .....
V""

u>2f
(b)
f<v<2f

u = 2f
(el
v = 2f

1\
1\
I I
(d)
I I F
f<u < 2f
a F P I
\ , 2f<v
I I
\I

I'
0'

F u ... f
(e)
v"'''

l'

(f)
u<f
F Ivl> lui
156

distance v is the distance PI between the optical centre of the lens and the
image, measured along the principal axis.
Both object and image distances can vary, but the focal length PF
remains constant for a particular lens. In each figure there are dots on the
principal axis at intervals of 1 (the focal length), measured from the opti-
cal centre on each side of the lens.
In Fig. 16.6a rays from a distant object point, which is above the axis,
form a parallel incident beam which is brought into focus in the focal plane
of the lens. The central ray passes through the optical centre without
deviating (see Fig. 16.2).
ln the remaining figures, the images are located by drawing:
(i) the ray from 0' which passes through the optical centre of the lens
undeviated, and
(ii) the ray which is initially parallel to the principal axis, and which passes
through the principal focus after refraction.
The image, called a real image, is where the two emergent rays cross. Indeed
all rays from the object 0' pass through its image I' after refraction.
Fig. 16.6b has two shaded triangles which are similar, having three pairs
of matching angles. As the triangles are similar, the ratio of corresponding
sides is constant. Hence
Height of the image, II' = Image distance, PI v
(16.2)
Height of the object, 00' Object distance, OP u
This ratio is called the magnification, which is defined by the equation:

Magm'f"lcatton = --=-----==---
Height of image
(16.3)
Height of object
Equation (16.2) enables the magnification to be calculated if the object
and image distances are known.
In Fig. 16.6c the object and image distances are equal when u =v =2/,
and the magnification is therefore one. If the object distance is made less
than 2/, the magnification exceeds one (Fig. 16.6d).
In Fig. 16.6e the object is one focal length from the lens, and the image
is said to be at infinity. This is the reverse of the situation in Fig. 16.6a, in
which the object is at infinity.
In Fig. l6.6f the object distance is made less than one focal length I,
and a new situation arises. No real image is formed on the far side of the
lens. Instead the rays emerge as if coming from I'. II' is a virtual upright
image, whereas the previous images in Figs 16.6a-e were all real and in-
verted. The importance of the arrangement in Fig. 16.6f is that the lens is
being used as a magnifying glass to make things appear bigger than they are.
Table 16.1 summarises the information gained from ray constructions for
converging lenses.
 157

Table 16.1 details of images for convex lenses

Object distance, Image distance, Magnification, Type of image

II' v
OP=u PI = v m= - - = -
00' u
u-'>-OO v-'>-f * Real, inverted
u between 2f v betweenf m< 1 Real, inverted
and 00 and 2f
u = 2f v = 2f m=1 Real, inverted

u betweenf v between 2f m> 1 Real, inverted

and 2f and 00

u-'>-f v -'>- 00 *
u less thanf Image distance
greater than
object distance m> 1 Virtual, upright

*The term 'magnification' is not used when either the object or its image is
at infinity.

Fig. 16.7 shows rays of light from a point object on the axis passing
through a converging lens. Notice all the rays pass through the image I. If
o is closer to the lens, then the image I will move further to the right in

fig 16.7 All the rays leaving 0 pass through 1.1 is the real image of 0

»Eye

the diagram. The eye sees the image at I because all the rays entering the
eye appear to come from I. The distance from the image to the eye should
be at least 25 cm as the eye cannot view things at closer distances without
strain.

16.6 THE ACTION OF A CURVED MIRROR

Rays reflected at curved mirrors obey the laws of regular reflection (Section
14.2). Small spherical mirrors are represented by the arcs of circles, each
158

having a centre of curvature C, which lies on its axis of symmetry or opti-

cal axis (Fig. 16.8). Any straight line from C to the surface of a concave
mirror is a normal to it, and so rays from C to the mirror return to C again.
The centre of curvature and its image in the mirror thus coincide.

fig 16.8 an object at the centre of curvature of a concave mirror coincides

with its own image

Optical axis
c

16.7 THE PRINCIPAL FOCUS AND FOCAL LENGTH

In Fig. 16.9 the optical axis meets a concave mirror at the optical centre or
pole P, where it bisects the angle between incident and reflected rays. Fig.
16.10 illustrates the reflection of rays which are initially parallel to the
optical axis of a concave mirror. The rays converge and pass through the
point F on the optical axis. F is called the principalfoeus (or focal point)
of the concave mirror. The distance FP is the focal length of the mirror.
The focal length of a curved mirror is the distance from the principal
foeus to the mirror, measured along its principal axis.

fig 16.9 an incident ray is reflected at the pole of a curved mirror, obey-
ing the equal-angles law of reflection

c p
 159

16.8 USES OF LENSES AND MIRRORS

A plane mirror can be used to check your appearance, or to see around

corners. Concave reflectors are also widely used. In each application they
either bring a parallel beam to a focus (see Fig. 16.1 0), or redirect a beam
radiating from a small source. They are found in car headlamps, electric
fires, slide projectors (see section 17 .3), big optical and radio telescopes
(see section 17.4), and in microwave telecommunications.
The many uses of convex lenses include magnifying glasses and eye-pieces
in optical instruments. They are also used to focus real images on a screen
in the slide projector, and on the film in a camera. A third type of use is to
increase the illumination of a slide or film by refracting a diverging beam
of light onto them.

fig 16.10 the focal point of a curved mirror lies midway between the
centre of curvature C and the pole P of the mirror

----------~~~~~------~p
160 CHAPTER 17

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

17.1 THE PINHOLE CAMERA

The pinhole camera is a simple device for taking photographs. Light is

admitted into a box through a small pinhole in one side, and the image is
formed on a film on the opposite side of the box (Fig. 17.1). As in other
cameras, the box has dull black internal surfaces to prevent reflected light
forming secondary images on the film.
Fig. 17.1 shows the formation of a real, inverted image II' of an object
00'. The image would be taller if the box were longer, or if the camera

fig 1 7.1 a real, inverted image is formed in a pinhole camera. The dotted
lines show that the image is enlarged when the box is longer

0'
---1
I
I
I
0 1 P
I
I I' _ _ _ ...J
I

I.. U
~I'" v--I
were held closer to the object. The magnification (equation (16.3)) is
JI'/OO', which equals the ratio PI/OP or v/u in the similar triangles H'P
and OOfp. The object and image distances are measured from the pinhole
P.
Provided the pinhole is small, the images of stationary objects at all
distances appear reasonably in focus. This is an advantage not found in
cameras which have lenses. The pinhole camera is also very cheap. Its main
 161

disadvantage is that the pinhole lets in very little light, and so a long expo-
sure time is needed for each picture. Only stationary objects may therefore
be photographed. A way of reducing the exposure time is to use very
sensitive film. The alternative of enlarging the pinhole is not satisfactory;
for although it makes the image brighter, a larger pinhole causes the image
to be unacceptably blurred.

17.2 THE CAMERA WITH A LENS

The camera illustrated in Fig. 17.2 has a converging lens to focus a real,
inverted image on the film. Light enters the camera through its aperture,
which is a hole of variable diameter in an adjustable diaphragm. The aper-

fig 17.2 a camera

Diaphragm

Film

Aperture

Non-reflecting surface

ture lets in so much light that only very short exposure times, typically a
small fraction of a second, are needed. Inside the camera, a shutter, whose
speed can be varied, controls the length of the exposure; if the shutter
speed is fast enough, objects in motion can be photographed without un-
due blurring. This is a major advantage over the pinhole camera.
Focusing a sharp image on the film in a camera is achieved by moving
the lens in relation to the film. For very distant objects, the lens must be
one focal length in front of the film; but for closer objects the image dist-
ance is greater, and the lens must be moved slightly further from the film.
In many photographs some foreground and background detail can be
seen, giving the appearance of depth to the field.
The depth of field is the range of distances for which images
are reasonably in focus
162

The depth of field can be increased by reducing the size of the aperture,
so that light is admitted to the camera only through the central zone of its
lens. The exposure time must be increased to compensate for the reduced
illumination of the image, or the film is under-exposed.
On dull days the aperture is normally made larger, or the exposure time
is increased, so that sufficient light reaches the film; but when photographs
are taken on bright sunny days, the aperture can be made smaller without
the need for long exposures. Some typical camera adjustments are sum-
marised in Table 17.1.

Table 17.1 some camera adjustments

Situation Camera settings

Distant object Lens one focal length from the film
Close object Lens slightly further from the film
Moving object Very short exposure and so larger aperture
Dull day Larger aperture or longer exposure or both
Bright day Smaller aperture or shorter exposure or both
Greater depth Smaller aperture and so longer exposure
of the field

17.3 THE SLIDE PROJECTOR

Fig. 17.3 illustrates the main features of the slide projector. Light from a
bright filament lamp illuminates a small slide or transparency. Two features
are included which increase the illumination of the slide by causing rays to
pass through it which would not otherwise do so. They are (a) a concave
reflector and (b) a short focal length condenser lens (see Fig. 17.3). By
increasing the illumination of the slide, these components also increase the
brightness of its image formed on the screen.
The projection lens has a focal length typically about 8 cm. It is position-
ed just more than one focal length from the slide, and adjusted so that the
image is sharply focused on the distant screen. The image is real, magnified
and inverted; and if the picture is not to appear upside down, the slide
must be mounted in an inverted position in the slide carrier.
The bulb in a slide projector emits a good deal of heat as well as light. A
fan is normally used to cool the bulb by forced convection, and a glass
heat filter protects the slide from possible damage.
 163

fig 17.3 the slide projector (not to scale)

Condenser Projection
lens lens
Screen
I \
I \
I \
I \
I I
~~~~~-.--4-~~~~--~~~-----'--------i Ima~
I
I

*
\ I
\ I
\ I
I
Coolingfan

17.4 A RADIO TELESCOPE

Fig. 17.4 illustrates a typical radio telescope having a wide parabolic reflec-
tor. It is mounted so that its axis can be directed at any point in the sky.
At the focus of the parabolic reflector there is a radio aerial, which only
receives strong signals if the distant source lies on the principal axis of the
'dish' reflector. Radio signals received by the aerial are analysed electroni-
cally.
One of the values of a radio telescope, like the one at lodrell Bank, is
for detecting radio wave sources in the sky which may not be intense emit-
ters of light. Radio stars are not all emitters of light.

fig 17.4 a radio telescope has a concave parabolic ref/ector which brings
radio waves to a focus at the aerial, A
 164 CHAPTER 18

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM

18.1 VISIBLE LIGHT

Light of many colours can be derived from white light, e.g. from sunlight.
A band of colours or a rainbow appears when direct sunlight is refracted by
raindrops in the sky; and a similar band of colours is produced when a ray
of white light from a tungsten filament lamp is refracted on passing through
a triangular glass prism (Fig. 18.1). The band of colours displayed "n the
white screen is called a spectrum. It is not a pure spectrum, however, as
some of the colours in the middle of the band overlap one another.
In Fig. 18.2 a converging lens before and after the prism enable each
colour to be brought to a separate focus in the focal plane of the second
lens. This illustrates the formation of a pure spectrum. The slit is positioned
one focal length from the first lens, so that a parallel-sided incident beam

fig 18.1 the prism splits up the white light into a band of colours. Dr and
Dv are the angles of deviation of the red and violet light respec-
tively

White screen
 165

fig 18.2 the production of a pure spectrum. The small angle between the
emergent red and violet beams is called the dispersion

of white light meets the prism. The refractive index of glass (Section 15.3)
depends on the colour of the light. It is slightly greater for violet light than
for red, and so violet light is deviated by the prism more than red light.
The screen is positioned one focal length beyond the second lens.
Sir Isaac Newton used a prism to split sunlight into a spectrum in which
he recognised the colours red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet
arranged in that order. The colours formed a continuous band from red to
violet. A second identical prism did not split the light into any new colours;
but when the second prism was arranged as shown in Fig. 18.3, it recom-
bined the colours to form an emergent beam of white light. This showed
that white light is a combination of all the colours in the rainbow.
From the evidence of diffraction and interference experiments (Sections
13.9(c)(i) and 13.9(d)(ii)), the wavelength of red light is found to be
greater than that of violet light. Red light in air has a wavelength close to

fig 18.3 recombining the colours of the spectrum using a second prism
166

750 nm, and violet light has a wavelength in air of about 420 nm (1 nm is
10-9 m). The complete spectrum of white light includes light of all wave-
lengths between the red and the violet.

18.2 DETECTORS OF LIGHT

(a) The eye

The .retina at the back of the eye is a light-sensitive surface on which a real
image is focused. Nerve impulses from the retina are passed to the brain by
way of the optic nerve. A normal eye can detect light of any wavelength in
the range bounded by the wavelengths of red and violet light.

(b) The camera

In black-and-white photography, light is absorbed on reaching a photo-
graphic plate, and its energy triggers a chemical reaction. There is no reac-
tion, however, where the plate receives no light energy. In colour photo-
graphy, several chemical reactions are possible when light reaches the film.
The ones which take place are determined by the colours of the incident
light.

(c) The light meter

A photographic light meter is used to measure the light intensity before a
photograph is taken. (It provides information which enables a photographer
to adjust the aperture of the camera correctly.) Such meters can contain a
surface which emits electrons when it receives light energy, and a micro-
ammeter which measures the flow rate of electric charge from the surface.
The greater the light intensity, the greater is the current through the micro-
ammeter. The principle on which the meter works is called the photoelectric
or photoemissive effect, and cells working on this principle are called
photoelectric cells.

(d) The phototransistor

The phototransistor is a device whose electrical resistance decreases when
light falls on its surface. A small battery drives a current through the photo-
transistor in series with a galvanometer. When the illumination of the
phototransistor is increased, the galvanometer shows that the current also
increases.

18.3 THE EXTENDED SPECTRUM

In Fig. 18.2 the visible spectrum of white light appears as a fairly well
defined patch of colours on the screen. A phototransistor could be used in
this region to detect light rays of various colours; it also detects the presence
 167

of rays in the regions beyond the red and violet ends of the spectrum.
Some photoelectric cells and camera films also show that there is light in
these regions, although the eye cannot see it. Rays beyond the violet end
of the spectrum at X are called ultra-violet rays, and those beyond the red
end of the spectrum at Yare called infra-red (Fig. 18.2).
A mercury vapour lamp and a quartz lamp emit ultra-violet light as well
as visible light. The Sun also emits ultra-violet light, though much of it
reaching the Earth's atmosphere is absorbed before it reaches the ground.
The Sun's ultra-violet rays cause a sunbather's skin to become suntanned;
they also cause some substances to fluoresce. A fluorescent substance emits
visible light when it absorbs ultra-violet light, so a fluorescent paper can be
used to detect ultra-violet rays. Tests show that ultra-violet light of wave-
length considerably less than that of violet light does not readily pass
through glass. A window pane absorbs the ultra-violet while transmitting
the incident visible light.
X-rays have shorter wavelengths in air than ultra-violet rays, and they
are more penetrating. They are emitted when a tungsten target contained
in a vacuum tube is bombarded by very fast-moving electrons (Fig. 18.4).
They can be detected photographically or by their effect on a fluorescent
screen. The rays penetrate the human body, but they are partially absorbed

fig 18.4 an X-ray tube. A high voltage applied between the anode A and
the cathode C accelerates electrons towards the tungsten target.
Their energies are converted into X-rays

Tungsten Electron
target paths

X-rays
168

by bones which show up well as shadows in photographs. X-rays are there-

fore invaluable in the investigation of suspected bone fractures.
'Y-rays (see also Chapter 26) have shorter wavelengths than X-rays, and
they are even more penetrating than X-rays. They affect a photographic
plate, and they can also be detected by the ionising effect that they have
on molecules in their path, 'Y-rays are emitted from the nuclei of certain
radioactive atoms. They possess great energy, and like X-rays they are
harmful to the body. Their destructive effect on cell life can be put to
good use, as 'Y-rays can destroy bacteria without harming a foodstuff in
the same package .
. Beyond the red end of the spectrum, infra-red light has wavelengths
greater than red light. The rays are emitted by all hot objects, and they are
referred to as radiant heat. The skin can feel the effect of radiant heat,
which can also be detected using a phototransistor, or a thermomenter
with a blackened bulb. Glass tends to absorb radiant heat and block its
flow, so that infra-red radiation does not readily pass out through the gla~s
of greenhouses. The walls of glass act as a thermal trap for radiant hea:t,
and so greenhouses tend to be warmer inside than the air outside (see also
Section 11.10).
Microwaves and radar waves have longer wavelengths than infra-rt\d
light. Microwaves are used in some electric ovens for cooking. They are
sufficiently penetrating to cook meat all through at the same time, instead
of from the surface inwards. Radar waves are strongly reflected by concrete
and metal structures, and they are widely used for navigation and com-
munication purposes.
Radio and TV waves have greater wavelengths than all the other radia-
tions in this extended electromagnetic spectrum. They are generated by
oscillating electric charges in aerials, and received also by means of aerials.
The longest radio wavelengths regularly in use are of about 2000 m.
Table 18.1 includes details of the radiations which make up the electro-
magnetic spectrum, listed in order of increasing wavelength. Typical wave-
lengths in air are given, although the radiations have various wavelengths
which together form a continuous range from the shortest ('Y-rays) to the
longest (radio waves). Electromagnetic waves have certain common proper-
ties. These include:
(i) they all consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields,
(ii) they are all transverse waves (see Section 13.3),
(iii) they can all travel in a vacuum,
(iv) in a vacuum or free space, they all travel at the speed of ligh t, which is
3 x 108 m/s.
The frequencies of electromagnetic waves are found using the wave equa-
tion (13.6) which applip.s to all wave motions. Since v = ['A. = 3 X 108 mJ.s
 169

Table 18.1 the electromagnetic spectrum of radiation

Wave names Typical wavelengths Emitters Detectors

(m)

"(-rays 10- 14 Radioactive GM tube and

nuclei photograph
X-rays 10- 10 X-ray tube Photograph
Ultra-violet 10-8 Quartz lamp, Photograph,
rays Sun, mercury fluorescent
vapour lamp paper, photo-
electric cell
Visible light 5 x 10- 7 Sun, filament Photograph,
lamp, strip eye photo-
lighting transistor,
photoelectric
cell
Infra-red rays 10- 5 Sun, electric Phototransistor,
fires, hot blackened bulb
solids thermometer,
skin
Microwaves 10-2 Some electric Electronic
ovens detector
Radar waves 3 x 10-2 Aerials, cathode
Oscillators
ray tubes,
VHF and TV and
TV sets, radio
transmissions transmitter
telescope, aerial
aerials
Radio waves 300 and receiver

for all electromagnetic waves in free space, it follows that the shortest
wavelengths are emitted by sources which have the highest frequencies
(r-rays). At the other end of the spectrum, radio waves have the longest
wavelengths and the lowest frequencies.

18.4 COLOUR ADDITION

If a white screen is illuminated simultaneously by two different coloured

lights, a third colour appears on the screen where the original colours over-
lap. For example, yellow is seen when red and green light beams illuminate
the screen and overlap. Experiments show that
170

Red + Green = Yellow

Green + Blue = Peacock blue (called cyan or turquoise)
Blue + Red = Magenta
The colours red, green and blue cannot be produced by adding other
colours on the screen; they are called primary colours. When two primary
colours are added, the resulting colours are calIed secondary colours. Yellow,
peacock blue and magenta are therefore secondary colours.
When all three primary colours are added, the screen appears white, i.e.
Red + Blue + Green = White
The screen also appears white when the three secondary colours are added,
i.e.
Peacock blue + Magenta + YelIow = White
The above results can be expressed by means of a colour triangle which
has the primary colours at its vertices, secondary colours at the midpoints
of sides, and white in the middle (see Fig. 18.5). The figure is obtained by
putting around the triangle what are almost the rainbow colours taken in
sequence.

fig 18.5 the colour triangle

RED

GREEN Peacock BLUE

blue

When white light is produced by the addition of two colours, they are
described as complementary colours. Complementary colours consist of a
primary colour and the secondary colour at the opposite side of the
triangle. For example, green and magenta are complementary colours;
when they are added, they produce white light.
 171

18.5 COLOUR SUBTRACTION

(a) Colour filters

A colour filter is described by the colour of light which passes through it. A
red filter, for example, passes red light and absorbs light of other colours.
A yellow filter passes yellow light but also some red and green light which
are next to yellow in the spectrum. A peacock blue filter allows green and
blue light to pass through it; and a magenta filter allows red and blue light
to pass while absorbing the other colours in the spectrum. Fig. 18.6 shows
a primary colour being produced from a beam of white light by means of
two secondary filters. In this example, green is the only colour which passes
through both the yellow and the peacock blue filters.

fig 18.6 white light is passed through a yellow and a peacock blue filter,
and green light emerges

White Yellow GREEN

(red + green)
'--
Yellow Peacock blue
filter filter

(b) Pigments
Pigments are substances which give paints their characteristic colours. They
absorb some colours and reflect others. Black paint has a pigment which
absorbs all colours and reflects none. White paint on the other hand reflects
light of all colours. Most pigments are impure; they reflect bands of colours
rather than just a single pure colour. When pigments are mixed, they
reflect only the colours which neither pigment absorbs. Yellow paint
reflects red and green light. Peacock blue paint reflects blue and green light.
The colour which both pigments reflect is green, so a mixture of yellow
and peacock blue paints results in a green paint. This is an example of
colour subtraction from the beam of light which illuminates the paint. It is
comparable with the example for colour filters given in Fig. 18.6.

18.6 COLOURED OBJECTS SEEN IN COLOURED LIGHTS

The apparent colour of an object depends on the colour of light illuminat-

ing it. A yellow object reflects red and green light and absorbs blue. Hence,
172

a yellow object illuminated by red light appears red, because red light is
the only colour reflected. If a yellow object is illuminated by blue light, it
appears black, because the blue light is absorbed and no light is reflected.
A red object appears red when seen in yellow or magenta light. Both
colours contain red which is the only colour that the red object reflects.
But it appears black if illuminated by peacock blue light, because peacock
blue contains no red light; the colours in peacock blue are green and blue,
both of which are absorbed by a red object.
 CHAPTER 19 173

SOUND

19.1 INTRODUCTION

All sources of sound have some part of them which is vibrating, for ex-
ample, a violin string or the surface of a drum. Sound travels in the form
of longitudinal waves, that is, molecules vibrate to and fro in the direction
of travel of the sound (see Section 13.4). When sound is heard, energy is
carried from the source of the waves to the ear of the listener; but the
molecules of air in between do not move as a whole towards the listener
(see Section 13.1). At any instant there are regions where the air is com-
pressed (compressions), separated by regions where the air is rarefied (rare-
factions or decompressions). Sound waves consist of a series of alternate
compressions and rarefactions travelling away from a source at a certain
speed determined by the nature of the medium in which they flow.
Sound cannot be transmitted through a space where there is no medium.
An electric bell inside a bell jar cannot be heard after the air has been
pumped out, but its loudness increases as air is allowed back into the jar.
In the same way, sounds cannot be transmitted above the Moon's surface
where there is no atmosphere; the Moon is sometimes called the 'silent
planet' .
Sound cannot travel through a vacuum
The wavelength of sound waves is the distance between two adjacent
compressions or two adjacent rarefactions (Section 13.2)
The frequency of sound waves is the number o/waves passing a point
every second. The unit of frequency is fhe hertz (Hz), as it is for
other wave motions. 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second, which means that the
molecules vibrate backwards and forwards once every second
Like all other wave motions, sound waves can be reflected; echoes from
walls obey the laws of reflection (Section 14.2). They can also be refracted.
A balloon filled with carbon dioxide acts like a lens and focuses sound
174

19.2 MEASUREMENT OF THE FREQUENCY OF SOUND WAVES

(a) Using a cathode ray oscilloscope

A microphone converts sound energy into electrical energy. It responds to
the small pressure variations in sound waves and converts them into small
voltage variations of the same frequency. When a microphone is connected
via an amplifier to the input terminals of a cathode ray oscilloscope, the
waveform of sound reaching the microphone can be displayed on the screen
of the cathode ray tube.
Suppose the time base is set at 1 millisecond per centimetre (I ms/cm),
and that the trace on the face of the oscilloscope looks like the one shown
in Fig. 19.1. Then one complete sound wave reaches the microphone as

fig 19.1

h h h h h h h h
\.. \.I \J \) \) \J \J \)

II-...- - - - - 8 cml-----I.. ~I

the trace sweeps horizontally across 1 cm. This takes 1 ms, and if one wave
arrives every millisecond, then there are 1000 waves/so The frequency is
therefore 1000 Hz.

(b) Using a stroboscope

In this method the source is 'frozen' by using a flashing light (see Section
13.5 (d)). The maximum flashing rate when the source appears stationary
is the frequency of the source, and of the waves it emits.

19.3 MEASURING THE VELOCITY OF SOUND IN AIR BY AN ECHO

METHOD

The experiment is carried out in an open space some 50 to 100 m from a

large vertical wall. A person stands a measured distance from the wall clap-
 175

ping loudly at regular intervals. With a little practice the rate of clapping
can be adjusted so that the echo returns from the wall midway between
two claps. Only then does a second observer measure the rate of clapping
using a stopwatch.
Suppose the timer standing 55 m from the wall counts 30 claps in 20 s.
The time between claps is 20/30 s, and the time between a clap and its
echo is half as much, Le. 20/60 or 1/3 s. In 1/3 s sound travels to the wall
and back, which is 110 m. The speed of sound in air is therefore
110m
= 330 m/s.
1/3 s
Results obtained by this method vary considerably, suggesting that any
one value may not be very accurate. Why is the result liable to be in-
accurate? A small error would be introduced if the estimate of the distance
to the wall were in error by a few centimetres; and the time of 30 claps
with a good stopwatch would introduce a small error too. By far the greatest
source of error is the clapping rate which must be maintained steady so
that echoes are heard exactly halfway between claps. If the claps are a few
milliseconds too far apart, a very significant error results in the estimate of
the speed of sound.
If the frequency and velocity of sound waves are known, the wavelength
A can also be determined using the wave equation v =fA. (equation 13.1
Section 13.6).

19.4 DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE OF SOUND WAYES

like all other wave motions, sound waves exhibit the properties of diffrac-
tion and interference (see Section 13.9). Diffraction enables sound waves
to be heard around the corners of buildings or over the top of a high wall.
Sound can also be diffracted on passing through an open doorway whose
width is of the order of the wavelength of the sound.
The interference of sound waves can be demonstrated using two loud-
speakers connected to the same signal generator and spaced about 3 m
apart, as illustrated in Fig. 19.2. Anyone walking along a line AB parallel
to the line joining the loudspeakers hears a note of varying !ntensity or
loudness. A soft note of minimum intensity is heard wherever a compres-
sion from one loudspeaker coincides with a rarefaction from the other
loudspeaker; and a loud note of maximum intensity is heard wherever two
compressions coincide followed a moment later by two decompressions
from the two loudspeakers. The spacing of the loudest points along AB in
Fig. 19.2 can be used to find the wavelength of the sound. The theory is
given in Section 13.9(d) for the measurement of the wavelength of light
using Young's slits and it applies to this situation as well as to light.
176

fig 19.2 the sound waves from the two sources interfere constructively if
the path difference is a whole number of wavelengths

A
Loud

Soft
Signal nX
generator Loud

Soft
~
• 00 Loud

Soft

Loud

Soft

19.5 THE PITCH, LOUDNESS AND QUALITY OF A MUSICAL NOTE

A source vibrating irregularly produces noise, but regular vibrations pro-

duce musical notes.

(a) Pitch
The term pitch is used by musicians to distinguish different musical notes.
The pitch of a note depends on its frequency; if the frequency increases,
the pitch of the note goes up. Musical notes in the audible range have fre-
quencies from about 20 Hz up to about 20 kHz; the range is greater for a
dog's ears, and dog whistles usually have frequencies which are higher than
human ears can hear.

(b) Loudness
The term loudness is used to describe our response to sound reaching our
ears. A loud sound is more easily heard than a soft sound. But loudness is
not a very precise description; and intensity is often used by physicists as
a measure of the sound energy reaching the ear every second.
The intensity of sound at a particular place is the power (energy per
second) transmitted through unit area at that place
 177

The intensity of the sound emitted by a source depends on the ampli-

tude of vibration of the source (see Section 13.8). The intensity increases
with the amplitude of vibration.
The intensity of a sound is determined by the amplitude a/vibration
0/ the air molecules
(c) Quality
Middle C played on a piano sounds different from the same note played on
a trombone. The two notes have the same pitch and frequency; but they
have a different quality, which enables a listener to tell at once which instru-
ment played the note. When the signals from a microphone are fed to a
cathode ray oscilloscope and displayed for each instrument in turn, the
waveforms have different shapes. Fig. 19.3 illustrates the waveforms of a

fig 19.3 the notes have the same frequency but different quality

Flute

Clarinet

Oboe

Tuning fork

note played on a flute, clarinet and oboe. In each waveform the quality is
different from that of a tuning fork of the same frequency. The pure note
of the tuning fork has the simplest waveform.

19.6 ABSORPTION OF SOUND WA YES

Sound waves are normally partially absorbed and partially reflected by

materials in their path. A brick wall is a good reflector of sound, and a
178

cushion is a good absorber. If a sound is made in an empty room having no

furniture or curtains, the sound will reverberate. It will die away gradually
as it is repeatedly reflected to and fro across the room. When the room is
furnished, the reverberation time is reduced, because the sound energy is
quickly absorbed by soft furnishings. Packing hollow walls with fibre glass
considerably improves the sound insulation of a room, and the intensities
of sounds passing through the walls are reduced.

19.7 RESONANCE

All objects have their own natural frequencies of vibration. A pendulum

when set in motion swings to and fro with its own natural frequency; and
another pendulum of different length has a different natural frequency.
The experiment illustrated in Fig. 19.4 may be used to demonstrate the
phenomenon of resonance. A series of light pendulums of different lengths

fig 19.4 Barton's pendulums. The light pendulum which has the same
length of string as the mass m resonates with large amplitude
when the mass m swings to and fro

is supported from a single string which also carries a pendulum with a more
massive bob. When the bob is drawn to the side and released, each of the
light pendulums also swings with what are called forced oscilk!tions. The
amplitude of the swings of the light pendulums are small except for the one
whose natural frequency coincides with that of the massive pendulum. In
this light pendulum, large amplitude oscillations build up. The phenomenon
is called resonance.
Where resonance occurs, the frequency of forcing oscillations "is the
same as the natural frequency of the system being forced to oscillate.
At this frequency, oscillations of large amplitude result from applied
impulses of small amplitude
 179

Resonance in an air column can be demonstrated using an open glass

tube lowered slowly into a tall column of water while a tuning fork vibrates
above the tube. As the tube is lowered into the position illustrated in Fig.
19.5, the column of air that it contains becomes shorter. When the natural
frequency of the air column matches that of the struck tuning fork, the
sound of the fork is heard more loudly in the room.
Reasonance is often the cause of vibrating panels on cars and buses.
When the frequency of vibration of the engine is equal to the natural
frequency of the panel, a loud sound is heard as the amplitude of vibration
of the panel increases.

fig 19.5 when the natural frequency of the air column is the same fre-
quency as that of a tuning fork, the air in the tube resonates
emitting a loud note
Tuning fork

t I

Water
 181

PART IV
ELECTRICITY! ATOMIC AND
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
The lights of Piccadilly Circus in London (courtesy United Kingdom Atomic Energy
Authority)
 CHAPTER 20 183

MAGNETISM

20.1 PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS

If you have played with magnets or magnetic toys, you will probably be
familiar with two of their basic properties, namely the fact that they attract
pieces of iron or steel (Fig. 20.1) and, secondly, if pivoted or suspended,
they always come to rest pointing in a definite direction. When pivoted the
fig 20.1 the nails adhere to the regions at the ends of the magnet known
as the poles

end which points towards the North of the Earth is called the North-seeking
pole or simply the N-pole. The end which points South is called the South-
seeking pole or the S-pole. (Two substances other than iron and steel which
are attracted by magnets are cobalt and nickel.)
If the N-pole of a magnet is brought near the N-pole of another magnet,
then repulsion occurs (Fig. 20.2). Two S-poles will also repel each other

fig 20.2 the test for magnetism is repulsion

Repelled
184

while a N-pole and a S-pole will attract each other. We may summarise this
by saying:
Like poles repel, unlike poles attract

20.2 THE TEST FOR MAGNETISM

If you want to discover whether a bar is magnetised or not, bring each end
in turn up to the N-pole of a suspended magnet (Fig. 20.2). If one end
repels the N-pole, then the bar is magnetised. Repulsion is the only sure test
for a magnet. An unmagnetised bar will attract the N- and the S-pole of a
suspended magnet.

20.3 MAKING A MAGNET

(a) By stroking
Fig. 20.3 shows one method of magnetising a steel knitting needle. The
needle is stroked in the same direction a number of times. After each

fig 20.3 making a magnet

/
/-~----------~-------~- ......
,
II ' \

l------------- --~/
I S \
\ ~

\ , - - +--
, - --N ,
(N) (S)

stroke the magnet must be lifted well clear of the needle. The end last
touched by the magnet has the opposite polarity to that of the stroking
pole.

(b) Electrically
In this method the unmagnetised bar is placed in a solenoid. This is a
cylindrical tube of cardboard on which are wound several hundred turns
of insulated copper wire. An electric current is passed through the wire
(Fig. 20.4). Fig. 20.4b shows a method for finding which end is the N-pole.
If the fingers of the right hand grip the solenoid, such that the fingers are
pointing in the direction of the current flow, then the thumb points in the
direction of the N-pole.
A magnet may be de-magnetised by withdrawing it slowly from a
solenoid in which an alternating current is flowing.
 185

fig 20.4 magnetising a bar. In (b) the fingers are pointed in the direction
of the current; the N-pole is at the end to which the thumb is
pointing

+
d.c. supply

(a) (b)

2004 INDUCED MAGNETISM

It is very easy to pick up a whole chain of nails using a bar magnet (Fig.
20.5). The nails become magnetised as shown in the diagram. They are
said to be magnetised by induction. If the magnet is removed the nails
cease to be magnetised.

fig 20.5 the tacks become magnets by induction

20.5 PROPERTIES OF SOFT IRON AND STEEL

Fig. 20.6a shows magnetism being induced in bars of iron and steel. When
the magnet is removed (Fig. 20.6b) the steel retains most of its magnetism
but the iron loses its magnetism. Magnetic materials like iron, which are
easy to magnetise but do not retain their magnetism, are said to be 'soft'.
Those like steel, which are harder to magnetise but retain their magnetism,
186

fig 20.6 soft iron loses its magnetism when the permanent magnet is
removed

S
Permanent
magnet

Magnet
N removed

~
S S S

Soft Steel
iron
N

(a) (b)

are said to be 'hard'. Permanent magnets are made from materials like steel.
Electromagnets are made from soft iron.

20.6 MAGNETIC FIELDS

The region around a magnet where the magnetic influence may be

detected is known as a magnetic field, and contains something
we call magnetic flux
There are several ways of showing the presence of this invisible mag-
netic flux:

(a) Iron filings method

Place a sheet of paper on top of a bar magnet and sprinkle iron filings on-
to the paper. The paper should then be gently tapped. When this is done,
the iron filings which are magnetised by induction align themselves into
the flux pattern illustrated in Fig. 20.7.

(b) Plotting compass method

The magnet is placed on a sheet of paper and the plotting compass is placed
near the magnet. A series of dots are put on the paper such that the line
between any two adjacent dots represents the direction in which the
compass needle points when placed between them (Fig. 20.8).
 187

fig 20.7 the flux patterns or lines of force around a bar magnet

..
fig 20.8 plotting the lines of force using a plotting compass

e ';•'::'•· •·
,-,
.
.......
I",
•
." ~-'

•
• •••
••
sl
Plotting
compass

(c) Floating magnet method

In this method a magnetised knitting needle which passes through a piece
of cork is floated vertically on water (Fig. 20.9). If the N-pole of the verti-
cal needle is positioned near the N-pole of the bar magnet and then released,
it will move along the line afforce as indicated in the diagram.
A magnetic line of force shows the direction of the field at any point.
It is the direction in which a free N-pole would move if placed in the field
The lines of force due to a number of different arrangements are shown
in Fig. 20.10. Notice that the lines of force representing the flux pattern
can never touch or cross.
188

fig 20.9 the N-pole of the floating magnet moves along the flux line

Bar
magnet
Glass tank
full of water

Long magnetised
steel knitting needle

fig 20. 10 the flux patterns resulting from two bar magnets: (a) with oppo-
site poles facing each other and (b) with like poles facing each
other (c) a V-shaped magnet (d) a V-shaped magnet with curved
pole pieces

(a) (b)

(e) (d)
 CHAPTER 21 189

ELECTRONS AND ELECTRON

BEAMS

21.1 CHARGING BY FRICTION

When a plastic ruler is placed near some very tiny pieces of paper, it will
not have any effect on them. However, if the ruler is rubbed with a duster,
it is found that the pieces of paper are attracted to the ruler. This difference
in behaviour is explained by saying that the ruler has become electrically
charged when rubbed with the duster. Because the ruler is charged, it exerts
an electric force on the paper; the nearer the ruler is to the paper the
greater the force it exerts. Charging the ruler by rubbing it with a duster is
called charging by friction.

21.2 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CHARGE

Strips of polythene and acetate behave in a similar way to the plastic ruler
and can be charged by friction. Using the arrangement shown in Fig. 21.1
it is found that two charged polythene strips repel each other as do two
charged acetate strips. However, a charged polythene strip is found to
attract a charged acetate strip. This difference in behaviour indicates that
fig 21.1

f
Polythene strip

Polythene
strip
190

the charge on the acetate is different from that on the polythene strip. To
account for this difference, the acetate strip is said to be positively charged
and the polythene is said to be negatively charged.
All charged objects are found to have a charge similar to that of either
the acetate or polythene, that is, to be positively or negatively charged. It
is always found that objects with the same charge repel each other, whereas
objects with opposite charge attract each other.
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract
We can now explain why a piece of paper is attracted by a charged rod.
Suppose a negatively charged rod is held above a small piece of paper. The
electrons in the paper will be repelled leaving the top of the paper positively
charged. The attraction of unlike charges (negative on the rod and positive
on top of the paper) results in the paper being attracted by the rod.

21.3 PROTONS AND ELECTRONS

The existence of two and only two types of charge comes about from the
nature of the atom itself.
All matter is composed of atoms which consist of particles called pro-
tons, neutrons and electrons. Protons have a positive charge, neutrons have
no charge and electrons have a negative charge. In an atom the number of
protons equals the number of electrons, and as the charge on the proton is
the same size as that on the electron, the atom is electrically neutral, that
is, the amounts of positive and negative charge are the same.
If some electrons are removed from an object it will acquire an overall
positive charge, as the amount of positive charge will now be greater than
the amount of negative charge. This is exactly what occurs when an acetate
strip is rubbed with a duster. Some of the electrons in the acetate are trans-
ferred from the strip to the duster, the strip becoming positively charged,
and the duster becoming negatively charged.
Electric charge is measured in coulombs (C), and the charge on one
electron is -1.6 x 10- 19 C. Thus if 10 12 electrons are transferred from
one object A to another object B, then A will acquire an overall charge of
+ 1.6 x 10- 7 C and the charge on B will be -1.6 x 10- 7 C.

21.4 CHARGING BY INDUCTION

In certain materials called conductors, there are large numbers of electrons

which, whilst contained within the conductor, are free to move around
within it. In other materials called insulators, there are a smaller number of
electrons which are free to move, the vast majority being fixed in position
within the insulator.
 191

As they contain a large number of free electrons, conductors can be

charged by a process known as induction. In order to do this, a charged
object such as a polythene strip is placed near the conductor (Fig. 21.2).
The negative charge on the polythene repels some of the free electrons in
the conductor to A. If you touch the conductor at A, some of the electrons
will move from the conductor to the earth. If you now remove your finger
and then remove the polythene strip, the conductor, having lost some
electrons, will be positively charged.

fig 21.2 charging by induction

Conductor

+ + I
___--,I =:
A

-;
-~- + I~
- - +

Polythene strip

Similarly if a positively charged acetate strip is brought near a conductor

and the same procedure adopted, the conductor will become negatively
charged. In this case electrons are transferred from the earth (via your
finger) to the conductor, making it negatively charged.
It is important to note that when charging by induction the conductor
obtains a charge opposite to that of the object used in charging it.

21.5 IONISATION

Air and any other gas is a good insulator as it contains virtually no free
electrons. However, it is possible for a gas to become ionised.
Ionisation involves the removal or the gain of an electron by an atom or
molecule. If the atom or molecule loses an electron it then has more pro-
tons than electrons and it is therefore positively charged. An atom which
has lost one or more of its electrons is called a positive ion. An atom which
has gained electrons is a negative ion.
When a gas has been ionised, the electrons are free to move and the gas
will conduct. The conduction is different from that which occurs in a metal
in that as well as the electrons being free to move, the positive and negative
ions will also move. Thus:
Conduction in a gas involves the movement o/positive and negative ions
and electrons, whereas in a metal it only involves the movement
0/ electrons
192

21.6 LIGHTNING AND LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS

Lightning is caused by the build-up of electric charge on the base of a cloud

and a lightning flash results when charge flows between the cloud and the
Earth. If this very large flow of charge occurs through a building or a tree,
it can cause serious damage, and for this reason buildings are usually pro-
tected by using a lightning conductor.
This consists of a pOinted spike attached to a thick piece of copper
which itself is connected to a large metal plate in the ground. The charge
on the base of the cloud induces charge on the Earth beneath it. A high
concentration of charge occurs at the top of the conductor and the sur-
rounding air becomes ionised. Because of this ionisation the charge on the
base of the cloud is reduced and a lightning flash becomes less likely. Even
if a flash does occur, it is more likely to occur through the conductor than
through the building and so the building is protected from damage.

21.7 THE CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

(a) Introduction
This instrument makes use of a fine beam of fast-moving electrons which
travel down an evacuated tube, through two sets of deflection plates, and
strike a fluorescent screen. As shown in Fig. 21.3 this fast-moving beam of
electrons is produced at one end of the evacuated tube by an 'electron gun',
and where the electrons strike the screen a small spot of light is produced.
The main controls of the instrument are shown in Fig. 21.4.

(b) Measurement of voltage

The cathode ray oscilloscope can be used to measure voltage, and the bat-
tery whose voltage is to be measured is connected across the input terminals
(see Fig. 21.4). The input terminals are effectively connected across they
deflection plates (Fig. 21.3), and connecting the battery across them will
cause the deflection plates to become charged. If the positive terminal of
the battery is connected to the upper input terminal, then the top deflec-
tion plate will become positively charged and the lower plate will become
negatively charged.
The charge on these plates will cause the beam of negatively charged
electrons to be deflected upwards, and as the electrons now strike the
screen higher up, the spot of light will be seen to be displaced upwards. On
the screen there is a set of horizontal lines drawn 1 cm apart, and as shown
in Fig. 21.5, it is possible to measure the amount by which the spot has
been deflected when the battery is connected. This measured deflection of
the spot is proportional to the voltage applied to the input terminals and
in Fig. 21.5 this deflection is 2 cm.
fig.21.3 diagram showing the essential features of a cathccfe ray tube. The heated cathode emits
electrons which are attracted by the positive anode. Some pass through a hole in the
anode, producing a beam of electrons

Vertical (y)
Electron gun
r--------------, deflection Fluorescent
I I plates
I Cathode : /screen
i / I
I
I
I /
I ----+- Light
I
I
I Vacuum
I ~
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
L
I ________ _ _ _ _ _ -.JI deflection
Fine beam of plates
Power supply fast-moving
(high voltage) electrons

.....
to
W
194

fig 21.4 diagram showing the usual position of the main controls on the
front panel of a cathode ray oscilloscope

Screen

Brightness
off f
J""'II--U---Focus
1--------1

\-ooI--U--- Time base

control

Input y sensitivity
terminals control

fig 21.5 (a) the position of the spot before the battery is connected and
(b) its position after connecting the battery

t
==~========~~~lcm
t • ~
2cm
•

(a) (b)

In order to find the voltage it is necessary to make use of the 'y sensi-
tivity' setting on the oscilloscope. The 'y sensitivity' setting can be read off
the front panel of the instrument and gives the voltage required to deflect
the spot by 1 cm. Thus if the y sensitivity' control is set at 5 volts/cm,
and the spot is seen to move 2 cm when the battery is connected, the volt-
age of the battery is 10 volts.
If the terminals of the battery are reversed, the spot will be deflected
downwards by the same amount, as now the lower deflection plate will be-
come positively charged and the upper plate negatively charged.

(c) Alternating voltage

A battery gives a steady voltage and the spot will remain fixed in position
on the screen once the battery has been connected to the input terminals.
If, however, an alternating voltage is applied to the input terminals, it is
 195

found that the spot moves continually up and down on the screen, and
this indicates that the voltage applied to the input terminals is continually
changing.
The fact that the spot is seen to go through a repeating cycle of change
indicates that the applied voltage, whilst continually changing, does itself
perform a repeating cycle of change as shown in Fig. 21.6. The time for
one complete cycle of change to occur is called the time period or periodic
time (T). The frequency (f) of the alternating voltage is the number of
complete cycles that occur in one second.

fig 21.6 T is the time it takes for one complete cycle of change to occur
and is called the time period of the alternating voltage

Voltage

O~----~--~--~~--~--~----.- Time

If, for example, T = 0.1 s, then 10 complete cycles will occur in one
second and the frequency of the supply is 10 cycles/s or 10 hertz (Hz). In
general, the frequency can be calculated from. the time period using the
following equation:

Frequency =- - - - - (21.1 )
Time period
If the time period is sufficiently large, it is possible to measure it using a
stopwatch and recording how long it takes for the spot on the screen to
move from the top of the screen to the bottom and back to the top. From
this value, the frequency of the alternating voltage can be calculated using
equation (21.1).
However, if the time period is very small, the spot will be moving up
and down so quickly that a straight vertical line will appear on the screen,
as shown in Fig. 21.7. In order to measure the frequency in this case, it is
necessary to use the time base control.
196

fig 21.7 the trace obtained on an oscilloscope when an alternating voltage

of high frequency is applied to the input terminals

(d) The time base control

The time base control causes the spot to move horizontally across the
screen. This is achieved by applying a gradually increasing voltage to the
horizontal x deflection plates. The rate at which the spot moves across
the screen can be read off the front panel of the oscilloscope.
If the time base is set at 1 ms/cm it means that the spot takes 1 ms to
move 1 cm across the screen. With the time base switched on and an alter-
nating voltage applied to the input terminals, a trace like that shown in Fig.
21.8 can be obtained on the screen. From this trace it can be seen that the
voltage undergoes one complete cycle of change in the time it takes the
spot to move 4 em across the screen. If the time base is set at 1 ms/cm,
then the voltage undergoes one complete cycle in 4 ms. Using equation
(21.1) the frequency of the alternating voltage can be found to be 250 Hz.

fig21.8

~
1cm

T II '\ I '\ I 1\
'I ~ 'I
\ J \ I
\ .J '\ .J

~4cm~ ~~
1cm
 197

Thus, as well as measuring voltage, a cathode ray oscilloscope can be

used to measure the frequency of an alternating voltage. It may also be used
to study wave forms. Fig. 21.8 shows one common wave form, but others
may be seen by connecting different signals to the input terminals when
the time base is switched on (see also Section 19.5c).

WORKED EXAMPLE

A sound wave fed to a eRO via a microphone gives a trace with peaks 2 cm
ap.art when the time base is set at 10 ms/cm. What is the frequency of the
sound wave?
The time for one complete cycle of sound = 2 x 10 ms =20 ms. Using
equation 21.1 we have
1
Frequency = - - - - -
Time period

= 50Hz
20ms 0.02 s
198 CHAPTER 22

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

22.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT

Conductors contain a large number of electrons which are free to move

within them. When a conductor is connected to a battery, these free elec-
trons, instead of moving in a random way, move in a particular direction.
An electric current is a flow of electrons around an electric circuit
Fig. 22.1 shows a simple electric circuit consisting of a battery, a lamp
and two connecting wires. In this circuit, electrons flow from the negative
to the positive terminal of the battery. As each electron has a negative

fig 22.1

charge, an electric current consists of a flow of negative charge from the

negative to the positive terminal of the battery.
However, originally the flow of charge was considered to be from the
positive to the negative terminal of the battery. This convention is still
internationally followed when representing the direction of the current in
a circuit, as is indicated by the arrows in Fig. 22.1, which show the flow
occurring from the positive to the negative terminal of the battery. This
convention is adopted throughout this book.
 199

Electric current is measured using an ammeter. In order for the ammeter

to measure the current, the charge must flow through it, and this is achieved
by placing the ammeter in the circuit as shown in Fig. 22.2. Current is
measured in amperes (A), and the ammeter is said to be connected in series.
A reading of 0.2 A on the ammeter would mean that 0.2 coulombs (C) of
electric charge pass through the meter in 1 s.

fig 22.2

1.5 V

The value of the current recorded on an ammeter.equals the number of

coulombs of electric charge that pass through the meter in one second.
I A = 1 Cis (22.1)
If 20 C of charge were to flow through an ammeter in 5 s what current
would it record? (Answer = 4 C/s.)
The flow of charge round an electric circuit is similar to the flow of
water round a central heating system, and just as the flow of water would
be measured in gallons/second so the flow rate of electric charge is measur-
ed in coulombs/second.

22.2 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (VOLTAGE)

The battery in Fig. 22.2 is labelled 1.5 volts (V). What does this tell us
about the battery?
Before answering this question it is necessary to look more closely at
the circuit of Fig. 22.2. The arroWS show the flow of positive charge from
the positive to the negative terminal of the battery. This positive charge
also flows through the battery from its negative to its positive terminal. In
order for this to happen, the positive charge must be supplied with energy
in order to overcome the electrical forces acting on it.
The electromotive force (e.m.f.) or voltage of a battery, gives the number
of joules of energy that are supplied to each coulomb of charge as it
passes through the battery
200

Thus, a 1.5 V battery supplies 1.5 J of energy to each coulomb of charge

that passes through it
1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb or IV=IJ/C (22.2)
A battery converts chemical energy to electric potential energy. A bat-
tery is 'flat' when it has used up its store of chemicals and can no longer
supply energy to move the charge through the battery. At this point
electric charge ceases to flow round the circuit, and the current drops to
zero.
The pump in a water circuit is equivalent to the battery in an electric
circuit. Without the pump the flow of water would stop, and similarly
without the battery the flow of electric charge would stop.
The energy supplied to the electric charge by the battery is converted
into other forms of energy as the electric charge flows round the circuit.
For example, if the circuit contains a light bulb the energy is converted to
heat and light on passing through the bulb. Thus as the electric charge flows
round the circuit, it gains energy on passing through the battery, and gives
it up on passing round the rest of the circuit, only to repeat the process
over and over again.
Fig. 22.3 shows a voltmeter connected across one of two lamps, lit by a
battery. If the voltmeter records 0.6 V it means that each coulomb of elec·
tric charge will lose 0.6 J of energy as heat and light on passing through
the bulb, L1 . Thus at point A in the circuit the coulomb has 0.6 joules
more electric potential energy than it does at point B. The voltmeter thus
records the difference in the electric potential energy of I coulomb between
pOints A and B, and for this reason the reading of the voltmeter is referred
to as the potential difference (voltage) between A and B.
fig. 22.3

22.3 SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Fig. 22.4 shows two bulbs connected in series to a battery and Fig. 22.5
shows the bulbs connected in parallel to the battery. As is clear from the
 201

fig 22.4 a series circuit 11 = 12

diagrams, in a series circuit there is only one path by which the charge can
flow, whereas in a parallel circuit the charge can follow one of a number
of different paths.

22.4 CURRENT IN SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

(a) Series
The cu"ent is the same at all points in a series circuit
If this were not the case then charge would either be lost from, or
build up in, the circuit, neither of which is observed to occur.

(b) Parallel
When the current is measured at points X, Y and Z in the parallel circuit
shown in Fig. 22.5, it is found that the current at X equals the sum of the
currents at Y and Z, Remembering that current is a flow of charge, this

fig 22.5 a parallel circuit

z
result is to be expected. If the flow rate at X is 6 Cis and at Y is 4 Cis,
then the remaining 2 Cis that pass X must flow through Z, so the current
at Z is 2 Cis or 2 A. In general, for the parallel circuit shown in Fig. 22.6
(22.3)
202

The sum of the cu"ents flowing in the branches of a parallel circuit

equals the cu"ent entering those branches

fig 22.6 1=/1 +12 +13

I I

(c) Similarity with flow of water

Both of these results can best be understood by remembering that the flow
of charge is similar to the flow of water.
Fig. 22.7 shows a pump connected to a pipe containing water. When
the pump is switched on, the water must flow at the same rate at all points
in the pipe. This is equivalent to the series circuit.

fig 22.7

Pump

Pipe containing
water

Similarly Fig. 22.8 shows the equivalent parallel circuit, and if there is a
flow rate of 6 gallons/second at X and 4 gallons/second at Y, then the
remaining 2 gallons/second must flow past Z.
 203

fig 22.8

Pump

x z

22.5 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

CIRCUITS

(a) Series
For the series circuit shown in Fig. 22.9 it is found that the reading on V is
always equal to the sum of the readings on VI and V 2 :
(22.4)
Thus the sum of the potential difference across the various
components of a series circuit equals the potential difference
applied to that circuit

fig 22.9 V= VI + V 2

This result can be explained as follows. If the voltage of the battery in

Fig. 22.9 is 6 V then 6 J of energy are supplied to each coulomb that
passes through it. If the reading on VI is I V, then each coulomb loses I J
204

of energy on passing through L l , and so must lose the remaining 5 J on

passing through ~, i.e. the potential difference across ~ must equalS V.

(b) Parallel
For the circuit shown in Fig. 22.10, the readings of V, V l and V2 are
always found to be equal:
V= V l = V2 (22.5)
The potential difference across all electric components
connected in parallel is the same

fig 22.10 V= V l = V2

In Fig. 22.1 0 if the value of V is 1.5 V then each coulomb gains 1.5 J
from the battery. The coulomb must lose this 1.5 J of energy whether it
passes through Ll or ~ so the potential difference across both must be
the same and in this case equal to that of the battery.

22.6 ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

(a) Defmition and determination

Different objects vary a great deal in the ease with which they allow elec-
trons to flow through them. If the battery is connected across the 'lead' of
a pencil, a smaller current will flow than when the same battery is connec-
ted across a piece of copper. The pencil 'lead' is said to have a greater
electrical resistance than the copper.
 205

It is important to realise that the pencil 'lead' will limit the flow of
charge at all points in a circuit. This is equivalent to placing an obstruction
of some sort in a water circuit. If, for example, a pad of cotton wool is
secured in a pipe, then the flow of water at all points in the pipe will be
lower than if the cotton wool were removed.
The electrical resistance of any object (X) can be found by connecting it
to a battery and measuring the potential difference across it, and the cor-
responding current flowing through it, using the circuit shown in Fig.
22.11. The resistance can then be calculated from the defining equation:
Potential difference across the object (volts)
Resistance (ohms) =
Current flowing through the object (amps)
or
V
R=- (22.6)
I

fig 22.11 a circuit for measuring the resistance of X

v Y,
r----If-I---y~

If the potential difference is measured in volts and the current in amps,

then the resistance will be calculated in ohms. An object has a resistance of
1 ohm (n) if a potential difference of 1 volt (V) gives rise to a current of
1 amp (A). The electrical resistance measures the voltage needed to pass a
current of I A through an object and the higher the resistance the greater
this voltage will have to be.
lt follows from equation 22.6 that
Potential difference (V) = Current (I) x Resistance (R) (22.7)
By changing the resistor Y, a series of readings may be taken and the
graphs shown in section 22.6b couid be obtained.
206

(b) Current/voltage curves

In general, the electrical resistance of an object is not constant and will
vary with the potential difference that is applied to it. An ordinary filament
lamp does not have a constant resistance and this variation can be seen
from a current/voltage graph for a typical lamp (Fig. 22.12). From the
graph the resistance of the lamp at the points A, Band C can be calculated,

fig 22.12 current/voltage graph for a bulb

Current (rnA) Voltage (V)

« 300 A 100 0.2

E B 170 0.6
...c
c
200
C 250 2.45
e...
:J
U 100

0 2 3
Voltage in V

and is found to have the values of 2 n, 3.5 n, and 9.8 n respectively. The
resistance of a filament lamp increases as the potential difference applied
to it increases. The increase in the resistance of the filament in the lamp is
due to the increase in temperature of the filament. The increase in resist-
ance with temperature is common to all metals and arises owing to the
increased atomic vibrations which make it more difficult for the electrons
to pass through the metal. Similar graphs for a diode and a thermistor are
shown in Figs 22.13 and 22.14. Fig. 22.13 shows that the diode conducts

fig 22.13 current/voltage graph for a diode

v
 207

fig 22.14 current/voltage graph for a thermistor

v
an electric current easily in one direction whilst only allowing a very small
current to pass through it in the opposite direction.
The current/voltage graph for the thermistor (Fig. 22.14) curves in the
opposite direction to that for a lamp and the electrical resistance of the
thermistor decreases as the voltage applied to it increases. Thermistors are
made from materials called semiconductors, and the resistance of a semi-
conductor decreases as its temperature increases. The reason for this is that
as the temperature of the semiconductor increases, the number of electrons
which are free to move in the semiconductor increases and this allows a
greater current to pass through it.

(c) A special case - Ohm's law

Certain objects have current/voltage graphs which pass through the origin
and are straight lines over a large range of voltages. For such objects the
current is directly proportional to the potential difference applied to them,
and they are said to obey Ohm's law, which may be stated as follows:
At a constant temperature the current in a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across it
A resistor is an object which obeys Ohm's law, and is manufactured to
have some specific value of resistance. In circuit diagrams it is represent,ed
by the symbol

If a resistor has a resistance of 4 n it means that a potential difference

of 4 V will give a current of 1 A.

22.7 COMBINATION OF RESISTORS

(a) Resistors in series

Fig. 22.15 shows two resistors of values 4 nand 2 n connected in series
to a 3 V battery. What is the size of the current I in the circuit?
208

fig 22.15

3V

I I
4n 2n

As the resistors are connected in series, the current in both resistors

must be the same, and using equation (22.6) gives

2 n= VI and 4n= V2
I I
Rearranging these equations gives:
VI = 2 n xl and V2 = 4 n x I
As the sum of the potential differences across the components of a series
circuit equals the applied potential difference, it follows that:
VI + V2 =3 V
Thus
(2 n x I) + (4 n x I) = 3 V
1(2 +4) n = 3 V
- 3 A--"21 A
I -"6
t
The size of the current is A. This is exactly the same size current as would
occur if the 3 V battery had been connected across a single 6 n resistor.
Thus a 4 nand 2 n resistor connected in series have exactly the same
effect in a circuit as a single resistor of value 6 n.

In general, resistors of value R 1, R 2• R3 connected in series have the

same effect in a circuit as one resistor, whose resistance R is the
sum of R 1, R2 and R3
(22.8)
 209

(b) Resistors in parallel

Fig. 22.16 shows a 4 n and a 2 n resistor connected in parallel to a 3 V
battery. As the resistors are connected in parallel, the potential difference
across each must be 3 V and using equation (22.6) it follows that:

and

fig 22.16

3V

Rearranging gives:
3V
and 12 = - -
2n
As the resistors are in parallel
1=/ 1 +lz
Therefore

If R is the value of the single resistor that has the same effect in a circuit
as the 4 nand 2 n resistors in parallel, it would draw the same current 1
from the 3 V battery. 3 V across R n results in a current of 3/8 amps.
Therefore

which gives
I 4
+-- i.e. R= - n
R 4n 2n 3
210

4
Thus a single resistor of value Q has the same effect in a circuit as 4 Q
and 2 Q resistors connected in parallel.
In general ifresistors of values R 1 , R2 and R3 are connected in
parallel, they have the same effect in a circuit as one resistor whose
value R is given by the equation:
1 1 1 1
-=-+-+- (22.9)
R Rl R2 R3
As an example of the use of this equation, show that resistors of values 2,
4 and 6 Q connected in parallel behave as a single resistor of value 1.09 Q.
For any combination of resistors the supply voltage (V) and the current
(I) are related by the equation
V = I x (total resistance) (22.1 0)

22.8 THE POTENTIAL DIVIDER CIRCUIT

This is a particularly useful circuit as it enables a battery of fixed potential

difference, V volts, to be adapted to supply a potential difference of any
value from 0 to V volts.
An example of this type of circuit is shown in Fig. 22.17. It simply con-
sists of a battery connected in series to two resistors R 1 and R2 . F or such
a circuit the applied potential difference equals the sum of the potential
differences across the two resistors. Thus in such a circuit the potential
difference of the battery is split or divided between the two resistors. The
potential difference is divided between the two resistors in direct propor-

fig 22.17 a potential divider circuit consisting of two resistors in series

I
 211

tion to the value of their resistances, the larger value resistor having the
larger proportion of the applied potential difference.
In Fig. 22.17 the value of the current I in the circuit is given by:

Using equation (22.6) gives,

VI =IxR I and
Thus

and

Thus by suitably choosing the values of R I and R2 it is possible to obtain

any fraction of the applied voltage V across R2 .
The circuit is more useful if R I and R2 are replaced by a single piece of
high resistance wire XY as shown in Fig. 22.18. M is a moveable contact
and, as it is moved from point X to point Y on the wire, the value of the
potential difference across AB takes on all values from 0 to V volts. Thus
any value of potential difference from 0 to V volts can be obtained across
AB, by suitably positioning the contact M on the wire.

fig 22.18 a potential divider circuit consisting of a high-resistance wire XY

M
v
A
X ...- - e B

22.9 CAPACITORS

A simple capacitor consists of two flat pieces of metal separated by an

insulator of very high resistance. One way of achieving this is to use two
metal plates with an air gap between them. The circuit shown in Fig. 22.19
consists of such a capacitor connected in series with a switch, two am-
meters and a battery.
When the switch is closed, it is found that both ammeters register a
current, and that after a short time the current falls to zero. The fact that
212

fig 22.19

A B

the ammeters register a current means that there has been a flow of charge
through them, and plate B has received negative charge, and plate A has
had negative charge (electrons) removed from it, making it positively
charged. As both meters behave in an identical way, thc charge lost from
plate A is exactly the same as that gained by plate B. The capacitor is now
said to be charged and has a potential difference across it equal to that of
the battery and, as a result of this, no further current is recorded on the
meters.
If the experiment is repeated using a battery of higher voltage, more
charge will be transferred from one plate to the other and it is found that
the amount of charge transferred is directly proportional to the voltage
applied to the capacitor.
The ability of a capacitor to store charge is measured by its capacitance,
which is defined by the following equation:
.
Capacltance Charge on either plate (C)
= ------"'-----.!-.--~
Voltage across the plates (V)
Capacitance is measured in farads (F).
The capacitance measures the amount of charge stored on each plate
of the capacitor when a voltage of 1 V is applied across it
A capacitor of 6 x 10-6 F has 6 x 10-6 C of charge transferred from
one plate to the other when a voltage of 1 V is applied to it. As the charge
transferred and the voltage are directly proportional to each other, it is
possible to scale these values to find other corresponding sets of values for
charge transferred and voltage, e.g. 10 V would cause 6 x 10- 5 C to be
transferred from one plate to the other.
In the case of a capacitor consisting of two metal plates, it is found that
the capacitance depends on the distance apart of the plates, and also on
their area of overlap. A variable capacitor consists of two sets of plates,
one of which is fixed, whilst the other can be rotated, and this varies the
capacitance by varying the degree of overlap between the plates.
 213

A capacitor may be used to block direct current whilst passing alternat-

ing current. The time for a capacitor of capacitance C to discharge through
a resistor of resistance R depends on the value of the product CR.

WORKED EXAMPLES

1. A current of 2 A flows through a resistor for 5 minutes. The heat

evolved is 12 kJ. What is the potential difference of the supply?
Current = 2 A :. 2 coulombs flow every second for (5 x 60) s
Charge which flows = 2 x (5 x 60) coulombs = 600 coulombs

Potential difference = 12000 J (see section 22.2) = 20 V

600 C
2. A battery of e.mJ. 6 V has resistances of 3 nand 9 n connected in
series with it as shown in Fig. 22.20. What is (i) the current flowing
through the 3 n resistor and (ii) the p.d. across the 9 n resistor?

fig 22.20

6V
r------; II 1111 1 - - - - - - - ,

3n

The total resistance of the circuit is 12 n (see equation 22.8). Using

equation 22.10 we have
V = / x (total resistance)
6V=/x 12n

/= _6 V = 0.5 A
12 n
214

(ii) The current in the 9 n resistor is the same as that in the 3 n resistor
(see section 22.3). We use
V = I x (total resistance)
V=O.5Ax9n
=4.5 V
 CHAPTER 23 215

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF AN
ELECTRIC CURRENT

23.1 THE MAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCED BY AN ELECTRIC

CURRENT

Fig. 23.1 shows a diagram of a simple experiment to demonstrate that a

magnetic field is produced by an electric current. It consists of a long piece
of thick copper wire connected in series with a switch and a battery. The
wire passes through a piece of cardboard on which is placed a number of
plotting compasses.

fig 23.1 an electric current produces a magnetic field

Thick copper wire

Plotting

Piece of
cardboard
J
Initially all the compasses are pointing in the direction of the Earth's
magnetic field. However, when the switch is closed this produces a current
in the wire and the compasses point in the directions shown in Fig. 23.1.
216

The direction in which the compass points indicates, that the magnetic field
produced by the current is circular.
If the terminals of the battery are reversed it produces a current in the
opposite direction. In this case, although the same circular pattern is
obtained, the compasses point in the opposite direction to that shown in
Fig. 23.1. This shows that the direction of the magnetic field is reversed.
The direction of the magnetic field produced by the current in a wire can.
be found using the right-hand grip rule.
The wire IS gripped with the right hand so that the thumb points in the
direction 0/ the current. The direction in which the fingers curl round
the wire indicates the direction o/the magnetic field

23.2 THE MAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCED BY A SOLENOID

As shown in Fig. 23.2 a solenoid consists of a long piece of wire wound in

the shape of a spring or helix. When the switch in Fig. 23.2 is closed, the
current in the solenoid produces a magnetic field. If the magnetic field
pattern is investigated using iron filings or plotting compasses, it is found
to be similar to that produced by a bar magnet. The ends of the solenoid
corresponding to the North and South poles of the bar magnet are labelled
Nand S in Fig. 23.2.

fig 23.2 the magnetic field produced by a solenoid

 217

23.3 FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A

MAGNETIC FIELD

(a) Introduction
Fig. 23.3 shows a simple arrangement to demonstrate that a current-
carrying conductor can experience a force when placed·in a magnetic field.

fig 23.3 the aluminium strip experiences a force when the switch S is
closed

Permanent
magnet s

1
It consists of a strip of aluminium foil supported between the poles of a
permanent magnet and connected in series with a switch and a battery.
With the switch open, the aluminium experiences no force as it is not mag-
netic. However, when the switch is closed a current is produced in the foil,
and the foil is seen to move. This indicates that a force is acting on it.
This force arises because of the interaction that occurs between the
electric current and the magnetic field and if either the magnet is removed,
or the switch is opened, the force drops to zero.

(b) The size of the force

In general it is found that the size of the force produced in this way is pro-
portional to both the size of the current and the strength of the magnetic
field. More surprisingly, it is also found that the size of the force depends
on the relative directions of the electric current and the magnetic field.
The force has its largest value when the magnetic field is applied at right-
angles to the direction of the current, but is zero when the direction of the
field is the same or opposite to that of the electric current.
218

(c) The direction of the force

As well as in part controlling the size of the force, the relative directions of
the field and current also determine its direction.
In Fig. 23.3 if either the direction of the current or the direction of the
magnetic field is reversed, then the foil will be observed to move in the
opposite direction indicating that the force acting on it has been reversed.

fig 23.4 the left-hand rule

Thrust (force)
Magnetic field

Electric current

The direction of the force resulting from the interaction of an electric

current and a magnetic field can be found using the left-hand rule (Fig.
23.4).
If the thumb, fore-finger and second finger of the left hand are held
mutually at right-angles to each other, with the seCond finger pointing
in the direction of the Current and the Forefinger in the direction of
the Field, then the THumb points in the direction of the THrust
acting on the conductor
Use this rule to show that the direction of the force on the conductor
in Fig. 23.5a and b is, in both cases, directed into the plane of the paper.

(d) The ampere

If a current flows in the same direction in two parallel wires, there is a
force between them. The greater the current, the greater is the force. The
ampere is defined in terms of this force.
 219

fig 23.5

Direction of Direction of
current magnetic field

Direction of
Direction of
magnetic field
current

(a) (b)

23.4 THE ELECTRIC MOTOR

The electric motor makes use of the fact that a wire carrying a current
experiences a force when placed in a magnetic field. Fig. 23.6 shows the
essential features of an electric motor.
In its simplest form, it consists of a coil of wire which is free to rotate
between the poles of a permanent magnet. Electrical connection between
the coil and the power supply is made using a split-ring commutator and
two brushes.
The split-ring commutator consists of two cylindrically shaped pieces of
copper which, although fixed to the shaft on which the coil is wound, are
insulated from it. (For clarity, this shaft is not shown in Fig. 23.6). These
two pieces of copper are insulated from each other because of the gap
between them and each piece is connected to one end of the coil.
The brushes can be made from two pieces of wire, each of which is con-
nected to one terminal of the power supply. The brushes are positioned so
that they press sufficiently firmly on the split-ring commutator to make
good electrical contact with it, whilst still allowing the shaft to rotate.
The current follows the path shown by the arrows in Fig. 23.6 and, as is
clear from the diagram, the direction of the current in each side of the coil
is at right-angles to the magnetic field. Using the left-hand rule, Section
23.3(c), the side AB of the coil will experience a downwards force, and
the side CD an upwards force. As a result of these forces, the coil will
rotate in the direction shown in Fig. 23.6.
However, as the coil passes through the vertical position, it is necessary
that the direction of the force on each side of the coil is reversed. The
reason for this can be understood by considering Fig. 23.7.
Fig. 23.7a shows the forces F acting on the coil just before it passes
through the vertical position and Fig. 23.7b shows the situation just after
220

fig 23.6 an electric motor

Axis of rotation

Coil (armature)
//
(7\

Split-ring

fig 23.7

F F
(a) (b)

it has passed through the vertical position. As is clear from these diagrams,
if the forces on each side of the coil continue to act in the same direction,
the turning effect they produce will change direction and cause the coil to
stop rotating. Thus, in order to keep the coil rotating in one direction, it is
 221

necessary to reverse the direction of the forces acting on it each time it

passes through the vertical position.
As was discussed in Section 23.3 (c), the direction of the force is reversed
if the current changes direction. The split-ring commutator produces
exactly this effect as it causes the direction of the current in the coil to
reverse each time it passes through the vertical position.
The way this is achieved can best be understood by considering Fig. 23.8
which shows the position of the commutator (a) just before and (b) after
the coil has passed through the vertical position. As is clear from these
diagrams, the electrical contact to each side of the commutator P and Q is
reversed each time the coil passes through the vertical position. This causes
the direction of the current in the coil to reverse and as a result of this the
coil continues to rotate in the same direction.
In commercial motors a number of coils rotate in a radial magnetic field.
Such a field is produced by using a magnet with cylindrically shaped pole
pieces with a cylindrical piece of soft iron positioned between them as
shown in Fig. 23.9. This arrangement has the advantage that it causes a
more steady turning effect.

fig 23.8 the commutator reverses the direction of the current in the coil

Q Q

+ve -ve +ve - ve

(a) (b)

fig 23.9 a radial magnetic field

N S

Soft iron
222

23.5 THE MOVING-COIL LOUDSPEAKER

As is shown in Fig. 23.10, a moving-coil loudspeaker consists of a coil of

wire wound on a tube. One end of the tube is fixed rigidly to a paper cone,
and the other end of this cone is loosely supported in a circular hole in a
piece of board. This board is called the baffle board. The flexible connection
with the board means that the cone, tube and coil can move backwards and
forwards along the axis of the tube. The coil itself is positioned in a radial
magnetic field.
When an alternating voltage is applied to the coil it produces an alter-
nating current. The interaction between the current in the coil and the
magnetic field causes the coil to move and when the current changes direc-
tion the coil will move in the opposite direction (Section 23 .3 (c)).
Thus, the alternating current in the coil causes it to move backwards
and forwards along its axis and the paper cone performs a similar motion.
The movement of the cone produces compressions and rarefactions in the
air and a sound wave is thus produced. The frequency of the sound wave is
identical to the frequency of the alternating voltage.

fig 23.10 the moving-coi//oudspeaker

Baffle board

Flexible connection
Coil of
wire
 223

If the size of the current in the coil is increased, the force acting on it
will be larger (Section 23.3 (b )). This larger force will produce a greater
movement of the cone and coil and the loudness of the sound wave will
increase.
Thus, the moving-coil loudspeaker converts electrical energy from the
voltage supply into sound energy.
224 CHAPTER 24

ENERGY AND POWER FROM

ELECTRICAL SOURCES

24.1 ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY

Fig. 24.1 shows a power supply connected in series to a small piece of

resistance wire XY, a variable resistor and an ammeter. The potential differ-
ence across the wire can be measured using the voltmeter.

fig 24.1 an electric current produces a heating effect

+ Power
....------i
supply

4A

x y

Variable resistor

25V

When the supply is switched on the wire becomes hot, and for this to
occur it must be being supplied with energy. The rate at which energy is
supplied to the wire, that is the energy supplied to it in one second, can be
calculated from the values of the current and potential difference recorded
on the meters.
If the potential difference across the wire is 25 V, then each coulomb of
charge loses 25 J of electric potential energy on passing down the wire (see
Section 22.2). This energy is converted to heat energy in the wire. If the
current is 4 A, then 4 C of charge pass down the wire in 1 s (see Section
22.1), and as each coulomb supplies 25 J of energy a total of 100 J is sup-
plied to the wire in one second. Thus, the wire is supplied with energy at
the rate of 100 J/s.
 225

The rate at which energy is supplied is defined as the power, and for any
electrical component the power is calculated using the following equation:
Power _ Current (I) Potential difference (V)
(24.1)
(in watts) - (in amps) x (in volts)
Using equation (22.7) the potential difference across any component is
given by the equation:
Potential difference (V) = Current (I) x (Resistance (R)
and substituting this result into equation (24.1) gives:
Power =/2 xR (24.2)
If the value of the variable resistor in Fig. 24.1 is decreased, the readings
on the ammeter and voltmeter will increase. According to equation (24.1)
the power will be greater, and this is confirmed by the fact that the wire
becomes hotter, indicating that energy is being supplied to it at a greater
rate.
The total amount of energy supplied to any electrical component
depends on the rate at which it is supplied with energy and on how long it
is connected to the supply. Thus, if the wire in Fig. 24.1 is supplied with
energy at the rate of 100 J/s and it is connected to the supply for 100 s, a
total of 10 000 J will be supplied to the wire. In general the total amount
of energy supplied to any electrical component is calculated using the
following equation:
Energy Current Potential difference Time
x x (24.3)
(1) (A) (V) (s)

24.2 THE MAINS SUPPLY

In most countries the electricity supply to houses uses an alternating volt-

age. For example, in Britain the alternating voltage is supplied at 240 V
and has a frequency of 50 Hz.
All domestic appliances in Britain are designed to be used off this mains
supply and are marked for use at 240 V. Also marked on the appliance is
its power rating and this enables the current in the appliance to be calcu-
lated using equation (24.1). For example, a light bulb marked 240 V,
100 W would draw a current of 0.42 A (from 100 W = 240 V x J) and
the current in a 240 V, 2 kW electric fire would be 8.3 A.
It is important to appreciate that the power rating of the appliance has
the value stated only when connected to a 240 V supply. and if it is con-
nected to a source of voltage less than 240 V it will be supplied with less
energy every second.
226

24.3 DOMESTIC WIRING

As shown in Fig. 24.2 the mains supply is delivered to a house using two
wires called the live and neutral, which usually enter the house by means
of an underground cable. These wires then supply separate circuits within
the house. A number of these circuits are used for lighting; others, called
the ring main, supply the electric points or sockets; and a separate circuit
is used to supply the cooker. Fig. 24.2 shows a circuit of each type.
Separate circuits are used because of the different power ratings of the
appliances which will be connected to them, and because of this the wiring
in each circuit is designed to take a certain maximum value of current. If
the current exceeds this value the wires could overheat and cause a fire. In
order to avoid this, each circuit has a fuse connected in the live wire which

fig 24.2 domestic wiring

Earth connection

L.: ___ .J
Ring main

Lighting

60A
30A

13A
Neutral wire
socket

Live wire
 227

'blows' when the current exceeds a certain value. A fuse is simply a piece
of wire which melts when the current reaches a certain value and thus
prevents any further flow of current in the circuit. The fuses connected to
each circuit are contained within a single fuse box (not shown in Fig. 24.2),
and when replacing a fuse it is most important to use the correct rating of
fuse wire.
As shown in Fig. 24.2, within each separate circuit appliances are con-
nected across the live and neutral wires and each appliance is controlled by
a switch connected in the live wire.
As well as allowing connection to the live and neutral wires all points,
apart from those used for lighting, also enable a connection to be made to
earth. This is achieved by means of a third wire (not shown in Fig. 24.2),
which is usually connected to a water pipe. Water pipes come up through
the ground and make good connections to earth. As will be discussed in
Section 24.5, this earth lead is necessary purely as a safety measure and
does not normally carry a current.

24.4 ELECTRICAL CONNECTION TO THE MAINS SUPPLY

Most domestic appliances are connected to the mains supply by means of

a three-pin plug (Fig. 24.3). This enables the appliance to be connected to
the live, neutral and earth wires and it is most important that the wires
from the appliance are connected in the correct way using the following
colour code:
Brown wire (Live); Blue wire (Neutral); Green/Yellow wire (Earth)

fig 24.3 a three-pin plug

Earth connection

Fuse
Yellow/green
wire
Blue - - - t -_ _ 'lI1
wire

Neutral
To live socket
228

The plug also contains a fuse connected in the live wire. The current
rating of this fuse depends on the power rating of the appliance which is
being connected to the mains. The fuse prevents damage to the appliance
which could occur if excessively large currents passed in it.

24.5 THE EARTH LEAD

As was mentioned in Section 24.3, the earth lead is required purely as a

safety precaution. To illustrate this, consider the electric fire shown in
Fig. 24.4. One end of the heater coil or element is connected, via the fuse
in the plug, to the live wire and the other end is connected to the neutral
wire. The surrounding metal case is connected to the earth and is insulated
from the element.

fig 24.4 the earth wire connected to the case is a safety device

Fuse in plug Insulator Heating coil (element)

Metal case
Live ---n:~1---""
wire

Neutral-----------------J

Earth - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1

However, if the element breaks it is possible that the broken end, con-
nected to the live wire, will touch the metal case. Without the earth con-
nected, anyone touching the case would recieve an electric shock as it is
in contact with the liv~ wire.
If the earth is connected this danger is avoided. The reason for this is
that the earth lead provides a very low resistance path to earth. Thus,
when the element touches the case the current in the live wire becomes
sufficiently large to blow the fuse. As can be seen from Fig. 24.4 when the
fuse blows it isolates the live wire from the element and the metal case,
and prevents any danger of an electric shock.
The reason the lighting circuits do not have an earth lead is that even if
the filament breaks the broken end connected to the live wire will only
come into contact with the glass envelope of the bulb. As glass does not
conduct, the bulb can be touched without any danger of an electric shock.
 229

Therefore, it is only important to connect an earth lead when the outer

case of the appliance is made of a conducting material.

24.6 THE KILOWATT-HOUR

As with all power supplies, the mains supply is a source of energy, and the
power rating of any domestic appliance gives the rate at which it is
supplied with energy when connected to the mains. The total amount of
energy supplied can be found from the power rating and the time for which
the applicance is connected to the mains (equation 24.3).
The meter, connected across the mains supply (Fig. 24.2) records the
total amount of energy supplied to the house. The energy consumption is
recorded on the meter in kilowatt-hours.
One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the total amount of energy supplied to a
1 k W appliance when it is connected to the mains supply for 1 h
As a 1 kW appliance is supplied with energy at the rate of 1000 J Is, a
total of 3.6 x 10 6 J of energy will be supplied in 1 h (3600 s). Thus:
1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J of energy
It is important to appreciate that the kilowatt-hour is a unit oCenergy
and that the payment to the Electricity Board is based on the amount of
energy used. At present in Britain (1985) one kilowatt-hour of energy costs
about 5 pence. A 2·kW fire left on for 4 h will cost the same as a 100 W
lamp left on for 80 h, as both consume 8 kWh of energy. In general, the
number of kilowatt-hours of energy supplied to an appliance can be calcu-
lated using the following equation:
Kilowatt-hours Power Time
= (kW) x (h) (24.4)
(kWh)

WORKED EXAMPLE

An electric motor on a carpet sweeper is rated at 250 V 150 W. (i) How

much current does it take? (ii) What is its resistance? (iii) How much does
it cost to run it for 7 days for an average of 2 hours each day? (1 kWh
costs 6p).
(i) Power = Current x Potential Difference (Section 24.1)
150 W = Current x 250 V
Current = 150 W =0.6 A
250 V
230

(ii) V =IR (Section 22.6)

250 V = 0.6 A x R

R = 250 V = 417 n
0.6 A
(iii) Number of kWh = 0.15 kW x (7 X 2) h = 2.1 kWh
Cost = 2.1 kWh X 6 p/kWh = 12.6p
 CHAPTER 25 231

ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION

25.1 INTRODUCTION

Electromagnetic induction is the term used to describe the effect by which

a voltage or e.m.f. can be induced in a conductor.
Fig. 25.1 shows a simple experimental arrangement to demonstrate this
phenomenon. It consists of a long piece of wire which is held between the
poles of a permanent magnet and connected in series to a very sensitive
galvanometer G.

fig 25.1 if either the wire or the magnet is moved up or down a deflection
will be observed on the galvanometer indicating that an e.m.f.
has been induced in the wire

Long piece
232

When the wire is held stationary in the magnetic field no deflection is

observed on the galvanometer. However, when the wire is moved down a
current is recorded on the galvanometer. In order to produce this current
an e.mJ. must have been induced in the wire. If the wire is now moved up
the galvanometer again shows a deflection, but in this case in the opposite
direction. This shows that the direction of the e.m.f. induced in the wire
depends on ihe direction in which the wire is moved.
An e.mJ. can also be induced in the wire if the wire itself remains fixed
in position and the magnet is moved up or down. Again the direction of
the deflection indicates that the direction of the induced e.m.f. depends
on the direction in which the magnet is moved.
Similar effects to this can be observed using the apparatus shown in
Fig. 25.2. This consists of a galvanometer G connected across the ends of a
solenoid which is positioned close to a bar magnet. If either the magnet or

fig 25.2 when the magnet and the solenoid are being moved further apart,
the deflection on the galvanometer is opposite to that which
occurs when they are being moved closer together

the solenoid is moved, a current is recorded on the galvanometer, and in

order to produce this current an e.m.f. must have been induced in the
solenoid. However, no deflection is observed when the magnet and solenoid
are stationary or moved with the same velocity. It is also found that when
the solenoid and magnet are being moved closer together the deflection on
the galvanometer is in the opposite direction to that which occurs when
they are being moved further apart.
The results of both these experiments may be summarised as follows:
Relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field is necessary
if an e.m.[ is to be induced in the conductor
 233

The direction of the induced e. m.t is reversed if the relative mo tion

between the magnetic field and the conductor is reversed

25.2 THE SIZE OF THE INDUCED E.M.F.

In both the experiments described above it is found that the faster the
conductor or the magnet is moved the larger the deflection recorded on the
galvanometer. This indicates that the size of the e.m.f. induced in a conduc-
tor depends on the speed of the relative motion between the conductor
and the magnetic field. This result is known as Faraday's law of electro-
magnetic induction and may be stated as follows:
Whenever an e.m.f is induced in a conductor due to the relative motion
of the conductor and a magnetic field, the size of the induced e. m.t is
proportional to the speed of the relative motion
The size of the induced e.m.f. is also found to depend on the strength
of the magnetic field and on the direction in which the relative motion
occurs. If the relative motion is such that the conductor moves at right-
angles to the direction of the magnetic field, the induced e.m.f. has its
maximum value, whereas the induced e.m.f. is zero when the relative
motion is such that the conductor moves in the same or opposite direction
to the magnetic field.
Thus when the wire shown in Fig. 25.1 is moved parallel to the field no
deflection is observed on the galvanometer, so no e.m.f. is induced in the
wire.

25.3 THE DIRECTION OF THE INDUCED CURRENT

The direction of the current induced in a conductor can be found using

Lenz's law of electromagnetic induction, which states:
The direction of any current induced in a conductor is such that it
opposes the change or motion producing it
As the first example of the use of this law, consider the situation when
the wire in Fig. 25.1 is moved down. This downward movement of the
wire causes a current to be induced in it. This current must flow in such a
direction as to produce an upward force on the wire, as only in this way
can the downward movement of the wire be opposed. The direction in
which the induced current must flow in order to produce an upward force
is found by using the left-hand rule (Section 23.3 (c)) and the direction of
the current is indicated by the arrows shown in Fig. 25.1.
As a second example of the use of this law, consider the situation when
the magnet in Fig. 25.2 is moved away from the solenoid. This will cause
234

an induced current in the solenoid, which according to Lenz's law must be

in such a direction as to oppose the movement of the magnet. This move-
ment will be opposed if the end of the solenoid closest to the magnet acts
as a S-pole. Using the right-hand rule (Section 23.1), this occurs when the
current in the solenoid is in the direction shown in Fig. 25.2.

25.4 THE ALTERNATING-CURRENT GENERATOR

The fact that an e.mJ. can be induced in a conductor when it is moved in

a magnetic field is made use of in the alternating-current generator.
.Fig. 25.3 shows a simple form of such a generator. It consists of a coil
of wire which can be rotated in a magnetic field. Each end of the coil is
attached to a circular piece of copper (called a slip ring), which is fixed to,
but insulated from, the shaft on which the coil is wound. (This shaft is not
shown in Fig. 25.3). Each terminal of the generator, X and Y, is connected
to one of these pieces of copper by means of a brush.

fig 25.3 the alternating-current generator

Coil of wire

Brushes

Circular piece
of copper
connected to M connected to P
 235

When the coil is rotated in the magnetic field, an alternating voltage is

produced across the terminals X and Y and this causes an alternating cur-
rent in the galvanometer G. The variation of this current with time for one
complete rotation of the coil is shown in Fig. 25.4.
At the time marked 0 in Fig. 25.4, the coil is in the position shown in
Fig. 25.3. In this position both sides of the coil, MN and OP, are momen-
tarily moving at right-angles to the magnetic field. As discussed in Section
25.2, this causes a large e.mJ. to be induced in each side of the coil; and

fig 25.4

Current
in G

+ve

o ~---+----~---4~--~--~~Time

-ve

as the two sides are moving in opposite directions, the e.m.f. induced in
MN will act in the opposite direction to that in OP. Although these induced
e.m.f.'s act in opposite directions, they both cause a current in the coil in
the direction shown by the arrows in Fig. 25.3 and a current passes from X
to Y through the galvanometer. When the coil rotates from the position
shown in Fig. 25.3, the sides of the coil cease to move at right-angles to
the magnetic field. As a result of this, the size of the induced e.m.f. begins
to fall and this causes the size of the current in the galvanometer to
decrease.
When the coil reaches the vertical position the side MN is momentarily
moving in the opposite direction to the magnetic field and OP in the same
direction as the magnetic field. In this position the size of the e.mJ.
induced in the coil is momentarily zero (Section 25.2) and this corresponds
to the time marked A in Fig. 25.4.
After the coil passes through the vertical position each side of the coil
begins to move in the opposite direction, i.e. side MN starts to move down
and OP up. As a result of this the e.mJ. induced in each side of the coil is
reversed (Section 25.1) and a small current begins to flow in the galvano-
meter from Y to X. This change in direction is indicated in Fig. 25.4 by
assigning the current a negative value.
236

At the time marked B in Fig. 25.4 the coil is again in the horizontal
position and because each side of the coil is moving at right-angles to the
field the current in the galvanometer has its maximum value.
As the coil continues to rotate the current will again drop to zero, when
the coil passes through the vertical position, and finally the coil will return
to the position shown in Fig. 25.3 at the time marked D in Fig. 25.4.
Thus, as the coil rotates, each side of the coil moves in a continually
changing direction in relation to the magnetic field and this produces an
alternating current in the galvanometer. The frequency of this current is
the same as the frequency of rotation of the coil.
In commercial generators used at power stations the coil is fixed in
position and the magnet is rotated, using steam turbines. Rotating the mag-
net has the advantage that it avoids the need to use brushes, which are
required if the coil rotates.

fig 25.5 the direct-current generator

Coil of wire
 237

25.5 THE DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATOR

The construction of a direct-current generator, shown in Fig. 25.5, is very

similar to that of the alternating-current generator. The only difference is
that the electrical connection between the ends of the coil and the ter-
minals X and Y is made using a split-ring commutator.
The split-ring commutator reverses the electrical connection between
the terminals of the generator and the ends of the coil each time the coil
passes through the vertical position.
The fact lhat this change is made to occur at exactly the same time as
the current in the coil reverses direction means that the current through
the galvanometer is always in one direction, and because of this the gener-
ator is said to produce a direct current.
The variation in this current with time is shown in Fig. 25.6 and, as can
be seen from this graph, the current is by no means steady. A much steadier
current can be produced by using a radial magnetic field (Section 23.4) as
in this case each side of the coil moves at right-angles to the magnetic field
for a much longer time, and because of this a steadier current is produced.

fig 25.6
Current

o Time

25.6 AN INDUCED E.M.F. DUE TO A CHANGING CURRENT

Using the apparatus shown in Fig. 25.2 it is found that an e.mJ. is induced
in the solenoid when the magnet is moved and that the size of this in-
duced e.mJ. depends on how quickly the magnet is moved.
The movement of the magnet causes the magnetic field inside the
solenoid to alter and the quicker the magnetic field changes the larger the
e.mJ. induced in the solenoid. This result suggests that whenever the mag-
netic field inside a coil or solenoid is altered, an induced e.mJ. occurs in
the coil or solenoid, the size of this induced e.m.f. being proportional to
the rate at which the magnetic field alters.
238

In Section 23.2, it was shown that the current in a solenoid produces a

magnetic field similar to that of a bar magnet. Thus, in Fig. 25.7, when the
switch is closed and solenoid A is moved towards or away from solenoid B
an e.mJ. is induced in B, as moving A is then equivalent to moving a bar
magnet.

fig 25.7 whenever the switch S is opened or closed, a current is recorded

on the galvanometer
A B

"ouu£uu "Ouu&ju
~---{ G ~---'

However, it is possible to change the magnetic field in B without

moving A. This is done by simply opening the switch S, which causes the
magnetic field to drop to zero and has the same effect as moving the
solenoids apart. Moreover, whenever the size of the current in A is altered,
it causes a change in the magnetic field in B, and as a result of this an e.m.f.
will be induced in B.
The size of the induced e.m.f. can be increased dramatically by inserting
a continuous soft·iron rod inside both solenoids as this causes much greater
changes in the magnetic field to occur when the current in A is altered.

25.7 THE TRANSFORMER

The fact that a changing current in one solenoid can cause an e.m.f. to be
induced in another solenoid is made use of in the transformer.
Fig. 25.8 shows a diagram of a transformer. It consists simply of two
coils of wire wound on a continuous soft-iron core. One of the coils, called
the primary, is connected to an alternating voltage source and this produces
an alternating current in the coil. This current produces a continuously
changing magnetic field throughout the soft-iron core and because of this
an alternating voltage Vs is induced across the other coil, called the second-
ary. The variation of the magnetic field with time and of the induced
voltage Vs with time are shown in Figs 25.9 and 25.10 respectively.
The size of the induced e.mJ. in each turn of the secondary coil depends
on the rate at which the magnetic field through it alters and its direction
 239

fig 25.8 the transformer. The alternating current in the primary coil
induces an alternating voltage Vs across the secondary coil

Laminated soft iron core

Secondary coil

--
Alternating
voltage source

fig 25.9
Magnetic
field

o ~--~---+--~----~------~
D Time

fig 25.10
Induced voltage
across the
secondary Vs

O~-~-...L--+--....L..---~
Time
240

depends on whether the field is increasing or decreasing. At the times marked

o and 0 in Figs 25.9 and 25.10, the induced voltage has a large positive
value as the field is increasing at its maximum rate, whereas at the times
marked A and C the induced voltage is zero as the rate at which the mag-
netic field is changing is momentarily zero.
Thus, when an alternating voltage is applied to the primary coil of a
transformer, an alternating voltage of the same frequency is induced across
the secondary coil.

25.8 STEP-UP AND STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMERS

If a transformer with a primary coil having 60 turns and a secondary with

120 turns has a 12 V alternating source applied to the primary, the induced
voltage across the secondary is found to be 24 V. If the number of turns
on the secondary is doubled the induced voltage increases to 48 V, as each
tum on the secondary coil has the same e.mJ. induced in it. Thus, by
doubling the number of turns on this coil the voltage across it will double.
In both cases the ratio of the secondary voltage Vs to the primary volt-
age Vp equals the ratio of the number of turns on the secondary coil Ns to
the number on the primary coil N p . This result can be expressed as follows:

Vs = _Ns (25.1 )
Vp Np
The ratio Ns/N p is called the turns ratio of the transformer. This result
shows that by simply adjusting the value of the turns ratio, it is possible
to induce an e.m.f. across the secondary coil which can be either larger or
smaller than the voltage applied to the primary.
If the turns ratio is greater than one, the induced voltage across the
secondary will be larger than that applied to the primary and such a trans-
former is called a step-up transformer.
If, on the other hand, the turns ratio is less than one, the voltage induced
across the secondary will be less than that applied to the primary and such
a transformer is called a step-down transformer.

25.9 THE EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER

When an electrical appliance such as a light bulb is connected across the

secondary coil of a transformer it will be supplied with energy. The rate
at which the energy is supplied to the appliance, that is the output power
of the transformer, depends on the secondary voltage Vs and the second-
ary current Is. Using equation (24.1) the output power is given by the
following eqllation:
Output power = Vs x Is (25.2)
 241

The energy supplied to the appliance originates from the power supply
connected to the primary coil. The rate at which this energy is supplied,
that is the input power to the transformer, can again be calculated using
equation (24.1) and is given by the following equation:
Input power = Vp x Ip (25.3)
where Vp is the voltage across the primary coil and Ip is the current in
the primary coil.
Using these two results the efficiency of the transformer is defined in
the following way:

Efficiency = Vs x Is x 100% (25.4)

Vil xIp
Thus, if a transformer is 100% efficient (most transformers have an
efficiency approaching 100%), it means that all the energy from the power
supply is delivered to the appliance and in this case it follows that:
Vp x Ip = Vs x Is (25.5)
and therefore

Vs =!£. (25.6)
Vp Is
Equation (25.6) shows that when Vs > Vp then Is <Ip. Thus, although
a step-up transformer causes the voltage to increase, it causes an associated
decrease in the current.
Most transformers have an efficiency greater than 95%, and the small
fraction of the energy that is lost in the transformer itself arises for two
main reasons.
The first, called copper loss, arises from the fact that the coils, although
made of copper, have some resistance and some energy will be lost as heat
as current flows through them.
The second is due to eddy currents. These currents which are induced
in the soft-iron core cause energy loss as heat in the core. This loss can be
considerably reduced by laminating the core. This is done by using thin
strips of soft iron to make up the core, with each strip insulated from the
others. The insulation reduces the size of the eddy currents and as a result
less energy is lost in the core.

25.10 THE DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

The electrical energy used in farms, factories and houses is delivered through
a system of cables, called the National Grid, which links the consumer to
242

the power stations throughout the country. These cables are made of thick
copper wire and are mostly supported on pylons.
Although the mains supply is delivered to houses at 240 V, it is trans-
mitted over much of the grid system at voltages of 27 5000 V or 400 000 V,
and step-down transformers are used to convert the voltage to the much
lower values used by consumers.
The high voltages used in transmission are not generated at the power
station but are produced by connecting step-up transformers between the
grid system and the power station. Fig. 25.11 shows the essential features
of the system used to transmit the energy from the power station to the
consumer.

fig 25.11 the energy from the power station is delivered to the consumer
using a system of overhead cables called the National Grid
system

Grid system

Insulating

Step-up Step-down Consumer

transformer transformer

At first sight it appears rather strange to step up the voltage for trans-
mission and then to step it down for use by the consumer. The reason for
doing this can be demonstrated using the apparatus shown in Fig. 25.12.
This consists of a 12 V alternating supply which has two similar bulbs,
A and B, connected across its terminals. One of the bulbs, A, is connected
to the supply using short leads whilst the other B, is connected to the
supply via two pieces of resistance wire. These comparatively short lengths
of resistance wire behave in a similar manner to the much longer lengths of
copper wire which would be used if the electricity were to be distributed
over much greater distances.
When the power supply is switched on, it is found that the brightness
of bulb A is much greater than that of B. Clearly, bulb B is being supplied
 243

fig 25.12

Resistance
wire

12V
alternating A
source

with energy at a much lower rate than A, and a lot of the energy which
should be supplied to B is lost as heat in the resistance wires.
The power supply is now switched off and a step-up transformer having
a turns ratio of 20: 1 is inserted between the supply and the resistance
wires. A step-down transformer of turns ratio 1 :20 is also inserted between
the wires and the bulb B. With the transformers inserted the arrangement
becomes similar to that shown in Fig. 25.11.
When the power supply is now switched on it is found that both bulbs
have a similar brightness which indicates that the energy lost in the resist-
ance wires has been greatly reduced. The reason that this occurs can be
explained as follows.
The step-up transformer has increased the voltage across the resistance
wires to 240 V as it has a turns ratio of 20: 1 (see equation (25.1). Assum-
ing that the transformer is 100% efficient this increase in the voltage across
the resistance wires must be associated with a corresponding drop in the
current. The current in the wires will be reduced by a factor of 20 (see
equation (25.6)). As a result of this much smaller current in the resistance
wires, the energy lost in them as heat is greatly reduced.
Thus by stepping up the voltage at which the electricity is transmitted
it is possible to reduce the energy loss in the connecting wires, and it is
precisely for this reason that such high voltages are used in much of the
grid system.
Finally, it must be pointed out that such a system is used only because
of the very high efficiency of the transformer. If the transformer itself did
not have such a high efficiency then the energy loss in the transformer
could be greater than that which occurred in the transmission lines, in
which case using the transformers would be counter-productive.
244 CHAPTER 26

RADIOACTIVITY AND THE

ATOM

26.1 THE SPARK COUNTER

Radioactive substances have the ability to ionise the air surrounding them
and it is this property that is used to distinguish them from materials which
are not radioactive.
The simplest experiment that shows this uses a spark counter (Fig. 26.1).
This consists of a piece of copper gauze supported above a copper strip.
The distance between the gauze and strip is just great enough to prevent a
spark when a potential difference of 5000 V is applied across them. How-
ever, when certain substances are placed close to the gauze sparks are seen
to occur between the gauze and the strip. Sparks can only occur when the
air between the gauze and strip is ionised and materials which emit radia-
tion to cause this ionisation are said to be radioactive.

fig 26.1 a spark counter. When the air between the gauze and strip is
ionised, a spark occurs

Air at

i ____ _
atmospheric Copper gauze

pre~______
5000 V
power supply

Copper strip

26.2 THE GEIGER-MULLER TUBE

The spark counter requires a high level of ionisation to produce a visible
spark, and in order to detect radioactive sources which produce lower
levels of ionisation a Geiger-Muller (GM) tube is used.
 245

This consists of a cylindrical metal tube with a fine wire running along
the axis of the cylinder (Fig. 26.2). The tube is filled with an inert gas such
as neon at a low pressure and a potential difference is applied between the
cylinder and the wire. The potential difference is usually applied by con-
necting the tube to a scaler or ratemeter and a control on the front panel
of the instrument records the potential difference applied to the tube.
This potential difference is usually of the order of 450 V.

fig 26.2 a Geiger-Milller tube and scaler

Scaler

Hundreds Tens Units

Geiger-Muller
tube
Voltage
000
\ Metal tube control

~-.,

Switch

Gas at low
pressure

When the tube, connected to a scaler, is placed near a radioactive source,

the neon gas is ionised and a pulse of current will occur in the tube. These
pulses of current are automatically counted and recorded by the scaler.
and each pulse corresponds to one ionising radiation passing through the
tube.
Both the current pulses in the GM tube and the sparks in the spark
counter occur at random, and this indicates that the radiations from the
source which produce ionisation are not emitted in a regular way. Thus:
The radiations which cause ionisation are emitted from a
radioactive material in a random way

26.3 THE DIFFUSION CLOUD CHAMBER

A diagram of a diffusion cloud chamber is shown in Fig. 26.3, and this

method of detecting radioactive substances again uses their ability to cause
ionisation.
246

fig 26.3 a diffusion cloud chamber

Lid

Felt soaked
in alcohol

Air at
_-+-_-atmospheric
pressure
Base of
chamber J:i:iI!~-_ Radioactive
source
Solid carbon dioxide

Foam cushion to keep CO 2 in

contact with the base

The apparatus consists of a chamber containing air at atmospheric

pressure. The base of the chamber is kept at a low temperature by placing
some solid carbon dioxide beneath it. The piece of felt around the top of
the chamber is soaked in alcohol, which evaporates and diffuses through
the air towards the base of the chamber.
If a radioactive source is placed near the base of the chamber, as shown
in Fig. 26.3, it will cause the air to become ionised and the alcohol vapour,
which has been cooled on diffusing down the chamber, will condense on
these ions. Thus a track formed of condensed alcohol droplets is produced
along the path of the ionising radiation emitted from the source. This
track is only visible for a short time before the liquid drops of alcohol fall
to the base of the chamber.
The tracks are observed to occur at random and this again supports the
view that the ionising radiations are emitted from the source in a random
manner.

26.4 THE PROPERTIES OF THE IONISING RADIATIONS EMITTED

FROM RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES

(a) Penetrating powers and range in air

The penetrating powers of the radiations which cause ionisation can be
investigated using the apparatus shown in Fig. 26.4.
A GM tube connected to a scaler is placed close to a radioactive source
and various materials are inserted between the source and the tube. If the
number of current pulses recorded on the scaler is reduced when the
material is inserted, it means that some of the radiation from the source
 247

fig 26.4 apparatus to test the penetrating powers of the radiations emitted
from radioacth'e sources
Scaler

J
Hundreds Tens Units

0 0 0
@" ~

"
\
I

GM
Radioactive I tube
source Material

has failed to penetrate it. Using different sources and different materials, it
is possible to identify three distinct types of radiation emitted from radio-
active sources. These are called 0: (alpha), {3 (beta) and 'Y (gamma) radiation.
0: radiation is unable to penetrate a sheet of paper, whereas {3 radiation
requires a few millimetres thickness of aluminium to stop it. For 'Y radia-
tion a few centimetres of lead are required to produce any change in the
count rate recorded on the scaler. Thus 'Y radiation is most penetrating
and 0: the least.
The range of the various radiations in air can be investigated by simply
moving a GM tube further from the source and noting any change in the
count rate recorded on the scaler. If this is done it is found that 0: radia-
tion, being the least penetrating will travel less than 10 em in air, whereas
{3 radiation will travel up to several metres. For 'Y radiation the reading on
the scale gets progressively smaller as the distance between the source and
the GM tube increases. However, it is found that 'Y radiation can be detected
at very much greater distances from the source than either 0: or (3 radiation.

(b) Deflection by a magnetic field

The apparatus shown in Fig. 26.5 can be used to investigate the effect of a
magnetic field on the ionising radiations emitted from radioactive sources.
248

fig 26.5 apparatus to test whether the radiations emitted from a radioactive
source are deflected by a magnetic field
Scaler

J
o
Hundreds Tens Un

0 (
@,
I r--

\
Radioactive Lead GM
source tube tube

A narrow beam of radiation is formed by placing the source at one end

of a lead tube. This beam then passes between the poles of an electro-
magnet and can be detected using a GM tube and scaler. If the count rate
recorded on the scaler is reduced when the electromagnet is switched on, it
indicates that some of the radiation has been deflected by the magnetic
field.
Using this arrangement it is possible to show that 'Y radiation is not
deflected by a magnetic field, and in this respect 'Y radiation behaves in the
same way as a beam of light.
{j radiation is deflected, and the direction of the deflection can be found
by moving the GM tube until it records a high count rate with the electro-
magnet switched on. The direction of the deflection is the same as would
occur if a stream of negatively charged particles passed between the poles
of the magnet. This similarity in behaviour suggests that {j radiation posses-
ses a negative charge.
As Q radiation has such a short range in air it is not possible to use the
apparatus in Fig. 26.5 to determine its behaviour in a magnetic field. How-
ever, using different experimental techniques it is possible to show that Q
radiation is deflected by a magnetic field and the direction of the deflection
indicates that Q radiation possesses a positive charge.
 249

26.5 THE NATURE OF a, (3 AND 'Y RADIA nON

Further experiments on the properties of a, (3 and 'Y radiation indicate that:

a radiation is the emission of positively charged helium nuclei
(3 radiation is the emission of negatively charged electrons
'Y radiation is a high-frequency electromagnetic wave travelling
at the speed of light
Both the helium nuclei, a particles, and the electrons, (3 particles, are
emitted from the source at high velocities and possess a large amount of
kinetic energy. As they travel through the air they gradually lose this
kinetic energy in colliding with and ionising the atoms and molecules in
the air. As the a particles travel the least distance in air, they lose their
kinetic energy quickly and produce high levels of ionisation. (3 particles
which travel further produce lower levels of ionisation.
The mechanism of ionisation is different for 'Y radiation; it produces
the lowest level of ionisation.

26.6 THE MECHANISM OF RADIOACTNE EMISSIONS

(a) The nature of the atom

Before discussing how a, (3 and 'Y radiations are emitted from a radioactive
source it is necessary. to consider in more detail the nature of the atom
itself.
As was discussed in Section 21.3 atoms consist of protons, neutrons
and electrons. The protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of the atom
and this is positively charged due to the positive charge on the protons.
The electrons which have a negative charge surround the nucleus in various
orbits. An atom is uncharged and so the .number of electrons equals the
number of protons. As the mass of both a proton and a neutron is about
1800 times larger than that of an electron, the vast majority of the mass of
any atom is contained in its nucleus and the nucleus itself occupies a very
small part of the volume occupied by the atom. Thus:
An atom consists of a very small massive positively charged nucleus
su"ounded by negatively charged orbital electrons
This model of the atom was first proposed by Rutherford as a result of
an experiment performed by Geiger and Marsden. In this experiment a
beam of a particles from a radioactive source was directed onto a thin piece
of gold foil and the resulting deflection of the a particles was recorded.
Whilst the vast majority of the a particles were found to pass through the
250

foil undeflected, a very small number were found to be deflected through

large angles and some through angles greater than 90°.
To account for these results Rutherford proposed that all the positive
charge in an atom and most of its mass was concentrated into a very small
volume within the atom called the nucleus. Using this model only a very
small number of the positively charged 0: particles directed at the foil will
pass sufficiently close to the positively charged nuclei of the gold atoms to
be deflected by them, and as a result the vast majority of the 0: particles
pass straight through the large spaces between the nuclei of the gold atoms.
Using this model of the atom the following quantities can be defined:
The atomic number or proton number A of an atom equals the
number of protons in its nucleus
The mass number or nucleon number M of an atom equals the sum of
the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom
All atoms of a given element have the same number of protons in the
nucleus and hence contain the same number of orbiting electrons. How-
ever, atoms of a given element do vary in the number of neutrons in the
nucleus.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element which differ only in the number
of neutrons in the nucleus.
It is convenient to represent the mass number M and the atomic number
A of an atom whose chemical symbol is X in the following manner ~X.
Thus, 2~~ U and 2~~ U represent two isotopes of uranium. Both have 92
protons in the nucleus, but the 2~~U isotope has 146 (Le. 238 - 92)
neutrons in the nucleus whereas the 2~~U isotope has only 143 (Le. 235
- 92) neutrons in the nucleus.

(b) Nuclear changes resulting from the emission of 0:, {3 and 'Y radiation
0:, {3 and 'Y radiations are emitted from the nucleus of an atom
These emissions occur because the nucleus of a radioactive atom is un-
stable, and the change in the nucleus resulting from the emission of each
type of radiation will now be considered.

(i) 0: emission
The helium nucleus, or 0: particle, consists of two protons and two neutrons
and, as a result of this, when an 0: particle is emitted from a nucleus it
causes both the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the
nucleus to fall by two. This results in the atomic number falling by two
 251

and the mass number by four. Thus, the isotope ":Ix changes to the isotope
IJ=i Y when it emits an
Q particle. An example is

238U Ct ) 234Th+4He
92 emission 90 2
(ii) {3 emission
The emission of a {3 particle results in the atomic number increasing by one
and the mass number remaining unchanged. Thus, the isotope ":Ix
is
changed to the isotope A fl Z by the emission of a {3 particle. For this
change to occur it is envisaged that one of the neutrons in the nucleus is
converted to a proton and an electron. The electron is emitted as the {3
particle and as the nucleus now contains an extra proton the atomic num-
ber has increased by one: An example is
239U {3 ) 239N + 0e
92 emission 93 p -1
(iii) 'Yemission
The emission of a 'Y ray causes no change in either the atomic number or
the mass number of the nucleus from which it is emitted. The nucleus just
loses energy because of the emission.

The emission of all three types of radiation causes the resulting nucleus
to be more stable as it possesses less energy than the original nucleus.

26.7 RADIOACTIVE SOURCES

The type of radiation emitted by a radioactive source depends on the

nature of the source itself. The 90 Sr isotope emits {3 particles to become
more stable whereas the 60Co isotope becomes more stable by the emission
of'Y radiation. Although each radioactive isotope emits its own particular
type of radiation it is possible to obtain sources which emit more than one
type of radiation. In such sources the nucleus produced by the emission of
one type of radiation is itself radioactive and emits its own characteristic
radiation. In this way it is possible to obtain a number of different radio-
active isotopes within the same source, each emitting its own characteristic
radiation. Such a group of radioactive isotopes is shown below:

2~~Th ~ 2~~Ra L 2~~Ac.f!:4 2~gTh ~ 2~~Ra ~ 2~~Rn ~ 21~Po

and a source initially consisting of 2~~ Th will eventually emit Q, {3 and 'Y
radiations, and contain all the isotopes shown above.
The strength of a radioactive source is measured in terms of its activity
The activity of any radioactive source equals the total number of
nuclear disintegrations in the source in one second
252

The activity is measured in curies and a source has an activity of one curie
(1 Ci) if 3.7 x 10 10 nuclear disintegrations occur within it in one second

26.8 RADIOACTIVE DECAY

The activity of radioactive sources decreases or decays with time.

The decay of a source may be investigated by using a GM tube connected
to a ratemeter. Fig. 26.6 illustrates an experiment to investigate the decay
of thoron gas, which emits Q particles. (If the source is a solid the GM tube

fig 26.6 apparatus used to determine the half-life of radioactive thoron gas

To ratemeter

GM tube

Cork with
hole in
beaker
it

Thoron gas

must be fixed at a suitable distance from the source). The reading on the
ratemeter is recorded at regular time intervals. Although the ratemeter
reading fluctuates in a random way there is a steady drift to lower values.
This indicates that although the Q particles are emitted from the gas in a
random way, there is a steady decrease in the number of particles that are
being emitted every second. This decrease in the activity of the gas occurs
because the number of radioactive nuclei in the beaker is steadily falling.
In accurate experiments the background count must be subtracted from
each reading. This is the count rate when there is no thor on gas in the
beaker. The background radiation is the small amount of radiation that is
always present in the atmosphere.
Fig. 26.7 shows how the reading on the ratemeter varies with time.
From the graph it can be seen that the count rate takes a set time T to fall to
half its original value no matter what original value is taken. Thus the
 253

fig 26.7 the time T for the activity to halve is always the same
Count rate
in counts/s

20

I
I
I
I ______ _
_______ .1.

~ _ _ _ _ _ _ ..J: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ II_____ _
I I
I
o 60 120 180
~T--~·~I~·---T--~·~I~·---T~
Time in s

decrease in the activity of the thoron gas occurs in a predictable way, halv-
ing its value in a fixed amount of time. It is found that this behaviour, i.e.
halving in a fIxed period time, is common to all radioactive sources and
the halflife is defined as follows:
The halflife of a radioactive source is the time it takes for the activity of
the source to fall to half its original value (i"espective of what this value
may be)
The value of the half-life depends on the source and it can have values
ranging from millions of years to fractions of a second, and provided the
half-life is known it is possible to predict how the activity of the source
will decay.
As an example of this, consider the radioactive isotope of sodium i~ Na
which has a half-life of IS h. If a sample of this isotope is produced and
has an activity of 500 microcuries (J.lCi), then after 15 h the activity will
have dropped to around 250 J.lCi. Similarly, after a further period of 15 h
the activity will be about 125 J.lCi. Although the exact value of the activity
cannot be predicted, due to the random way in which the particles are
emitted from the source, the half-life does enable an approximate value for
the activity of the source to be predicted.
254

26.9 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND USES

(a) Safety precautions

All radioactive sources are dangerous because of the ionising radiations
emitted from them. The radiations possess a great deal of energy and
because of this they can bring about many different kinds of chemical
change. When such changes occur in living cells it affects the normal
functioning of the cell and can lead to serious illness.
Thus it is important to reduce the exposure to such radiation to a mini-
mum, and this is usually achieved by using effective screening. For Q and
{3 radiation this does not pose too serious a problem because of their low
penetrating powers. However, for 'Y radiation the screening is more difficult
and for highly active 'Y sources several feet of concrete are used and the
sources are handled by remote control.
In schools the strength of the radioactive sources used is very low, but
even so they are stored in lead boxes and are handled with tweezers.
However, if radioactive sources leak either into the ground or the
atmosphere, effective screening becomes impossible and it is this risk that
poses the main danger when using highly active sources. For this reason
safety checks are carried out to monitor the level of radioactivity in the
area surrounding nuclear reactors.

(b) Uses
A radioactive isotope behaves chemically in an identical way to a non-
radioactive atom of the same element, whilst still retaining its radioactive
properties. This enables radioactive isotopes to be used as tracers to follow
the path of a particular element through many physical or chemical pro-
cesses. The use of small quantities of tracers mixed with a non-radioactive
isotope of the element enables the assimilation of the element by a living
organism to be followed, and the concentration of various chemicals in
different organs can help in the diagnosis of various illnesses.
It is also possible to use radioactive sources in the treatment of various
illnesses and this branch of medicine is called radiotherapy. It involves
exposing the patient to small amounts of radiation, and such techniques
are used in the treatment of cancer.
The absorption of radiation can be used to monitor the thickness of
paper in paper mills and the thickness of steel in steel mills. The source is
placed on one side of the paper and a Geiger-Muller tube on the other side.
A change in the count rate indicates a change in the thickness.
'Y radiation destroys bacteria and is used to sterilise surgical instruments
and food.
 255

26.10 NUCLEAR FISSION

Uranium 235 is unstable and its nucleus can split producing nucleii of
krypton and barium with the release of neutrons. If a neutron penetrates a
235 U nucleus, the nucleus becomes highly unstable and the chance of it
splitting is much greater. The splitting of the nucleus in this way is called
nuclear fission. The neutrons released can in turn penetrate other 235 U
nucleii and if this happens a chain reaction is started. When fission occurs
the mass of the split nucleii is less than the mass before they were split.
The mass that is lost has been converted into energy. It is found that slow
moving neutrons are more likely to cause fission in 235 U than fast moving
ones and in a nuclear reactor the neutrons are slowed down by using
moderators (usually water or graphite). The speed of the reaction in a
reactor is controlled by using moveable rods of boron or cadmium which
absorb neutrons. When the rods are moved iato the core of the reactor the
speed of the reaction is slowed down.
If the size of the uranium is large enough the reaction will start auto-
matically because there will always be some unstable nucleii to set the
chain reaction off. If the uranium is not large the neutrons may escape and
the chain reaction will not start.
To be able to use the heat produced, it must be removed from the
reactor. This is done by piping a heat extractor fluid (such as carbon
dioxide or water) round the reactor. The fluid absorbs the heat. It then
passes through a heat exchanger which extracts the heat and converts it
into steam. The steam is used to drive the turbine generators.
All the materials, including the heat extractor fluid become radioactive
and must be carefully shielded. The products of fission have to be removed
and as these are radioactive they therefore must be well shielded.
The large amounts of energy released in an atomic bomb arise from this
type of reaction, but in this case there is no attempt made to control the
speed of the chain reaction.

WORKED EXAMPLE

The half-life of a radioactive isotope which emits {3 particles is 24 days. A

sample has a mass of 1 kg and its activity is found to be 2000 counts/
minute. (a) By how much will its mass change in 96 days? (b) What will its
activity be after 96 days?
(a) The mass of a {3 particle is very small and the mass of the sample will
not change appreciably.
256

(b) After 24 days the activity will be 1000 counts/min

After 48 days the activity will be 500 counts/min
After 72 days the activity will be 250 counts/min
After 96 days the activity will be 125 counts/min
Answer 125 counts/min
 CHAPTER 27 257

ELECTRONICS

27.1 INTRODUCTION

Most of us are surrounded by large numbers of electronic devices including

television sets, video recorders and computers. The massive increase in
electronic devices has resulted from the discovery of materials known as
semiconductors. These materials are substances, such as silicon, which can
be made to have various conducting properties by the addition of certain
impurities. It is these properties which enable modern electronic equipment
to be designed and constructed. In this chapter we shall look at some of
the tasks electronic devices constructed from semiconductors can perform.

27.2 THE DIODE

Diodes have the property that an electric current can only pass through
them in one direction. The symbol for a diode is shown in Fig. 27.1. The
conventional current will pass from left to right in the diagram if the left-

fig 27.1 a diode

Conventional
current
~

direction

0
+
@) 0

hand terminal is made positive and the right-hand terminal negative. If the
connections are reversed virtually no current flows through the diode (there
is in fact a very small current which for practical purposes is negligible).
258

The fact that a diode will only pass current in one direction is used to
convert alternating current into direct current. This process is called recti-
fication. Fig. 27.2 shows an alternating current supply connected across a
resistor. The ends of the resistor are connected to the input terminals of a
cathode ray oscilloscope. In Fig. 27.2(a) the screen shows the trace which
results from the alternating current flowing through the resistor R. In Fig.
27 .2(b) a diode has been added to the circuit. The diode will only pass
current in one direction and the trace on the CRO is shown in the diagram.
Notice that the voltage across the resistor never goes negative. The alternat-
ing current has been rectified to an uneven direct current. The current
flowing is said to be half-wave rectified.

fig 27.2 half-wave rectification using a diode

C.R.O

a.c
supply
R
"
.()
'V\,
1 + - a Volts
line

(a)

~
~
C.R.O

a.c
'" supply R
"
1fV\-I-- a Volts
line

.f)

(b)

27.3 BRIDGE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT

Full-wave rectification may be achieved by using four diodes connected as

shown in Fig. 27.3, and the resulting trace is shown on the screen of the
CRO. When Y is positive the current takes the path Y ABRDCX. No other
 259

fig 27.3 full-wave rectification using a bridge rectifier circuit

Protective
resistor
a Volts

6- -
C.R.O linej

path is possible as the diodes prevent the current from flowing in any
other direction. (Try tracing a path for the current starting from Y remem-
bering in which direction each diode can pass a current and you will
discover that the path YABRDCX is the only possible one.) When Y is
negative, and X is positive, then the current takes the path XCBRDA Y.
The current through R is always in the same direction.

27.4 SMOOTHING THE OUTPUT FROM A BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Fig. 27 A(a) shows the unsmoothed output from a bridge rectifier circuit.
As can been seen from the graph it is a varying direct current. It may be
smoothed by connecting a large capacitor across the load. The resulting
smoothed output is shown in Fig. 27.4(b). The capacitor and load resistor
are connected in parallel and the voltage across each of them is the same.
While this voltage is rising to its peak value the capacitor is charging up. As
the output voltage from the rectifier drops to zero, the capacitor discharges,
and thus the current through the resistor is more than it was before the
capacitor was inserted in the circuit.

27.5 A LOW VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY

Cassette recorders and many other appliances need low voltage power
supplies. Such low voltages may be produced by using a step-down trans-
former (Section 25.8) and a bridge rectifier circuit. The complete circuit in
order to obtain a 6 volt smoothed d.c. output is shown in Fig. 27.5. The
step-down transformer produces a reduced a.c. voltage which is connected
across the bridge rectifier circuit. The output from the bridge rectifier is
smoothed using a large capacitor.
260

fig 27.4 (a) unsmoothed output (b) smoothed output

Current in load

L-__ __ __ __ ______ Time

o
~ ~ ~ ~

(a)

Current in load

Time
o
(b)

fig 27.5 a low voltage power unit

Protective
240 V fuse
a.c
supply
To load
(e.g. cassette
recorder)

Smoothing
ratio about
capacitor
40:1

27.6 LEDs, LDRs AND THERMISTORS

The symbols for three useful electronic components are shown in Fig. 27.6.
An LED (Light emitting diode) is a diode which emits light when a current
passes through it. An LDR (Light dependent resistor) has the property
 261

fig 27.6 some common electronic components. In (c), the _to indicates
that the resistance of the thermistor falls as its temperature rises

II
--@-
LED LDR Thermistor

(a) (b) (c)

that when light shines on it, its resistance decreases. Thermistors are
resistors made from materials whose resistance changes rapidly when the
temperature changes. All the thermistors we shall consider in this book
have the property that when their temperature increases their resistance
decreases. The use of these various components will become clear in the
sections that follow.

27.7 THE TRANSISTOR

A transistor contains three layers of semiconductor materials, called the

emitter, the base and the collector. Its symbol is shown in Fig. 27.7 and it
has three leads coming from it. One from the base (b), one from the col·
lector (c) and one from the emitter (e).

fig 27.7 symbol for a transistor

Collector (c)

Base (b)

Emitter (e)

A transistor is considered to be 'off' when no current (or a very small

one) flows in the collector circuit, and 'on' when a much larger current
flows in the collector circuit. The transistor may be switched 'on' by raising
the base voltage (Vb, Fig. 27.8) above a certain minimum value. The base
voltage Vb may be changed by adjusting the variable resistor R. The two
resistances form a potential divider, see Section 22.8). When the base volt·
262

fig 27.8 when Vb reaches a certain value the transistor turns on. A small
base current can be used to produce a large collector current

11
~--------------.-----------------+

C
Larger
collector
current

Small base
lcur:nt
Ib

age rises above a certain value a large current begins to flow in the collector
circuit. Thus a small increase in base voltage may be used to switch the
transistor 'on' and a small decrease used to switch it 'off'

27.8 USING TRANSISTORS

The moisture detector shown in Fig. 27.9 illustrates the use of a transistor
as a switch. The probes are two pieces of copper placed very close together
but not touching. When the probes are dry, no current flows in Rl and R 2 •
If the probes are moist a current flows and the increase in voltage at X
switches the transistor 'on' and the lamp lights. If a drop of water is placed
so that it touches both probes a small current will flow in the base circuit
and again the lamp will light. If the probes are placed outside th~n a warn-
ing light could be made to come on when it rained. The probes could also
be used to indicate when water in a tank reached a certain level.
If the probes are replaced by a light-dependent resistor (LDR) as shown
in Fig. 27.10 then the lamp will light when a light shines on the LDR.
When light shines on the LDR its resistance decreases and the voltage at X
increases. This increase in voltage switches the transistor 'on' and the lamp
in the collector circuit lights.
By modifying the circuit as shown in Fig. 27.11, the LDR may be used
to switch on a lamp when it gets dark, or when a burglar interrupts a beam
 263

fig 27.9 when the probes are connected the lamp lights

Probes

lamp

x+---c:J-fI - 6V

fig 27.10 when light shines on the LDR the lamp lights

Lamp
LDR

6V

of light shining on the LDR. For when the light shining on the LDR
decreases in intensity, the resistance of the LDR goes up and the voltage
at X goes up, and the transistor switches 'on', lighting the lamp in the
collector circuit.
The following example may help you to understand why the voltage at
X goes up if the resistance of the LDR goes up. Suppose a 6 V battery is
used and that the value of the resistor R is 5000 ohm and that the resist-
ance of the LDR is 600 ohm when light is shining on it and 2400 ohm
264

fig 27.11 when the intensity of the light falling on the LDR decreases and
it is only dimly illuminated the lamp lights

lamp

-=- 6V

LOR

when the light is removed. These values are shown in Fig. 27.12. In (a) the
total resistance is 5000 ohm + 600 ohm = 5600 ohm. So the current is
given by
V 6
I=-=--A
R 5600

fig 27.12

....-------6 V ,....-------6 V

5000n 5000n

LOR LOR
600n 2400n

'--------0 V '-------- 0 V
(a) (b)
 265

The voltage drop across the 5000 ohm is given by V = IR = __ 6_ A x

5600
5000 n~ 5.4 V and the voltage at X is (6 V - 5.4 V) = 0.6V.
In (b) the total resistance is 5000 ohm + 2400 ohm = 7400 ohm. So the
current flowing is given by
V 6
I=-=--A
R 7400

So the voltage drop across the 5000 ohm is given by V = IR = _6_ A x

7400
5000 n ~ 4.0 V and the voltage at X is about 6 V - 4 V = 2 V. The voltage
at X has gone up from 0.6 V to 2 V and this change will switch the transis-
tor on.
The circuit illustrated in Fig. 27.13 incorporates a thermistor. When the
thermistor becomes cold, its resistance increases, the transistor is switched

fig 27.13 the lamp lights when the temperature of the thermistor goes
down

Lamp

Thermistor

'on' and the lamp lights. If the lamp is replaced by a relay (see page 272)
with an electric bell in the relay circuit, the bell will ring when the ther-
mistor gets cold.
In Fig. 27.14 a capacitor is used to produce a time delay. When the
switch Sl is closed a current flows through R and starts to charge up the
capacitor. As the capacitor charges up, the voltage at X rises and eventually
reaches the minimum voltage needed to switch the transistor 'on'. The
266

fig 27.14 the capacitor introduces a time delay

time this takes depends on the value of C and R. The greater the product
CR, the longer the capacitor takes to charge up.
The fact that a small base current can produce a large current in the
collector circuit means that a transistor may be used as an amplifier.

27.9 LOGIC GATES

Devices which control the flow of information through computers and

other electronic machines are known as logic gates, because they are opened
and closed according to the information fed to them. Usually they have
two inputs and one output. The potential of the output is either 'high'
(called logic 1) or 'low' (called logic 0). The output depends on informa-
tion given to each of its inputs. The gate is said to be 'Open' when the
output is a 'high' voltage (logic 1) and 'closed' when the output is a 'low'
voltage (logic 0). Each of the two inputs may either be at logic 1 (high
voltage) or logic 0 (low voltage). This is illustrated in Fig. 27.15. An LED
is connected between the output of the gate and the negative terminal of
the battery, so that when the output is 'high' a current flows in the LED
which lights. When the lamp lights the output is logic 1 and when the lamp
is out the output is logic O. The input A may be connected to either 'high'
(+) or 'low' (-). The same applies to input B. A truth table is a simple way
of describing the results of all the possible combinations of input. The
resulting truth table for this gate is shown in Fig. 27 .16. Notice that the
only time the output is 'high' (logic 1) is when both inputs are at logic 1
(i.e. connected to the '+' side of the battery). It is for this reason that the
 267

fig 27.15 an experiment with an AND gate

+~------------------------------------~

Input A

Input B "'-------

~
LED

fig 27.16 truth table for an AND gate

Input Input Output

A B

0 0 0

1 0 0

0 1 0

1 1 1

gate is called an 'AND' gate. Its output is logic 1 only when input A AND
input B are both at logic 1.
The name given to a particular gate tells us how it responds to different
input signals. The output of an 'OR' gate is 'high' when input A OR input
B OR both are 'high'. The various gates and their truth tables are shown in
Table 27.1.
Fig. 27.17 shows how a NOT gate may be combined with an LDR
(Light-dependent reSistor). An LDR has the property that its resistance
decreases when light shines on it. The resistor R and the LDR form a
potential divider (see Sections 22.8 and 27.8) and when the resistance of
the LDR goes up (as would happen if the light shining on it were switched
 268

Table 27.1

Name of Symbol Truth Table Description of gate

gate

A B O.P
The output is 'h igh'
AB~~OUtputl 0
0
0
1
0
0 if both A AND B
AND ~
1 0 0 are high
1 1 0

A B O.P
0 0 1 The opposite of an
NAND :=(J--0'P 0 1 1 AND gate.
1 0 1
1 1 0

A B O.P
The output is 'h igh'
~~O.P
0 0 0
OR 0 1 1 if A OR B OR both
1 0 1 are high.
1 1 1

A B O.P
The opposite of an OR gate.
~==L:>-0'P
0 0 1
NOR 0 1 0 The output is 'h igh' if
1 0 0 neither A NOR B is high
1 1 0

NOT A--[:::x>-- O.P §IE

o
1
o.P
1
0
An inverter. Only one
input, with the output
the opposite of the input

off), the potential at the point X goes down. If X is 'low' then Y is 'high'
and the LED (Light emitting diode) switches on. The system could be used
to switch on a light when it becomes dark.

27.10 COMBINING LOGIC GATES

Two possible ways of combining logic gates are shown in Figs 27.18 and
27.19. In Fig. 27.18 two NAND gates are joined together to make an AND
gate. Notice that the two inputs of the second NAND gate are joined to-
gether. When both its inputs are at logic 1, the output is at logic O. When
both its inputs are at logic 0, the output is at logic 1 (see Table 27.1). It
therefore acts as an inverter and inverts the output of the first NAND gate,
making it into an AND gate. In Fig. 27.19 three NOR gates are combined
to form an AND gate. The logic state of C and D may be determined by
reference to the truth table for a NOR gate shown in Table 27.1. Table
27.1 is again used to find the logic state of E once the logic states of C and
D are known.
 269

fig 27.17 the LED lights when darkness falls

LDR

Not gate

x ....- - - - - - - 4
Inverter

LED

fig 27.18 two NAND gates being used to make an AND gate

27.11 THE BISTABLE

Two NAND gates may be combined as shown in Fig. 27.20 to form what
is known as a bistable. Suppose Q is at logic 0 and Q is at logic 1, and A
and B are 'high'. In this situation the system is stable with Qstaying 'high'
and Q 'low' (both inputs to the top gate are 'high', hence Q is at logic 0
and one input to the bottom gate is 'low', hence Qis at logic 1, see Table
27.1). Suppose A is momentarily made 'low'. Then Q goes 'high' since the
output from a NAND gate is 'high' when either of the inputs is 'low'. Both
inputs to the lower gate are now 'high' and its output Qgoes 'low'. If B is
now momentarily made 'low', Q again becomes 'high' and Q goes 'low'.
The circuit therefore has two stable states. The state it is in depends on
which of the inputs A or B was last at a 'low'. If Q is 'high' then A was the
270

fig 27.19 three NOR gates being used to make an AND gate

c
'J()..--E
D

A B C D E

0 0 1 1 0

1 0 0 1 0

0 1 1 0 0

1 1 0 0 1

fig 27.20 a bistable. It has two stable states, either Q 'high' and Q 'low',
or Q 'low' and Q 'high'

A----~
0 - -.......- - 0

[>---~--Q
B----~
 271

last input to go 'low'. If Qis high then B was the last input to go 'low'. The
bistable forms the basis of many memory circuits since it can 'remember'
which of the inputs was last to go 'low'.
Fig. 27.21 shows a bistable being used in a burglar alarm circuit. The
alarm rings when it receives logic 1 from the output of the NAND gate to

fig 27.21 a burglar alarm. The alarm rings when one of the switches Sw
closes

6V
A

To alarm
bell

~ SR (Reset)

OV
which it is connected. The switches labelled Sw are arranged on windows
so that they close if a window is opened and open again when the window
is closed. If one of the switches Sw closes, then A goes from 'high' to 'low'
and Q goes high, setting off the alarm. Q remains 'high' even if the switch
Sw is opened again. The only way to reset the system is to close the switch
SR when all the windows are closed. This sends B 'low' (it is arranged
internally to be high until SR is closed) and hence Q 'high' and Q 'low'.
(Remember that the bistable switches its state whenever one of the inputs
goes from 'high' to 'low'.) The system is said to be latched, because once
A goes 'low' and the alarm rings, changing A from 'low' to 'high' does not
change the output of Q. The system is latched until B is made to go low.
Fig. 27.22 is a very similar arrangement designed to operate a signal
system on a model railway, If Q is 'high', then Q is 'low' and the green
LED is 'on' and the red LED is 'off', If the train goes over a part of the
track and closes switch S2, then B goes 'low' and the bistable switches its
state and Q goes 'high', Q going 'low', If later the train closes switch Sl
which is situated on a different part of the track, then the green light will
again come on and the red light will go out. One form of switch suitable
272

fig 27.22 signals for a model railway. The train going round the track
operates the switches S 1 and S2 and this changes the state of the
bistable changing the lights

+6V

~ S,

Red Green

OV

for use as Sl and S2 is a reed switch. A reed switch closes when a magnet
is brought up to it. If a reed switch were positioned in the middle of the
track and a magnet attached underneath the train, then the switch would
close as the train passed over it.
To switch on an electric motor which needs its own power supply a
relay must be used as shown in Fig. 27.23. One form of relay consists of a
coil of wire surrounding a specially designed switch. When an electric
current flows in the coil, the magnetic effect of the current closes the
switch. When Q goes 'low' a current flows in the relay coil, the switch
closes, and the motor starts. Switch S2 turns the motor on and switch Sl
turns it off. The letters NO by the relay switch stand for 'normally open'.

27.12 AN OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

An operational amplifier (op amp) is able to amplify small voltage differ-

ences by up to 100000 times and it is equally able to amplify alternating
 273

fig 27.23 the mains motor is turned on by means of S2, and off by means
of S1

+6V

Relay
coil

Mains
supply

OV

voltages or direct voltages. The symbol for a common form of op amp, the
741, is shown in Fig. 27 .24. It has two inputs and one output. The positive
and negative power supply terminals are often omitted from a circuit
diagram for simplicity. This is done in Fig. 27.25. The voltages to be

fig 27.24 symbol for an operational amplifier

Positive supply

Inverting
0-----1
input
">----0 Output
Non-inverting n-----1
input

Negative
supply
274

fig 27.25 input and output voltages for an op amp

~~~I....------L.--{- I
1

To earth terminal
of power supply

amplified are connected between the earth terminal of the power supply
and the inputs as shown in the diagram. VI is the voltage applied to the
inverting input, V 2 the voltage applied to the non-inverting input and Vout
the output voltage.
The graphs in Fig. 27.26 illustrate what is meant by inverting and non-
inverting. Fig. 27.26(a) represents a voltage which can be fed in turn to
each of the inputs. If it is fed to the non-inverting input the output will be
as shown in (b), but if it is fed to the inverting input then the output will
be as in (c). In each case the signal has been amplified, but in (b) the out-
put is in phase with the input (i.e. they go up and down together), but in
(c) the output has been inverted and goes more negative when the input
goes more positive.
The circuit in Fig. 27.27 uses a double beam oscilloscope (eRO) or two
eROs to display the input voltage and the output voltage. Two power
supplies of 9 V are connected to the op amp, + 9 V is connected to the
positive power supply and - 9 V to the negative power supply. If a signal
generator is connected across the input, the signal it is emitting will appear
on eRO 1. The amplified signal at the output will appear on eRO 2. The
vertical heights of the peaks on the screens may be used to measure the
amplification, called the voltage gain.

output voltage
voltage gain =
input voltage

It will be found that

. Rr
voItage gam = - - -
Rin
 275

fig 27.26 input signal and resulting output signals from an op amp

r-+--l~-~--+----t~ Time (a)

Vout

P--+--I----l~-+_-.... Time (b)

V out

~-+--1r--+---+---I~ Time (c)

Rf is called the feedback resistor because it feeds back part o( the output
voltage to the input (notice it is connected between the output and the
input terminals.) Thus if Rf = 10 kn and Rio = 1 kn, then

.
vo Itagegam=- -R-
f =- 10
Rio
i.e. the output voltage is ten times the input voltage. The negative sign
means that the output is inverted, that is, the output voltage is negative
when the input voltage is positive. This inversion has no importance when
276

fig 27.27 measuring the gain (amplification) of an op amp

Input

the op amp is used as an amplifier in this way, the output is a faithfully

enlarged copy of the input. The inversion is easily seen if the input signals
are displayed on a double-beam oscilloscope (where both signals can be
looked at together on one screen).
The voltage gain may be fixed by selecting the correct values of Rf and
Rin . In the case above the ratio was 10, which means that the output
voltage is always ten times the input voltage, with the proviso that the out-
put voltage can never be higher than the voltage of the power supply, in
this case 9 V. The voltage of the power supply always determines the
maximum value of the output voltage.
By setting the signal generator at different frequencies, the circuit of
Fig. 27.27 may be used to see if the gain depends on the frequency of the
signal being amplified. It will be found that the amplification does depend
on the frequency of the input voltage. In the ideal amplifier the amplifica-
tion will be independent of the frequency being amplified.
There are two important reasons for using the feedback resistance R f .
Firstly it helps to reduce the gain, and this is important with an amplifier
which amplifies some 100000 times. As we have said, the gain in practice
is limited by the voltage of the power supply. In Fig. 27.28 the value of
the output voltage if it were not limited by the supply voltage to the op
amp is shown by the dotted line. The continuous line shows the actual
output waveform because the output voltage can never go above 9 V. The
waveform is said to be clipped and saturation has been reached. Clipping
can be avoided by limiting the gain and this is achieved by feeding back to
 271

fig 27.28 if the amplified voltage exceeds the supply voltage the output is
'clipped'

V out

Saturated
/-, -

,
output / \
I \ I \
{ \ voltage I \

Y. , ,
I \

9V I
I
----- ~ \
\ --
Positive
supply voltage

\ Time

J Negative supply
-9V ~--- -, - - - _ . _ - - voltage
\ I
\ I
\ I
\ I
\
- /

the input a fraction of the output voltage which is inverted, i.e. in opposite
phase to the input, thus reducing the input voltage. This negative feedback,
as it is called, also helps to ensure that the amplification is less dependent
on the frequency of the input.

27 .13 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AS A SWITCH

The switching action of an op amp may be understood by reference to

Fig. 27.27. What would the output waveform look like if too large a voltage
were applied at the input? Fig. 27 .29 shows the answer. The waveform is
nearly square. The output is either + 9 V or -9 V.
Fig. 27.30 shows the op amp in what is called comparator mode, where
it is being used to compare two voltages and amplify the difference between
them. The two voltages are applied to the inverting and non-inverting in-
puts of the op amp respectively. The op amp amplifies the difference
V2 - VIand the amplification is so great that clipping takes place, so that
the output is either nearly + 9 V or - 9 V. The rules for the operation of
the op amp when used as a comparator are therefore
278

fig 27.29 when an op amp is used as a comparator the output is either

'high' positive or 'high' negative

V out

+9V

~----+-----~-------------------------Time

-9V I

fig 27.30 op amp being used as a comparator. Vout is either high positive,
high negative or zero (low)

T +9V
I
V1 I
I
....J-

-+-___L...-_---.
L - _ L - _......._.....l..._ _ 0V

T
I
I
I
....J- -9 V
 279

if V2 is greater than V 1 then Vout is + 9 V

if V 1 is greater than V2 then Vout is - 9 V
if VI = V2 then Vout is zero.
if the lower battery is left out (Fig. 27.31) then
if V 2 is greater than V 1 then the output is + 9 V (high)
if V2 is less than VI then the output is zero (low)
It is this swing from 'high' to 'low' that enables the op amp to be used as a
switch.

fig 27.31 op amp with only one battery. Output is either high positive or
zero (low)

T
I
19V
I
I
-L-

V out T
V out

Fig. 27.32 shows a circuit for automatically switching on lights when it

gets dark. The value of the voltage V2 depends on the resistance of Rand
the resistance of the LDR. As the resistance of the LDR increases (when it
gets dark) the voltage V2 goes up. The other resistances are chosen so that
when it gets dark the voltage V2 changes from being below Vito being
above VI. As this change takes place the output of the op amp goes from
'low' to 'high' and this switches the transistor on. The relay coil in the
collector circuit closes the switch S and the lamps switch on. The diode
across the relay coil protects the transistor when the transistor switches
off. As the transistor switches off the current in the relay coil suddenly
falls to zero. This results in a large e.mJ. being induced across the coil (see
Chapter 25) and this could destroy the transistor. The diode prevents this
large reverse voltage from damaging the transistor by providing a nearly
short circuit.
280

fig 27.32 op amp being used with an LDR to switch on a transistor which
in turn operates a relay

Fl
T
R

To lamps and 9V
their power
supply
 281

QUESTIONS

When needed take the Earth's gravitational field as ION/kg

CHAPTER 1

A cube has a mass of 71.2 g and each side is 2.0 cm long. What is its
density?
2 An object weighs 10.7 N and has a volume of 120 cm 3 . What is its
density?
3 A slab of marble (density 2.7 x 10 3 kg/m 3 ) has a mass of 10 kg. What is
its volume?
4 A piece of plate glass has dimensions 30 cm x 40 cm and a mass of
700 g. Taking the density of glass as 2.5 g/cm 3 , calculate the thickness
of the glass.
5 A flask was weighed with a bung and clip and found to have a mass of
185.00 g. When the flask was evacuated the mass became 184.28 g.
Using a measuring cylinder the flask volume was measured as 560 cm 3
Calculate the density of air.
6 What is the mass of air in a room 6.0 m long, 4.5 m wide and 2.5 m
high, given that the density of air is 1.29 kg/m 3 ?
7 Use the table of densities (Table 1.2) to answer this question.
(a) What is the radius of the base of a copper cylinder which is
1 cm long and has a mass of 90.0 g?
(b) A spherical ball of ice has a radius of 2.0 cm. What is its mass?
(c) What is the side length of a cube of aluminium of mass 11.1 g?
282

8 Copy and complete the table in order to answer the questions below.
(a) Which is the heaviest and which the lightest object?
(b) Which object has the smallest and which the largest volume?
(c) Which object is made of the most dense material?

Object Mass Volume Density

A 17.8 kg 2.0 m 3
B 2.0 m 3 920 kg/m 3
C 6.0 g 2.7 g/cm 3
D 1.0 g 0.24 g/cm 3
E 350 cm 3 18700 kg/m 3

CHAPTER 2

(a) What is the pressure exerted when a force of ION acts over an
area of 2 m 2 ?
(b) What pressure is caused by a force of 30 N acting on an area of
5 m2 ?
(c) The pressure at a certain depth in a liquid is 1000 Pa; what total
force does it exert on the base of its container, of area 2 m 2 ,
which is all at this depth?
(d) Taking atmospheric pressure as 1.0 x lOs Pa, calculate the force
exerted on one face of a rectangular plate glass window of
dimensions 3 m x 2 m.
2 A rectangular block has dimensions 4.0 m x 2.0 m x 1.0 m. It weighs
50 kN.
(a) What is the greatest pressure it can exert on a horizontal bench?
(b) What is the least pressure it can exert while resting on the same
bench?
3 A model hovercraft has a mass of 30 kg and the dimensions of its base
are approximately 20 cm by 40 cm. What is the average pressure which
the hovercraft exerts on the ground?
4 Give an explanation for each of the following:
(a) A knife with a very sharp blade will cut very much more easily
than a knife with a very blunt blade.
(b) A drawing pin can be pushed into some wood fairly easily,
whereas a metal bar cannot be pushed into the wood.
(c) Toboggans with very thin runners leave more impression in the
snow than toboggans with wide runners.
(d) Tractors have tyres of very large area in contact with the ground.
 283

5 (a) A girl weighing 500 N is wearing shoes which have very small
heels (stiletto heels). The area of each heel is 0.5 cm 2 and the
area of each sole in contact with the ground is 50 cm 2 . What is
the pressure she is exerting on the floor if
(i) she stands with her weight equally distributed between
both feet,
(ii) she stands on one foot,
(iii) she balances on one heel only?
(b) An elephant weighs 60 kN and each of its feet has an area of
0.07 m 2 in contact with the ground. What is the pressure the
elephant exerts on the ground, if
(i) it stands on all four feet,
(ii) it balances on two feet?
6 The Evesham pressure apparatus consists of a polythene bag inside a
wooden box that has two loosely fitting lids. Lid Y is four times the
area of lid X.
(a) A 10 N weight is placed on lid X and two 10 N weights are
placed on lid Y. Which lid rises first when the polythene bag is
inflated?
(b) What happens when the bag is inflated if lid X has one ION
weight on it and lid Y has four ION weights on it?
(c) Suppose the pressure inside the polythene bag is 100 Pa, what is
the force on 0.5 m 2 of surface of the bag?
(d) Suppose that lid X has an area of 0.02 m 2 and lid Y an area of
four times this. If the pressure in the bag remains at 100 Pa,
what is the force upwards on lid X? What is the force upwards
on lid Y?
7 Suppose that you see an accident in which someone skating on the ice
on a frozen lake suddenly falls through into the water because the ice
is too thin and breaks. Two possible actions occur to you. One is to
run for a ladder which you see some distance away and use this as a
means of setting out across the ice. The other is to run out straight
away on the ice to get to the person as soon as possible. Which method
is more likely to result in a successful rescue, and why?
8 Consider a tank with a square cross-section of area A m 2 . Suppose it is
filled to a depth h m with a liquid of density d kg/m 3 .
(a) What is the volume of liquid which fills the tank?
(b) What is the mass of this liquid which fills the tank?
(c) What is the weight of this liquid which fills the tank? (Remember
that a mass of 1 kg has a weight of 10 N.)
(d) This weight acts over the base of the tank. Over what area does
it act?
284

(e) What is the pressure acting on the base?

These steps should have enabled you to prove the following relation-
ship:
Pressure (Pa) = 10 (N/kg) x Depth, h (m) x Density, d (kg/m 3 )
9 Give an explanation for both of the following:
(a) In order to get liquid out of a sealed tin one must either pierce
two small holes on either side of the tin or make one very large
hole.
(b) The pressure of the atmosphere decreases as the altitude in-
creases.
10 The following questions refer to an aneroid barometer.
(a) Why is the box corrugated?
(b) Why is the complicated lever system necessary?
(c) What is the purpose of the hair spring?
11 A hydraulic machine is required to lift a load of 1000 N. The pressure
available to operate the machine is 250 Pa. What must be the area of
the piston on which the load is standing?

CHAPTER 3

Determine the resultant (in magnitude and direction) of the following

pairs of forces:
(a) 3 Nand 4 N acting at right-angles to each other,
(b) 10 Nand 20 N acting at 60° to each other,
(c) 15 Nand 30 N acting at 45° to each other.
2 An aeroplane flies due south at 200 km/h and a wind is blowing from
east to west at 40 km/h. What is the resultant velocity of the aeroplane?
3 A man of weight 800 N is water-skiing. The rope pulling him is horizon-
tal and the tension in it is 200 N. What is the resultant of these two
forces acting on him? In what direction does it act?
4 A string has a mass of 100 g attached to its end and is hanging vertically.
What horizontal force must be applied to the mass to produce an inclin-
ation in the string of 30° to the vertical? What is the tension in the
string in this case?
5 Two tugs are manoeuvring a supertanker by hawsers attached to its bow.
Each tug pulls with a force of 40000 N and the angle between the
hawsers is 30°. What is the resultant force on the supertanker?
6 Explain why a slack clothes line is less likely to break than a taut one.
 285

7 A boat is rowed across a stream. The boat is always pointing in a direc-

tion which is perpendicular to the direction of flow of the stream. The
speed of the boat would be 5 km/h in still water. If the stream is flow-
ing at 3 km/h, what is the speed and the direction of travel of the boat?
8 Forces of magnitudes 3 N, 4 Nand 5 N act at a point. The angle between
the 3 N force and the 4 N force is 60°, and the angle between the 4 N
and the 5 N force is 90° (Fig. 3.6). What is the resultant force?

fig 3.6
4N

9 A truck is pulled along some rails by a rope. When the rope is horizontal
and parallel to the rails, the force rrquired is 100 N. What force would
be required to pull it along at the same velocity if the rope made an
angle of 30° with the rails?

CHAPTER 4

Describe what experiment you would carry out to determine how

many dots were made in a second by a ticker timer.
2 Describe the motion of the body represented by the dots in Fig. 4.18.
If the ticker timer makes 50 dots every second, what is the velocity at
the beginning of the motion and what is the velocity at the end of the
motion?
3 A ticker timer produces 50 dots every second and is used to determine
the average speed of a trolley. A tape is attached to the trolley and
passes through the ticker timer. The distance between the third and
thirteenth dots was found to be 10 cm. What was the average speed of
the trolley over this time?
286

fig 4.18

Beginning of tape

4 A rocket leaving the Earth's surface reaches a speed of 36000 km/h in

two minutes. What is its average acceleration?
5 A spacing of successive dots on a tape which has passed through a
ticker timer are 0.7,0.9,1.1 and 1.3 cm. The ticker timer is making
50 dots every second. What is the acceleration of the trolley?
6 A force of ION is applied to a mass of 2 kg. What acceleration is
produced?
7 Two men are pushing a car of mass 1000 kg along a level road at a
constant speed. When a third man joins them the car accelerates at
0.1 m/s2. If all the men push with the same force, with what force
does each man push?
8 Sketch ticker timer tapes, showing 10 consecutive dots, which you
would obtain from the following experiments:
(a) a trolley accelerating at 4 cm/s2 with a ticker timer that makes
30 vibrations per second,
(b) a key-ring falling vertically which is attached to a tape passing
through a ticker timer making 50 dots every second,
(c) a trolley of mass 2 kg which is accelerated by a force of 2 N.
 287

9 A boy pulls a cart of mass 100 kg along a horizontal road. He pulls

with a force of 250 N. If the cart starts from rest and neglecting fric-
tion, find
(a) the acceleration of the cart,
(b) how far the cart moves in the first second,
(c) how far the cart would move in 20 s.
Would it be possible for the boy to exert this force for 20 s?
10 A man of mass 100 kg lives at a place where the gravitational constant
is '9.80 N/kg. He moves to another place in the world where the Earth's
gravitational constant is 9.77 N/kg.
(a) What is his change in weight due to the move?
(b) How fast would he accelerate if he jumped off the roof of a
shed (a) before he moved and (b) after he moved?
11 A trolley X of mass 2 kg moving at 3 'm/s collides with a trolley Y of
mass 1.0 kg initially moving in the opposite direction at 1.0 m/s. The
trolleys stick together on impact. Calculate their common final velocity.
12 Trolley Y (of mass 1.0 kg) is projected at 2.0 m/s towards trolley X
(mass 2.0 kg) which is initially at rest. If the trolleys stick together on
impact, calculate their subsequent velocity.
13 A rifle has a mass of 5 kg and it fires a bullet of mass 25 g with a vel-
ocity of 100 m/s. What is the initial recoil speed of the rifle when the
bullet is fired?
14 This question is about the equations in Section 4.12. Use the defini-
tion of acceleration to show that for a body starting with velocity u
v = u +at
Now substitute in the equation,
Average velocity =(Initial velocity + Final velocity)/2
and show that
s = ut + tat2
Finally by eliminating t from v =u + at and s =ut + tat2 , show that
v2 =u 2 + 2as
A vehicle is moving at 2 m/s. It accelerates at 3 m/s2, what is its
velocity after it has travelled 6 m?
288

fig 5.12

CHAPTER 5

At one of the sideshows at a fair, Betty and Jim are throwing balls at
skittles on a shelf. Jim says that there is more likelihood of knocking
a skittle off the shelf if you hit it in the middle, whereas Betty says he's
wrong and that there is more likelihood of knocking it off the shelf if
you hit it near the top. Which of them is right, and why?
2 Why is the sailing dinghy (Fig. 5.12) less likely to capsize if the occu-
pants are leaning over the side as shown?
3 Each of the uniform beams shown in Fig. 5.13 is balanced with the
fulcrum at the centre of the beam. In each case calculate the magnitude
of the unknown force F if the beam is to remain horizontal.
4 A girl who weighs 300 N sits 2.0 m from the fulcrum of a seesaw. A
boy weighing 450 N is seated on the other side. How far from the ful-
crum is the boy if the seesaw remains horizontal?
 289

fig 5.13

. ' ..
I
30cm 120cm 25cm120cm
... ~ .. .. I'" ~

i
I

l
2.0N
&

(a)
l
F
I 1
200g
(b)
F

40cm I 40 em
O.20N
120cm
25 cm~ 25cml25cm
1.0N ~ ... ~I ...
I
~

3.0N F 200 9 F
(c) (d)

5 Jim weighs 600 N and sits 2.0 m from the centre of a seesaw. Mary
weighs 500 N. Where must she sit if the seesaw is to remain horizontal?
If Mary moves 1.4 m nearer to the fulcrum, where must Helen, weigh-
ing 300 N, sit in order to keep the seesaw horizontal?
6 A man riding a bicycle applies a force of 150 N to the pedal. If the force
is applied vertically downwards, what is the moment of the force about
the axis of the crank (a) when the crank is vertical and (b) when the
crank is horizontal? (Take the crank length as 16 cm.)
Would it be sensible for a cyclist to try always to turn the pedals so
that he pushes at right-angles to the crank (Fig. 5.14)? Explain.

fig 5.14
290

7 A beam 1.0 m long is resting on a knife edge 20 cm from one end (Fig.
5.15). A mass of 500 g is placed 15 cm from the fulcrum as shown. If
the beam is horizontal when the mass is in this position, what is the
weight of the beam?

fig 5.15

.t-1
15cm

500 9

i~oc';•I 100cm

8 A uniform bridge 20 m long has a mass of 30 x 103 kg and is supported

at each end (Fig. 5.16). A lorry which has a mass of 3.0 x 103 kg is on
the bridge. How much weight is carried by each of the supports (a)
when the lorry is on the centre of the bridge and (b) when the lorry is
4 m from one end? (Hint: one way to solve this problem is to take
moments about the point where one of the supports makes contact
with the bridge.)

fig 5.16 the forces A and 8 must act with the bridge weight and lorry
weight so as to keep the bridge from moving or turning

m
II( 20 m - - - - - _ - - I
Force A Force B

CHAPTER 6

(Take the force of gravity as 10 N/kg and the acceleration due to gravity as
10m/s 2 .)
1 Calculate the work done when
(a) a force of 3 N moves through 4 m,
(b) a force of 20 N moves through 5 m.
 291

2 What work is done when

(a) a mass of 10 kg is raised vertically through 2 m,
(b) a mass of 5 g is raised through 20 m?

3 What is the potential energy of

(a) a mass of 20 kg which is 5 m above the ground,
(b) 20 kg of water at the top of a waterfall 50 m high?

4 The Niagara Falls are about 50 m high and it is estimated that 10 7 kg

of water pour over the falls every second. If all the energy due to the
falling water could be harnessed, what would be the available power?
5 What is the kinetic energy of
(a) a car of mass 1000 kg travelling at 30 kmlh,
(b) an aeroplane of mass 6000 kg flying at 300 mis,
(c) a rocket of mass 4000 kg travelling at 2000 m/s?

6 A man pushes a frictionless trolley of mass 50 kg across a room, the

trolley being initially at rest. After it has been pushed 3 m it is moving
at 2 m/s. With what average force has he pushed the trolley?

7 State the principle of conservation of energy and explain how it applies

to
(a) a pendulum swinging,
(b) a squash ball being hit by a racket,
(c) a space shuttle re-entering the Earth's atmosphere and eventu-
ally landing on an airport runway.

8 A boy runs ups steps through a height of 20 m in lOs. His weight is

600N.
(a) How much work does he do against gravity in 10 s?
(b) What work does he do per second?
(c) What is his power?
After he has run up the steps, he feels hotter. What does this tell
you about the chemical energy he has used up?

9 A cable car is pulled up a mountain at a speed of 4 mls by a cable

with a tension of 1000 N. The journey takes 5 min. Calculate
(a) the work done in getting the car to the top,
(b) the work done in getting the car to the top if the speed of
travel had been only 2 m/s.
What power was needed for the engine to achieve the higher speed of
climb?

10 Two boys are discussing roller-coaster rides. One says that each sum-
mit on the track must be lower than the previous one. The other boy
292

says that as long as the first summit is highest then it does not matter
what height any of the other ones have.
Discuss their statements.

CHAPTER 7

(Where necessary take the Earth's gravitational field as 10 N/kg.)

I An electric motor raises a 10 kg mass through a distance of 2 m. In doing
this it consumes 250 J of energy. What is the efficiency of the motor?
2 A pulley system has two pulleys on the top block and two pulleys on
the bottom block. A load of 1000 N is hung from the bottom block.
Draw the pulley system.
It is found that an effort of 300 N is needed to raise the load.
(a) How much energy is supplied to the machine by the effort when
the effort moves through 5 m?
(b) How far does the load rise when the effort moves through 5 m?
(c) How much energy is gained by the load when the effort moves
through 5 m?
(d) What is the numerical ratio
Energy transferred to the load
--------~~---------------------?
Energy supplied to the machine by the effort'
(e) What is the ratio called?
(f) Could this ratio be greater than I? Explain your answer.
3 An inclined plane is used to raise a load of 500 N through a height of
3 m. The load moves 12 m along the plane.
(a) How mucJ; work is done on the load?
(b) If the efficiency of the system is 80%, what is the value of the
effort?
(c) How much work is done by the effort?
4 A man lifts a mass of 6 kg vertically through 10m. How much work
does he do on the mass? What is the gain in energy of the mass? If he
did the same task using a machine with an efficiency of 60%, how much
work would he do on the machine?
5 A windlass (Fig. 7.6) is used to lift a bucket from a well. The cylinder
on which the rope winds has a radius of 20 cm and the handle has an
effective radius of 50 cm. The bucket has a mass of 2 kg and holds 18 kg
of water which it raises through 10m. The efficiency of the system for
raising water is 50%.
(a) What is the least force which must be applied to the handle in
order to raise the load?
 293

fig 7.6 the windlass

Radius of the

_J-
rope cylinder

1----~-~--~ ~~~~-f­
_.~A Y-.:\ ~-'
- A-fd,--'
-~--~
/
r~--
Radius of the handle circle

(b) What is the work done by the effort in raising the bucket full of
water?
(c) One way of decreasing the force needed to turn the handle is to
attach a second bucket to the rope cylinder. Draw a diagram
showing clearly how this would be done and calculate the effort
needed using this arrangement if both the buckets have the same
mass.

CHAPTER 8

(Where needed, take the specific heat capacity of water as 4200 Jjkg K.)
1 (a) What is the specific heat capacity of paraffin if the temperature
of 0.2 kg of it rises by 10K when an electric heater supplies it
with 4400 J of heat energy?
(b) How much heat energy is needed to raise the temperature of 2 kg
of water through 3°C? /
(c) How much heat energy is needed to raise the temperature of
500 g of copper (specific heat capacity 380 Jj(kgK) from _5°C
to 15°C?
(d) A 3 kW heater is used to heat 30 kg of water. What is the maxi-
mum possible temperature rise in 3 min?

2 In an experiment using the apparatus illustrated in Fig. 8.1, a force of

30 N moved through 3 m and the copper cylinder of mass 100 g rose in
 294

temperature from ISO C to 18°C. What is the specific heat capacity of

copper?
3 A metal block of mass S kg is dragged over a surface by a force of ION.
If it is pulled a distance of 100 m, how much work is done against fric-
tion? If half this energy goes into the block, by how much will its
temperature rise if its specific heat capacity is 400 J/kg K?
4 A waterfall is 600 m high. How much kinetic energy is gained by 1 kg
of water as it falls? By how much will the temperature of water at the
bottom of the fall exceed that at the top?
S In a solar furnace a mirror is used to focus the Sun's rays onto a metal
block. The temperature of the block rises 100C in S min. The mass of
the block is 10 kg and the specific heat of the material of which it is
made is SOOO J/kg K.
(a) How much energy is received by the block every minute?
(b) How much heat is received by the block in 10 h, assuming a
constant rate of supply?
(c) Supposing that the area of the mirror collecting the Sun's rays
was 1.0 m 2 , how much energy could be collected from an area
of desert 100 m x 100 m in 10 hours?
(d) If this energy were used to drive electric generators and the
system were SO% efficient, what average power could be pro-
duced over the 10 h period?

CHAPTER 9

Explain the following:

(a) If a mercury thermometer with a thick-walled bulb is put into a
hot liquid, the mercury level first falls slightly before rising
quickly.
(b) A stopper may often be loosened by heating the neck of the
bottle.
(c) A platinum wire can be sealed through glass but a brass one
cannot.
(d) Long lengths of pipes carrying hot liquids often have loops in
them.
2 With the aid of a diagram, show how a bimetallic strip of copper and
invar, straight at O°C, can be arranged to be part of an electric circuit
to ring an electric bell when the temperature rises to a particular value
above O°C.
 295

How could the system be adjusted to make the bell ring at

(a) a higher temperature,
(b) a temperature below O°C?
3 A mercury thermometer being checked is found to read lOl.O°C at the
upper fixed point and -O.SoC at the lower fixed point. What is the cor-
rect temperature when the thermometer reads 20.0°C?
4 Fig. 9.8 is a diagram of a gas thermostat as fitted, for example, on a gas
Gven. Remembering that brass expands much more than invar if both
are equally heated, explain carefully how the device works to keep the
oven temperature approximately constant.

fig 9.8 a simplified diagram of a thermostat for a gas oven

A
v
B

(Oven)

A Brass tube
B Invar rod

! t
V Valve

To oven Gas in

5 Give two examples where the expansion of a solid when heated is made
use of and two where expansion is a difficulty which has to be allowed
for. In the latter cases, explain exactly how the allowance is made.
6 A substance has a linear expansivity of 0.000 02 per K.
(a) By how much will 5.0 m expand when the temperature is raised
15 K?
296

(b) By how much wi\llOO m expand when the temperature is raised

30 K?
7 A bar is 100 cm long at wOe and expands 0.0018 cm when heated to
100°e. What is the linear expansivity of the material?

CHAPTER 10

What is the distinction between the three states of matter on the

molecular theory?
2 What is Brownian motion? Describe, with the aid of a diagram or
diagrams, the apparatus you would set up to demonstrate Brownian
motion of either smoke particles suspended in air or particles suspen-
ded in a liquid.
3 What evidence is there to suggest that the molecules oJ a liquid are
closer together than the molecules in the corresponding gas?
4 (a) Use the kinetic theory to explain why a gas exerts a pressure
on the walls of its container.
(b) Show how the kinetic theory leads to an explanation of Boyle's
law.
5 Explain, in terms of the kinetic theory of gases:
(a) the change in pressure of a gas which is compressed at constant
temperature,
(b) the change in pressure when a gas is heated at constant volume,
(c) the increase in temperature when a fixed amount of gas, say in
a bicycle pump, is compressed and not allowed to escape.
6 At a pressure of 10 5 N/m 2 the volume of a certain mass of gas is
100 cm 3 . What will be the pressure if the volume increases to 600 cm 3 ,
the gas temperature remaining constant?
7 At each stroke of a pump, 500 cm3 of air at atmospheric pressure are
compressed and delivered to a car tyre. The initial pressure in the tyre
is 2.0 atmospheres. If the volume of the tyre remains constant at 20
Htres and assuming that the temperature remains constant, calculate
the new pressure after 10 strokes of the pump.
8 The pressure of air in a car tyre is 1.50 x 105 N/m 2 when the tempera-
ture is 20° e. What will the pressure become if the temperature rises to
25°e, assuming that the tyre volume remains unchanged?
9 A vessel used for storing gas has a safety valve which blows off at
10 6 N/m 2 . It contains gas at a pressure of 8.0 x 10 5 N/m 2 at 15°C.
At what temperature would the valve start to blow off?
 297

10 An oil drop has a volume of 0.01 mm 3 . When it is placed on the sur-

face of some water it spreads out into a circle of area 500 cm3 . Show
that the thickness of the oil film is about two millionths of a milli-
meter. What is the importance of this experiment?

CHAPTER 11

Explain the following:

(a) A vacuum is the worst possible conductor of heat.
(b) Double glazing keeps rooms warm in winter and cool in summer.
(c) In hot weather, ice cream will take a long time to melt if news-
paper is wrapped round it.
(d) There is frequently a cold draught below a closed window.
(e) Pouring boiling water into a tumbler made of thick glass is liable
to crack the glass, but if boiling water is poured into a tumbler
of thin glass the glass is unlikely to crack.
(f) Pipes carrying cold water in the home in winter time are lagged.
(g) Eskimos can keep themselves warm in a cold climate by building
huts made of ice.
(h) A fan rotating in a room may cause you to feel much cooler but
a thermometer in the room will show the same temperature as
before the fan was switched on.
(i) The ice compartment in a refrigerator is placed at the top of the
refrigerator compartment.
G) Fur coats would not look as nice if worn inside out but they
would be much more effective in deeping the occupant warm.
(k) Heat energy from the Sun has been falling on the Earth for
many millions of years, yet the temperature of the Earth remains
approximately constant.
2 Describe on a molecular and atomic scale how heat energy is conducted
along a metal rod.
3 Fig. 11.11 is a diagram showing the principles of a hot water system in
a house. Discuss why each pipe which joins the hot water tank joins at
the top or bottom of the tank.

4 Explain why a coal or log fire which uses a chimney helps to ventilate a
room.
5 What part do conduction, convection and radiation play in cooling a
motor car engine?
6 How does a pie being cooked in a heated oven receive its heat? Discuss
this in terms of conduction, convection and radiation and explain by
298

fig 11.12 the metal containers are identical in size and each contains the
same amount of water

Thermometer

~
Heater

Metal box
containing
• water

which method most of the heat reaches the pie. How does the centre of
the pie become warm?
7 Fig. 11.12 illustrates an experiment in which an electric heater is placed
midway between two metal containers which have water and a thermo-
meter in them. What would you notice about the readings on the
thermometers when the heater is switched on if
(a) both the metal containers were made of shiny copper,
(b) the one on the left were made of shiny copper and the one on
the right had been blackened by holding it in a candle flame, .
(c) the one on the left were painted with a white gloss paint and the
one on the right were painted with a matt black paint?
8 What explanation can you give for the fact that you can sit indoors on a
sunny day and feel the warmth of the Sun, yet if you put a glass fire-
screen in front of a fire very little heat reaches you.
9 Describe the construction of a Thermos flask.
Explain how heat losses by conduction, convection and radiation are
eliminated or reduced. How in fact is any heat lost from the flask? Is
the flask just as effective for storing cold liquids as hot liquids?
 299

CHAPTER 12

(Where necessary use the following constants: specific heat capacity of

water = 4200 J (kg K; specific latent heats of fusion of ice and lead are
3.3 x lOs J{kg and 2.1 x 104 J{kg respectively; specific latent heat of
vaporisation of water = 2.3 x 10 6 J (kg.)
1 Discuss each of the following statements:
(a) A scald from steam is very much worse than one from boiling
water.
(b) Skating on ice becomes very difficult if the temperature is very
low.
(c) Wet clothing often makes us feel rather cold.
(d) If you are sitting in a room which has a fan blowing, the tem-
perature of the room is probably increasing slightly due to the
heat from the fan's motor, yet you feel much cooler than with-
out the fan on.
(e) Water can be kept cool in hot climates by keeping it in porous
earthenware pots. The pots are porous enough to allow water to
pass very slowly to the outside surface.
(f) Much less heat is needed to keep a saucepan of water boiling if
the lid is kept on the saucepan rather than if the lid is left off.
2 How much heat energy is needed to
(a) change 10 kg of water at 100°C to steam at 100°C;
(b) melt 10 kg oflead at its melting point?
3 Calculate the quantity of heat energy given out when
(a) 100 g of steam at 100°C becomes 100 g of water at 100°C;
(b) 100 g of water at 100° C becomes 100 g of water at 0° C;
(c) 100 g of water at O°C becomes 100 g of ice at O°C;
(d) 100 g of steam at 100°C becomes 100 g of ice at O°C.
4 How long will it take a 3 kW immersion heater completely to melt
10 kg of ice at O°C?
5 How long will a kettle rated at 3 kW take to bring 1.0 kg of water at
10°C to the boil? If the kettle is left on after the water reaches its boil-
ing point, how much water will boil away in 3 min?
6 A 1 kW kettle contains 0.5 kg of water at 20°C. It is switched on for
12 min and after this time 0.3 kg of water are left in the kettle. How
much heat energy has been wasted, that is, not supplied to the water?
7 200 g of ice are placed in a beaker. A bunsen burner is placed under the
beaker and all the ice has melted in six minutes.
(a) Calculate the heat energy supplied to the beaker per minute.
300

(b) How long after all the ice has melted would it take for the water
to reach its boiling point?
(c) What time would elapse after the water began to boil before it
had all boiled away?

CHAPTER 13

A vibrator seen in stroboscopic light of frequency 30 Hz, 15 Hz, or

7.5 Hz appears to be at rest: but in light flashing at 60 Hz the vibrator
appears to have a double static image.
(a) Explain how a stationary image is produced.
(b) Explain how a double image is produced.
(c) Deduce the frequency of the vibrations.
(d) Give one other frequency at which the lamp flashes would
produce a single static image of the vibrator.
2 The speed of radio waves in air is 3 x 108 m/s. Calculate the frequency
of medium-wave transmitters which transmit waves of 300 m wave-
length.
3 Water waves generated by a 5 Hz vibrator travel 4 m in 16 s. Find their
speed and wavelength.
4 A fisherman's float bobs up and down nine times each minute as
waves of wavelength 20 m pass his anchored boat. Find the speed of
the waves.
5 Compression waves in water travel at 1450 m/s. A ship's depth-sound-
ing device times the echo of such a pulse from the ship to the sea-bed
and back. It takes 40 ms. How deep is the sea at this point?
6 Fig. 13.14 shows the position of a straight wave AB approaching a
reflecting barrier. Copy the figure, and construct the new position of
the wavefront when A reaches the barrier.

fig 13.14

A
 301

7 A small dipper in a ripple tank is 2 cm from a straight reflecting wall.

The dipper starts to vibrate at 10 Hz creating circular water waves
which travel at 10 cm/s. Make a diagram to show the positions of the
waves (a) 0.2 s and (b) 0.3 s after the vibrator starts to operate.
8 Waves of wavelength 0.3 cm approach a boundary PQ in Fig. 13.15
and cross it. Two wavefronts are shown in the figure. Calculate the
wavelength of the waves after they cross the boundary.

fig 13.15

p----~~----~~-------Q

9 After crossing the boundary RS in Fig. 13.16, waves of wavelength

1.0 cm travel at 3 cm/s. Calculate their speed and wavelength before
crossing the boundary.

fig 13.16

R -----¥-----:::::ot------- S
302

lOIn an experiment with Young's slits using monochromatic light of

wavelength 6 x 10- 7 m, the double slits are 0.4 mm apart. Find the
separation of the fringes observed in a plane 0.5 m from the slits.
II Explain what differences there would be in the fringe pattern observed
with Young's slits, if
(a) light of longer wavelength were used,
(b) the double slits were set wider apart,
(c) the fringes were observed in a plane twice as far from the slits.

CHAPTER 14

Fig. 14.10 shows a periscope for looking over the heads of crowds. Copy
the figure and include a ray from the tip of an object to the observer's
eye. Label the angle of incidence at each mirror.

fig 14.10

Observer's
eye

2 Sign your name normally; then repeat it in mirror writing, i.e. laterally
inverted. Examine both signatures in a mirror.

fig 14.11
 303

3 In Fig. 14.11 a vertical and a horizontal mirror are shown near a clock
face at eight o'clock. Redraw the figure and include the images of the
clock face seen in each mirror.
4 Fig. 14.12 shows a T-junction on a bend in a main road. A motorist at
X can only see if the road is clear at Y by looking into the mirror at Z.
Copy the figure and construct the mirror line.

fig 14.12

5 If you walk towards a mirror at 2 mis, how fast does your image move?
If you remain stationary and a friend moves the mirror towards you at
2 mis, how fast does your image move now?
6 What is the shortest length of mirror in which a man 1.8 m tall can see
the whole of his image while he is standing upright?
7 Construct a figure showing the reflection of a ray at a plane mirror.
Then show the same ray being reflected after the mirror has been rotated
through 20°. Measure the angle between the reflected rays. Deduce what
this angle would be for a mirror rotated through 30° .

CHAPTER 15

A ray in air meets an air-glass surface at an angle of incidence of 60° .

Find the angle of refraction, and the angle through which the ray is
deviated on entering the glass. (Assume airnglass = 1.5.)
2 The speed of light in air is 3 x 108 m/s. In medium X its speed is
2 x 10 8 mis, and in medium Y the speed of light is 2.5 X 108 m/s.
Calculate
(a) airnX,
304

(b) airny,
(c) Xny.
Which medium is optically most dense?
3 A medium has a refractive index in air of 1.4. Calculate the angle of
refraction when a ray makes an angle of incidence of 28 0 •
(a) in air,
(b) in the medium.
4 Copy Fig. 15.12 and add correct arrows to the three rays in the figure.
Explain how you decide which way the arrows should point.

fig 15.12

5 Calculate the critical angle for diamond using the graph in Fig. 15 .3(b).
6 Write down approximately the angle of refraction in water of refrac-
tive index 1.33, for a ray making an angle of incidence in air of 4.8 0 •
7 If i is the angle of incidence and r the angle of refraction, plot a graph
of sin i against sin r for a substance whose refractive index in air is 1.4.
Use the graph to discover the angle of refraction
(a) for an angle i = .3Qo In air,
(b) for an angle i = 300 in the substance.
8 What is the apparent depth of a tank of water 24 cm deep, when it is
viewed from directly above? (Assume airnwater = 1.33.)
9 In Fig. 15.13 a fish at X receives light rays (a) from a bird directly
overhead, (b) from the man on the river bank, and (c) from the fish at
Y. What effect does the water's surface have on the light from each of
these objects as it travels to X?
10 Write out the second law of refraction and explain why the phrase 'of
one colour' is necessary.
 305

fig 15.13

11 Calculate the critical angle for a substance in air, if a ray in air making
an angle of incidence at 48° at its surface has an angle of refraction of
30°.

CHAPTER 16

An object 2 cm tall stands on the optical axis of a converging lens of

focal length 8 cm. Discover by scale drawing the position and size of
the image if the object is
(a) 12 cm from the lens,
(b) 6 cm from the lens.
2 Define the terms 'optical centre', 'principal focus' and 'focal length' of
a converging lens, and the 'magnification' of the image.
3 An image is cast on a screen 60 cm from a bright object by means of a
single lens. If the magnification is 3, where must the lens be placed?
Find its focal length by scale drawing.
4 Construct diagrams to illustrate the formation of a virtual image using
(a) a converging lens,
(b) a plane mirror.
Describe how the images differ.
5 At what distance from a converging lens of fo~allength of 12 cm must
an object be placed in order that an image of magnification 1 will be
produced?
6 (a) Mirrors and lenses have different uses. Give one application of
each of the following
(i) a plane mirror,
306

(ii) a concave mirror,

(iii) a convex lens.
(b) Explain why the lens or mirror is suitable for the chosen use.

CHAPTER 17

How is the image on the plate of a pinhole camera affected if:

(a) the camera is moved further from the object,
(b) the distance from the pinhole to the plate is increased,
(c) the pinhole is enlarged?
2 (a) Calculate the magnification and height of the image when an
object 1 m tall stands 5 m from the pinhole camera whose length
from the pinhole to the plate is 10 cm.
(b) What would the answers to (a) be if the pinhole were replaced
by a converging lens correctly focused?
3 What camera adjustment is necessary after photographing an object
close at hand, before a distant scene can be filmed? Explain any change
that is needed.
4 A photograph is taken with an exposure of 1/60 s, and another is
required to show the same scene with greater depth of field. Exposures
of 1/125 and 1/30 s are possible, and the aperture can be made larger or
smaller. What changes in the camera settings would you make?
5 Explain the functions of the following parts of a slide projector:
(a) projection lens,
(b) condenser lens,
(c) concave mirror.
6 A slide projector projects an image magnified x 100 onto a screen
10 m away.
(a) What is the distance between the slide and the projection lens?
(b) How does this distance compare with the focal length of the
projection lens?
7 Describe a radio telescope, and outline some of its uses.

CHAPTER 18

Explain how a pure spectrum of white light can be produced on a

screen. How would the appearance of the spectrum be changed if a sheet
of yellow glass were placed in the path of the rays?
2 Beams of red and blue light overlap where they fall on a white screen.
What is the resulting colour of the screen?
 307

3 What colour results when

(a) magenta and yellow paints are mixed,
(b) yellow and peacock blue paints are mixed?
4 A red tomato rests on a yellow table cloth. What colours will the
tomato and cloth appear in
(a) red light,
(b) green light?
5 What is meant by the electromagnetic spectrum? What evicience is there
that both radio waves and light are electromagnetic waves?
6 Given that light travels at 3 X 10 8 m/s in free space and in air, find the
frequency of
(a) radio waves of wavelength 240 m,
(b) 'Y rays of wavelength 10- 14 m.
7 A sunbather inside a greenhouse finds it'difficult to get a suntan. Explain
the difficulty.
8 Which waves in the electromagnetic spectrum
(a) are usually associated with heat,
(b) have the longest wavelength?
Name two properties common to all electromagnetic waves.

CHAPTER 19

(Where needed, take the velocity of sound in air as 330 m/s.)

1 Sketch the CRO waveform of a note produced by
(a) a tuning fork,
(b) another tuning fork giving a note of the same frequency but
louder,
(c) a third tuning fork of the same loudness as (b) but with twice
the frequency.
2 What is the wavelength in air of a note of frequency
(a) 330 Hz,
(b) 660 Hz?
3 Describe an experiment to determine the velocity of sound in air. What
are the main sources of error in the experiment you have described?
4 A bat flying towards a wall emits a sound and receives an echo 30 ms
later. How far is the bat from the wall?
5 A tuning fork is held above a tall jar of water and the water is Siphoned
out slowly. At a certain point a loud note IS heard. Explain why the
loud note is heard.
308

CHAPTER 20

You are given a piece of thread and three bars, one of which is a magnet,
the second of which is a magnetic material that is not magnetised, and
the third of which is a non-magnetic material. Explain how you would
distinguish between the three bars.
2 Lucy says 'N-poles attract because the N-pole of a magnet points to-
wards the North Pole of the Earth'. Explain why she is wrong.
3 What is meant by magnetic induction? Describe one experiment to
illustrate magnetic induction.
4 A piece of watch spring is magnetised and then immersed in iron filings.
Draw a diagram showing the appearance when it is withdrawn. It is
then broken in half and again immersed in iron filings. Draw another
diagram showing the appearance of each half.
S Explain how you would identify the poles of a magnet which is sus-
pended in the Earth's magnetic field.
6 Describe how you would demagnetise a magnet using a solenoid.
7 Draw the flux patterns for (a) a bar magnet (b) a V-shaped magnet and
(c) a V-shaped magnet with curved pole pieces and a soft iron core
between the poles.

CHAPTER 21

Explain why small pieces of paper are attracted to charged objects even
though the paper itself is not electrically charged.
2 Why is it not possible to charge a conductor by holding it in your hand
and rubbing it with a duster?
3 How many electrons would it be necessary to remove from an object in
order to give it an overall charge of 6 x 10-8 C? (Charge on one elec-
tron = 1.6 X 10- 19 C.)

4 Two objects, A and B, are known to be positively charged. How would

you determine which of them had the larger charge?
S Charged objects do not retain their charge indefinitely. Explain how
they become discharged.
6 Two magnets can both attract and repel each other whereas two charged
objects will either attract or they will repel each other. Account for
this difference in behaviour.
 309

7 An alternating voltage of maximum value 10 V has a frequency of

100 Hz. It is applied to the input terminals of a cathode ray oscillo-
scope. Draw carefully the pattern you would expect to observe on the
oscilloscope if the 'y sensitivity' control was set at 5 V/cm and the time
base at 10 ms/cm. (Include in your diagram the horizontal and vertical
lines on the screen of the oscilloscope which you can assume are 1 cm
apart.)

CHAPTER 22

Calculate the values you would expect to observe on the ammeters and
voltmeters in the circuits in Fig. 22.21.
2 20 kJ of heat are produced in a heater when 2 A flows for 100 s. What is
(a) the charge that flows,
(b) the potential difference across the heater,
(c) the resistance of the heater?
3 Explain why the resistance of an ammeter should have a low value,
whereas that of a voltmeter should have a high value.
4 A series circuit consists of three resistors of value 2 n, 4 n, and 6 n,
connected to a 20 V battery.
(a) How does the potential difference across the 6 n resistor com-
pare with that across the 2 n resistor?
(b) How does the current in the 6 n resistor compare with that in
the 2 n resistor?
(c) Calculate the value of the potential difference across the 4 n
resistor.
(d) Use your answer to (c) to calculate the potential difference
across the 2 nand 6 n resistors.
5 A circuit consists of three resistors of value 2 n, 4 nand 6 n connec-
ted in parallel to a 20 V battery.
(a) How does the potential difference across the 6 n resistor com-
pare with that across the 2 n resistor?
(b) How does the current in the 6 n resistor compare with that in
the 2 n resistor?
(c) Calculate the value of the current in the 4 n resistor.
(d) Calculate the total current drawn from the battery.
6 (a) Draw a diagram of a circuit which could be used to obtain the
values of current and voltage required to plot the graph shown
in Fig. 22.12.
310

fig 22.21

(a) (b)

12V
.------~III-----1
6il

4il

(e)

,......-L---Illt-----'-----------..

2il

ail

(d)
 311

(b) The filament lamp is now removed from the circuit and replaced
by a resistor of 20 n. Draw the graph of current against voltage
that you would expect to obtain with the resistor.
(c) A resistor of 50 n is now placed in parallel with the 20 n resis-
tor. Calculate the reading you would expect to obtain on the
ammeter when 6 V is recorded on the voltmeter.
7 A potential divider circuit consists of 6 nand 4 n resistors connected
to a 1.5 V battery of negligible internal resistance. Calculate
(a) the size of the current in the circuit,
(b) the potential difference across the 6 n resistor.

CHAPTER 23

How would you establish that the strength of the magnetic field pro-
duced by a current depends on the size of the current?
2 (a) Fig. 23.11 shows a beam offast-moving electrons passing through
the poles of a permanent magnet. In which direction will the
electrons be deflected?

fig 23.11

Beam of
fast-moving -------1.------
electrons

(b) Would a stationary electron experience any force when placed

between the poles of a magnet?
3 Explain the purpose of the following features of an electric motor:
(a) the coil,
(b) the magnetic field,
(c) the brushes,
(d) the split-ring commutator.
312

4 (a) State, with reasons, what factors you think control the speed of
rotation of an electric motor.
(b) How would you reverse the direction of rotation of the electric
motor shown in Fig. 23.6?
5 Referring to Fig. 23.6 explain (i) why the coil rotates when a current
flows in it (ii) why it is necessary that the current be reversed every half
revolution in order to keep the coil rotating. How is this reversal of the
current achieved?

CHAPTER 24

The current in a small electric heater is 3.5 A when it is connected to a

12 V battery. Assuming the internal resistance of the battery is negligible,
calculate:
(a) the number of joules liberated as heat energy by each coulomb;
(b) the number of coulombs that pass through the heater in one
second;
(c) the power rating of the heater at this voltage;
(d) the resistance of the heater.
2 Two resistors, A and B, are supplied with energy at the rate of 4 Wand
6 W respectively when connected in parallel to a 6 V battery of negligible
internal resistance. Calculate:
(a) the current ~n A and B;
(b) the resistance of A and B;
(c) the total current drawn from the battery;
(d) the power supplied by the battery when connected to the two
resistors.
3 An electric heater is found to liberate 1080 J of energy in one minute
when it is connected to a 6 V battery of negligible internal resistance.
Calculate:
(a) the current in the heater;
(b) the resistance of the heater;
(c) the power of the heater at this voltage.
4 A 1 kW electric fire is connected to the 240 V alternating mains supply.
Calculate:
(a) the current in the coil;
(b) the resistance of the heating coil.
5 A tumble dryer has a power rating of 2.43 kW when connected to the
240 V mains supply. 0.18 kW is used by the electric motor, the re-
mainder is supplied to the heater coil. Calculate:
 313

(a) the current in the heater coil;

(b) the total cost of leaving the dryer on for 45 min.
(Assume 1 kWh of energy costs 6 pence.)
6 (a) Calculate the size of a fuse you would fit in the three-pin plug
used to connect a 240 V, 700 W hair dryer to the mains supply.
(b) Would it be safe to connect a 3 kW, 240 V electric fire to a 13 A
socket? Explain your answer.
(c) An electric cooker has four heating elements each rated at
3.2 kW when connected to a 240 V supply. Calculate the total
current drawn from the mains supply when all four elements are
used at the same time.
7 Mains adaptors can be bought which enable more than one appliance to
be connected to a single 13 A socket. What precautions must be taken
when using such adaptors?
8 The electricity bill for a particular household comes to £45 for a three-
month period. Assuming that 1 kWh costs 6 pence, calculate the
average daily energy consumption over this period. (Take three months
as 90 days.)

CHAPTER 25

The speed of rotation of the coil in an alternating-current generator is

increased. Explain what changes, if any, will occur in the amplitude and
frequency of the current produced by the generator as a result of this
change.
2 Fig. 25.13 shows a piece of thick copper wire, which has been bent into
the form of a square, and is held between the poles of a permanent
magnet. Explain what deflection you would expect to observe on the
galvanometer G when the wire is moved backwards and forwards:
(a) in the direction AB,
(b) in the direction XY.
3 A square frame of thick copper wire is placed between the poles of an
electromagnet as shown in Fig. 25.14 and any induced current in the
coil is recorded on the galvanometer G. What deflection, if any, would
you expect to observe on the galvanometer when the electromagnet is
(a) switched on,
(b) left on for a short time,
(c) switched off?
4 (a) Why is there no current recorded on the galvanometer G in Fig.
25.7 when the current in solenoid A is steady?
314

fig 25.13

fig 25.14

Square of thick copper wire

Electromagnet

(b) Copy Fig. 25.7 and on it indicate the direction of the current
induced in B when the switch S is opened. Explain why you
think the current is in the direction you have shown.
5 A galvanometer is connected in series to the output terminals of an
alternating-current generator and a diode.
(a) Draw a graph to show how the current recorded on the galvano-
meter varies with time.
(b) How and why does this current differ from that obtained from a
direct-current generator?
 315

6 Fig. 25.15 shows a bar magnet placed close to a solenoid. Explain what
deflection, if any, you would expect to observe on the galvanometer
when the magnet is rotated
(a) about the axis XV,
(b) about the axis AB.

fig 25.15
A
Bar magnet

x y'ooOOO
L..-_---{ G 1-------'
B

7 Explain why a transformer would not work if

(a) the core were made of steel instead of soft iron;
(b) a direct voltage source were connected by mistake to the primary
coil.
8 A toaster bought in America is designed to work off a 120 V supply
when it has a power rating of 1 kW. A visitor to Britain connects it to
the 240 V supply using a step-down transformer.
(a) What is the value of the turns ratio of this transformer if the
toaster works normally?
(b) What is the size of the current in the secondary coil of the trans-
former?
(c) Assuming that the transformer is 100% efficient what is the size
of the current in the primary coil?
9 The voltage developed by the generator at a power station is 25000 V.
A transformer is used to step up this voltage to 400 000 V for transmis-
sion through the grid system.
(a) What is the value of the turns ratio of this transformer?
(b) What is the ratio of the current in the primary coil of the trans-
former to that in the secondary coil? (Assume the transformer is
100% efficient.)
(c) Why is the electrical energy transmitted at such a high voltage?
(d) What factor do you think controls the maximum value of the
voltage that could be used in the grid system?
316

CHAPTER 26

How weld you determine the type or types of radiations being emit-
ted from a radioactive source?
2 Explain why 0: radiation can be detected using a spark counter whereas
{3 and '"1 radiation go undetected.

3 Explain why it is necessary to use a GM tube with a thin mica window

in order to detect 0: radiation.
4 (a) Most radioactive sources used in schools have an activity of
5 J..LCi. How many ionising radiations would be emitted from
such a source in one second?
(b) A GM tube is placed close to the source and the count rate is
recorded on a scaler. Give two reasons why this count rate is
lower than the value calculated in (a).
5 Give the atomic number, mass number and chemical symbol of the iso-
tope formed when:
(a) ~~Sr emits a (3 particle,
(b) ~~Co emits 'Y radiation,
(c) 2~iu emits an 0: particle.
6 State, with reasons, whether you think the following statements are
true or false:
(a) 0: particles have lost all their kinetic energy after they have
travelled about 7 cm in air.
(b) Both 0: and (3 particles would have an infinitely long range in
vacuum.
7 A radioactive isotope has a half-life of 20 min. A source of this isotope
is found to have an activity of 50 J..LCi. What would you expect the
activity to be after:
(a) 20 min,
(b) 40 min,
(c) one hour?
8 A source of 0: radiation lying on a bench is less dangerous than one
emitting 'Y radiation. However, if a radioactive gas emitting 0: radiation
is inhaled it is more dangerous than one which emitted 'Y radiation.
Explain why both these statements are correct.

CHAPTER 27

1 Explain the difference between full-wave and half-wave rectification.

 317

2 Referring to Fig. 27.5 Section 27.5 explain

(a) why the arrangements of diodes only allows the current to
flow in one direction in the load and
(b) the function of the smoothing capacitor and protective fuses.
3 Explain in terms of the flow of charge what happens when a battery is
connected across a capacitor. How can a capacitor be used to introduce
time delay in a circuit in which a transistor is being used as a switch?
4 The circuit in Fig. 27.33 is going to be used to switch on an electric

fig 27.33

lr---~I- - 9 V

~--------~~-------------OV

motor when it gets dark. Add, using the correct symbols, in the spaces
provided
(a) a variable resistor,
(b) an LDR and
(c) an electromagnetic relay.
5 Explain what will happen when the switch S is closed (Fig. 27.34) if
the values of Rl and R2 are about the same. If R2 is replaced by a
large capacitor, what will happen when the switch is closed?
6 The circuit shown in Fig. 27.35 is designed to switch the motor on
and off.
(a) If the switch S2 is closed and SI is open
(i) is the motor on or off?
(ii) is a current flowing in the collector circuit of the trans-
istor?
(b) If the switch SI is closed and S2 is open, is the motor on or
off? Explain your answer.
 318

fig 27.34

--+6V
S

~--------~~---------OV

fig 27.35

~-------4------~---------------------------------+6V

~------------~~-------------------------------OV

(c) The switch S2 is replaced by an LDR. Explain what changes

are likely to take place in the circuit when a light shining on
the LDR is switched off.
 319

7 The circuit shown in Fig. 27.36 is designed to switch on the indicator

lamp when the light shining on the LDR falls below a certain inten-
sity. The resistance of the LDR varies between 300 nand 10 kn.
(a) What is the voltage at the point X when the resistance of the
LDR is (i) 300 nand (ii) 10 kn?
(b) What change occurs in the current flowing from the collector
to the emitter of the transistor when the light falling on the
LDR suddenly decreases in intensity so that the resistance of
the LDR changes from 300 n to 10 kn?

fig 27.36

~------------~-------------------6V

Indicator
lamp

LOR

L..-____________......_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ av

8 (a) In the circuits shown in Fig. 27.37, a switch open represents a

logic state 0, and a switch closed represents a logic state 1.

fig 27.37

--/'"
A B

(a) (b)
320

What type of gates are represented by the circuits shown in

Fig. 27.37?
(b) Draw a truth table for the combination of 3 NOR gates shown
in Fig. 27.38.
State the name of the gate resulting from such a combination.

fig 27.38

lO---C

9 The circuit below is designed to operate a signal on a model railway.

fig 27.39

. - - - - - - - - - - - - -.......- - - - - - - - - +6 V

Red
~
Green

~------~--~~------~~OV
 321

A Draw a truth table for one of the two input NAND gates.
B The green light is 'on':
(a) is the red light 'on' or 'off'?
(b) What happens to the lights when the following sequence of
events is carried out in order?
(i) switch Sl is closed?
(ii) switch Sl is open?
(iii) switch Sz is closed?
(iv) switch Sz is opened?
Explain your answer in each case.
C Explain how the train going round the track could be made to
operate the switches Sl and Sz.
D How could the above circuit be used as a burglar alarm? Explain
which switch would be used to turn on the red light when the burg-
lar opened a window and how the system could bt reset after the
window had been opened and closed and the alarm set off.
10 (a) Draw a truth table for the two input NAND gates shown in
Fig. 27.40.

fig 27.40

(b) Three NAND gates are connected as shown in Fig. 27.4l.

Draw the truth table for the arrangement. What is the resulting
gate called?

fig 27.41

o--c

B
322

(c) Two NAND gates are connected as shown in Fig. 27.42. Com-
plete the truth table shown below. The initial condition is

fig 27.42

R----l
O--_--Q

0 - -......--0
s---~L...-_,/

shown on the first line of the sequence and you must make
each change in the sequence indicated, moving one line at a
time down the table.

R S Q Q
1 1 1 0 1

2 0 1
Sequence 3 1 1
4 1 0
5 I 1

(d) The above logic is that of the burglar system shown in Fig.
27.43. The alarm rings when it receives a logic 1 from the out-
put of the NAND gate to which it is connected. A switch will
close when a window in the house is opened and open again
when the window is closed. Explain why
(i) the alarm rings when one of the switches is closed,
(ii) the alarm does not stop ringing if the burglar closes the
window.
(e) How can the alarm be switched off and reset?
 323

fig 27.43

6 V -----------,

Q Alarm
>--+----1
bell

-1 Push button switch

oV - _ + -.......---1~_+---I
324

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS

CHAPTER 1

1. 8.9 g/cm 3 2.8920 kg/m 3 3.3.70 x 10-3 m 3 4.2.3 mm

5. 1.29 kg/m 3 6.87 kg 7. (a) 1.79 em (b) 30.8 g (c) 1.60 em
8. (a) B heaviest, D lightest (b) C smallest, A and B largest (c) E

CHAPTER 2

1. (a) 5 Pa (b) 6 Pa (c) 2000 N (d) 6.0 x 10 5 N

2. (a)25kPa,(b)6.25kPa 3.3.75kPa 5.(a)49.5kPa,99kPa,104kPa
(b) 214 kPa, 428 kPa 6. (a) Y (b) Both rise together (c) 50 N
(d) 2.0 N, 8.0 N.
II. 4 m 2

CHAPTER 3

1. (a) 5 Nat 53.1 ° to 3 N force (b) 26.5 Nat 40.8° to 10 N (c) 42.0 N
at 30.4° to 15 N force 2.204 km/h at 78.8° to wind 3.825 Nat
14.0° ahead of vertical 4.0.58 N, 1.15 N
5. 77 300 N on bisector of force directions 7.5.83 km/h in direction
downstream at 59° to bank 8.6.0 N at 83.6° to 3 N direction
9. I15N

CHAPTER 4

2. 5 cm/s, 32 cm/s, 3.50 cm/s 4.83.3 m/s 2 5.500 cm/s 2

6. 5m/s 2 7. lOON 9. (a)2.5 m/s 2 (b)1.25m (c)500m
10. (a)3.0 N (b) 9.80 m/s2, 9.77 m/s 2 11. 1.67 m/s in same direction
as 2 kg initially moving 12.0.67 m/s in original direction of motion
13. 0.50 m/s 14.6.3 m/s
 325

CHAPTER 5

3. (a) 30 N (b) 2.5 N (c) 1.75 N (d) 2.32 N. 4. 1.33 m 5.2.4 m on

opposite side to Jim, 2.33 m on same side as Mary. 6. (a) zero
(b) 24 Nm 7.2.5 N 8. (a) 1.65 x 105 N (b) 1.56 x 105 Nand
1.74 x 10 5 N

CHAPTER 6

1. (a) 12 J (b) 100 J 2. (a) 200 J (b) 1.0 J 3. (a) 1000 J (b) 10000 J
4. 5000 MW 5. (a) 3.47 x 104 J (b) 2.7 x 10 8 J (c) 8.0 X 109 J
6. 33.3N 8. (a) 12000J (b) 1200J/s (c) 1200W
9. (a) 1.2 x 106 J (b) 1.2 x 106 J. 4000 W

CHAPTER 7

1. 80% 2. (a) 1500 J (b) 1.25 m (c) 1250 J (d) 0.83 3. (a) 1500 J
(b) 156 N (c) 1875 J 4.600 J, 600 J, 1000 J 5: (a) 160 N (b)4000 J

CHAPTER 8

1. (a) 2200 J/kgK (b) 25 200 J (c)3800 J (d) 4.3 K 2.300 J/kg K
3. 1000 J, 0.25 K 4.6000 J, 1.4 K 5. (a) 100000 J/min
(b) 6.0 x 10 7 J (c) 6.0 X 1011 J (d) 8.3 MW

CHAPTER 9

6. (a) 1.5 mm (b) 60 mm 7.2.0 X 10- 7 per K

CHAPTER 10

6. 1.67 X 104 N/m 2 7.2.25 atmospheres 8. 1.53 X 105 N/m 2

9. 87°C

CHAPTER 12

2. (a) 2.3 x 10 7 J (b) 2.1 x 105 J 3. (a) 2.3 x 105 J (b) 4.2 x 104 J
(C) 3.3 X 104 J (d) 3.1 x 10 5 J 4.18.3 min 5.2.1 mins, 0.24 kg
6. 92 000 J 7. (a) 11 kJ/min (b) 7 m 38 s (c) 41 min 49 s.
326

CHAPTER 13

1. (e) 30 Hz 2.1 MHz 3.0.25 mis, 5 em 4.3m/s 5.29m

8. 0.2 em 9. 1.5 em, 4.4 em/s 10.7.5 x 10- 4 m

CHAPTER 14

5. 2 mIs, 4 m/s

CHAPTER 15

1. 35.3°,24.7° 2. (a) 1.5 (b) 1.2 (e) 0.8 3. (a) I9.6~ (b) 41.1°
5.24.8° 7.20.9°,44.4° 8.18em 11.42.3°

CHAPTER 16

1. (a) 24 em, 4 em (b) 24 em, 8 em 3.15 em, 11.25 em 5.24 em

CHAPTER 17

2. (a) 0.02, 2 em (b) the same 6. (a) 10 em

CHAPTER 18

6. (a) 1.25 MHz (b) 3 x 10 22 Hz

CHAPTER 19

2. (a) 1m (b) 0.5 m 4. 5m

CHAPTER 21

3. 3.75 X 1011

CHAPTER 22

1. (a) Al = A2 = 2A, V reads 12 V (b) Al = A2 = 1.5 A, A3 = 3.5 A

(e) V = 8 volts, A2 = 2A, Al = IjA (d) A2 = 0.5 A, Al = 1 A,
V = 6 volts
2. (a) 200 C (b)100 V (e) 50 n 4. (a) 3x (b) same (e) V 61
(d) 3j V, 10 V 5. (a) same (b) x j (e) 5 A (d) 18j A
7. (a)0.15 A (b) 0.9 V
 327

CHAPTER 24

1. (a)12J (b)3.5C (c)42W (d)3.4Q 2.(a)iA,IA (b)9Q,

6Q (c) Ii A (d) 10 W 3. (a) 3 A (b) 2 Q (c) 18 W
4. (a)4.16A (b) 57.6 Q 5.(a)9.4A (b)10.9p 6.(a)3A (c) 53.3 A
8. 3.0 x 10 7 J (8.3 kWh)

CHAPTER 2S

8. (a) 2: 1 (b) 8.33 A (c) 4.16 A 9.(a)I:16 (b) 16:1

CHAPTER 26

4. (a) 1.85 x 105/s 5. (a)39, 90 (b) 27,'60 (c) 90, 230

7. (a) 25 fJCi (b) 12.5 fJCi (c) 6.25 /lCi

CHAPTER 27

7. (a) (i) 0.18 V (ii) 3.0 V

328

INDEX
A barometers 20, 21, 22
Barton's pendulums 178
absolute temperature 90
batteries 54
absolute zero 89
beta (lj) particles 247,248,249,
a.c. generator 234, 235
250,251
acceleration 28
bimetallic strip 78
and force 33, 34
bistable 269 ff
due to gravity 37, 38
body's cooling system 109
equations of uniform 41 boiling 108
in free fall 37,38
boiling point, effect of pressure
addition of vectors 24
Ill,
addition of velocities 26 Bourdon gauge 18, 88, 89
airliners 22 Boyle's law 87,88,93
allowance for expansion 77 bridge rectifier 258,259
alpha (a) particles 247,248,249 Brownian movement 86, 87
250 '
scattering of 249, 250
alternating voltage 194, 195 C
ammeter 199
ampere 199,218 camera 160,161,162,166
ampere-hour 54 pinhole 160
amplifier 272 capacitance 212
amplitude 116 capacitors 211, 212, 260, 266
AND gate 267,268,270 Cape Canaveral 1
aneroid barometer 21 22 cathode ray oscilloscope 174,
angle ' 192,193,194,195 196 197
centi- 4 ' ,
of incidence 134, 141, 142
of reflection 134 central heating 104
~f refraction 141,142,143 centre of gravity 47, 48
antmode 131,132 chain reaction 255
Apollo space capsule 103 change of state 105 ff
apparent depth 148, 149 charge unit of 199'
armature 220 charging
atmospheric pressure 19 by friction 189
atomic by induction 190, 191
number 250 by rubbing 189
structure 249,250 Charles' Law 91, 92
circuits 198 ff
B clinical thermometer 80
clipped 276
background count 252 cloud chamber 245,246
balance collapsing can 19
beam 7 colour(s)
spring 5 addition 169
wheel 8 complementary 170
 329

filters 171 electric

primary 170 circuit 198 ff
pure spectrum of 165 current 198 ff
secondary 170 motor 219 ff
subtraction 171 power 224, 225
triangle 170 electrical energy 54
Columbia space shuttle 1,103 electromagnetic induction 231 ff
communications satellite 67 electromagnetic spectrum 164 ff
commutator 219 electromotive force 199
compass 186,187 electron 190
conduction 95,96,97 electron gun 192, 193
conversation electronics 257 ff
of energy 58 electrostatic induction 190, 191
of momentum 36 electrostatics 189 ff
convection 97, 98, 99 energy 53
copper loss 241 changes 54
coulomb 199 crisis 59
couples 50 supplied by current 224, 225
critical angle 146 in waves 122
Curie 252 equilibrium 44
current 198 ff evaporation 107, 108
curved mirrors 157 ff, 162, 163 expansion 74
allowance for 77
D forces caused by 75,76
molecular explanation of 80
d.c. generator 236, 237
expansivity 76
deca 4
exposure meter 166
demagnetisation 184
eye 166
density 9, 10
of air 10
depth of field 161 F
detectors of light 166
farad 212
diffraction 175
Faraday's law of electromagnetic
diffuse reflection 138
induction 233
diffusion 85,86
drode 257 fission 255
dioptre 153 fixed points 79
discharge from points 192 focal
dispersion 165 length 153
distance/time graph 41 point 152
distribution of electricity 241, 242 force 3
domestic wiring 226 between charges 189, 190
double glazing 104 between poles 183
dynamo 234,235,236,237 combining 24, 25, 26
measurement of 5
E moment of 45
of gravity 4, 7
earthing 228 on current-carrying conductor
earth lead 228 217 ff
eddy currents 241 resultant 5
efficiency 64, 240, 241 unit of 5,34
elastic limit 6 forced oscillations 178
330

fountain experiment 19 I
frequency 115,119,173,195,197
measurement of 174 images
unit of 173 formed by lenses 151 ff
friction 38,39,40,69 in plane mirrors 135
inclined plane 64
fulcrum 44
induction
full-wave rectification 258, 259
charging by 190, 191
fuse 226,227, 228, 260
electromagnetic 231 ff
infra-red radiation 167, 168, 169
intensity of sound 176
G interference 175, 176
ionisation 191
g 37,38 ions 191
gain 274, 275 isotopes 250
gamma("Y)rays 247,248,249,251
gas laws 87 ff
gas pressure 18, 19,87 ff J
gates 266 ff
Geiger and Marsden's experiment jet motors 37
249 joule 53
Geiger-Muller tube 244, 245 jou1emeter 71
generator
a.c. 234, 235 K
d.c. 236,237
giga- 4 Kelvin scale 90, 92
glass fibre 148 kilo- 4
gram 3 kilogram 3,6
gravity 7,37,38 kilometre 3
acceleration due to 37,38 kilowatt-hour 229
centre of 47, 48 kinetic energy 55
force of 7 kinetic theory of gases 92
greenhouse effect 103
grid 241, 242
L
latent heat 105 ff
by electrical method 106, 107
H of fusion 106
half-life 253, 255 of vaporisation 106
half-wave rectification 258 lateral inversion 136
Hazards of radiation 254 laws of reflection 135
heat 69 ff laws of refraction 141, 143
and change in temperature 72 LDR 260, 261, 263, 264, 268
energy 58, 69 ff LED 260,261,267,268, 272
shield 103 left-hand rule 218
transfer 95 ff length 3
Hertz 173 lenses 151 ff
Hooke's law 6 converging 151 ff
hot water systems 103, 104 diverging 152
hydraulic focal length of 153
brakes 16 focal point of 152
jacks 16 magnification by 156
machines 16 magnifying glass 155
 331

measurement of focal length of mega- 4

154 melting point, effect of pressure
nature, position, size of image 110
154,155,156,157 metre 3
optical axis 152 micro- 4
optical centre of 152 microwaves 168, 169
principal axis of 152 milli- 4
principal focus of 152 mirrors
uses of 154,161,163 curved 157 ff, 162, 163
wave diagrams for 151 plane 133 ff
Lenz's law 233 moderators 255
levers 44 ff molecular explanation of expansion
Ught dependent resistor 260, 261, 80
263, 264, 268 molecular size 84
light emitting diode 260, 261, 267 molecular structure 82,83
268,272 molecular theory 82,83, 93
light meter 166 moment(s)
lightning 192 of a force 45
lightning conductor 192 principal of 47
linear expansivity 76 momentum 35,36
lines of force 186, 187 motion 28 ff
logic gates 266 ff Newton's laws of 28 ff
longitudinal waves 117 motor 219 ff
loudness 176 moving-coil loudspeaker 222
loudspeaker 222 musical notes 177
lower fixed point 79
low voltage power supply 259,260 N

M NAND gate 270 ff

nano- 4
machines 62 ff National Grid 241,242
Magdeburg hemispheres 20 negative feedback 277
magnet, making a 184, 185 neutron, the 249,250
magnetic newton, the 34
effect of a current 215 ff Newton's laws of motion 28 ff
field 186,187,215,216 node 13 1, 132
flux 186 NOR gate 268,269,270
lines of force 187 normal 134
pole 183 NOT gate 267,268,270
magnetism 183 ff nuclear
direction of lines of force 186, charge 249
187 composition 249 ff
electro- 215 ff fission 255
induced 185 energy 54, 255
making a magnet 184 nucleon number 250
plotting lines of force 186, 187 nucleus 249
test for 184
magnification 156 o
magnifying glass 155
mains supply 225 ohm 205
manometer 18 Ohm's law 267
mass 67 oil drop experiment 84
number 250 operational amplifier 272 ff
332

optical proton number 250

centre 152 pulleys 62 ff
density 143,144 pure spectrum 165
instruments 160 ff
OR gate 268 Q
oscilloscope 174, 192 ff
use of measure frequency 174 quality of sound waves 177
Quartz watches 8
p
R
parallel circuits 201, 202, 203
Pascal 13 radiant heat 168
pendulum 8 radiation 99,100,101,102
penumbra 139 absorption of 100, 247
period 195, 197 infra-red 167,168,169
periscope 147 reflection of 100
photoelectric effect 166 refraction of 100
photoemissive effect 166 safety precautions 254
photo transistor 166 radio telescope 163
pico- 4 radio waves 128, 169
pigments 171 radioactivity 244 ff
pinhole camera 160 cloud chamber 245, 246
pitch 176 decay 252, 253
polarisation 117 Geiger-Muller tube 245
pole of a lens 152 half-life 253, 255
potential ionisation 245
difference 199 isotopes 250
divider 210, 211, 264, 265 nature of radiation 249
energy 56 properties of radiation 246, 247
power 59 ratemeter 245
electrical 224, 225 safety precautions 254
fusion 61 scaler 245
geothermal 60 sources 251
of lens 153 spark counter 244
solar 60 uses 254
tidal 60 Radioisotopes 250
wave 60 rarefaction 173
wind 60 ratemeter 245
pressure 12 ff real and apparent depths 148, 149
and depth 16, 17 rechargeable batteries 54
at a point 15 rectification 258
atmospheric 19 reflection 133 ff
cooker 112 at plane surfaces 133 ff
gauge 18, 88, 89 diffuse 137
law 89,90 laws of 135
liquid 14, 16 of waves 122
transmission of 15 total internal 145,146,147,
primary colours 170 148
principal focus 152 refraction 140 ff
prisms 147,164,165 apparent depth due to 148,149
proj ector 162 bent stick due to 148
proton 190 laws of 141,143
 333

refractive index 143 ff specific heat capacity 69 ff

refrigerators 109 measurement of 69 ff
regelation 110 specific latent heat 106
resistance 204, 205 spectrum 164,165,166
resistors speed 28
in parallel 209, 210 split-ring commutator 219,220,
in series 207, 208 221
resonance 178, 179 spring balance 5
resultant force 5 stability 49
reversibility of light 144 standing waves 131
right-hand grip rule 216 stroboscope 119, 174
ring main 226 supersonic aircraft 102
ripple tank 118, 120 symbol 4
rocket 37
Rutherford 249 T
temperature 79,80,90,92
s tera- 4
saturation 276 terminal velocity 41
scaler 26, 245 thermistor 260, 261, 265
scattering of alpha (a) particles thermometers 79,80
249,250 thermosflask 102
secondary colours 170 thermostat 79
series circuits 200, 201, 202, 203 three-pin plug 22 7
shadows 138, 139 ticker timer 31, 32, 36
size of molecule 84 time 8
skating 111 time base 196
slide projector 162 time delay 265,266
slip rings 234 time period 195,197
smoke cell 87 total internal reflection 145,146,
smoothing 259, 147,148
Snell's law 143 tracers 254
snowballs 110 transfer of heat 95 ff
solenoid 216 transformer 238, 239, 240, 241,
sound 173 ff 260
absorption of 177 transistors 26 I ff
diffraction of 175 transmission of electricity 241, 242
frequency of 174 243
intensity of 176 transverse waves 116, 117
interference of 175, 176 triangle of forces 26
loudness of 176 truth table 267,269,270
musical notes 177
musical quality 177 U
pitch of 176
resonance of 178 ultra-violet radiation 167
sources of 173 umbra 138, 139
speed of 174, 175 uniformly accelerated motion 41,
velocity of 174, 175 42
waves 128 unit of electricity 229
space shuttle 1,103 upper fixed point 79
space suits 22 upthrust 17
spark counter 244 U-tube manometer 18
334

v waves 115, ff
diffraction of 125, 126, 127
vacuum flask 102 interference of 128
vectors 24
longitudinal 117
velocity 28
polarisation of 117
and refractive index
radio 128, 169
echo method 174, 175
reflection of 122
of sound 174,175
of waves 121 refraction of 123, 124, 125
terminal 41 standing 131
velocity/time graphs 41 transverse 116, 117
vi brations in strings 13 1, 132 velocity 121
virtual image 136, 155, velocity and refractive index
156,157 123,124,125,144
weight 7
volt 199, 200
wiring a house 226
voltage gain 274,275
volume 8,9 work 53

X
X-ray tube 167
w X-rays 167,169
watt 59 y
wave equation 120
wavelength 116, 119 Young's slits 130, 131