SOLUTIONS

Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more

substances. Here 2 or more components mix
uniformly.
In our syllabus, we have
➢ Binary solution: one solute, one solvent.
➢ Solute lesser quantity, solvent larger
quantity.
Or
➢ Solution ultimately takes the physical
state of solvent.
e.g., sugar and water.

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Type of solutions:
SOLUTE SOLVENT EXAMPLE
Gas Gas Air , gas mixture
Liquid Gas Water moisture in air
Solid Gas Smoke
Gas Solid Adsorption of a gas
Liquid Solid Sodium, gold
amalgam

Solid Solid ALLOY (Copper

dissolved in gold)

➢ Common non-aqueous solvents are ether,

benzene, carbon tetrachloride.

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Methods of expressing Concentration of solutions:
expressed by 2 ways:
i. Volume related
ii. Mass related.

Volume related:
W/V, V/V , molarity , normality.

Mass related: W/W, molality, ppm

i. W/W:
a solution of NaCl is 10% (W/W)
means
10 g NaCl is dissolved in 100 gm of solution.
Mathematically,
(Mass of solute/ mass of solution) x 100

Q. 10g sucrose is dissolved in 100 g water. Find

w/w percent.
Ans. 10/110 x100 = 9.09 .

V/V:
An aqueous solution of KCl is 10% (v/v).

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Means
10 ml KCl is dissolved in 100ml solution.

Mathematically,
(volume of solute/ volume of solution) x 100

W/V:
a sugar solution is 5% (w/v).
means
5g sugar is dissolved in 100 ml of solution.

Q. A sugar solution is 10% w/v. find w/w %, if

density of solution is 1.2 g/mL. AIEEE 12
Ans. 8.34 %
Q. A sugar solution is 10% w/w. find w/v %, if
density of solution is 1.2 g/mL.
Ans.12.04

Q. If 11g of oxalic acid are dissolved in 500 ml

of solution ( density 1.1 g/ml). what is the mass
percent of oxalic acid in solution? Abc 124

Ans. 2

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MOLARITY:
No. of moles of solute dissolved in 1 L solution.

➢ It changes with temperature.

➢ 1 M= molar solution,
M/2 = 0.5 M= semi molar
M/10 = 0.1 M = deci molar
M/100 = 0.01M = centi molar
M/1000 = 0.001 M = Mili molar

Q. 2.46 gm NaOH is dissolved in water and the

solution is made to 100 cc in a flask. Calculate
the molarity of the solution.
Ans. 0.615

Q. Calculate the molarity of a solution

containing 5 g of NaOH in 450 ml solution.
Ans. 0.278mol/L

Q. If 53 g sodium carbonate is dissolved in 500

ml solution. Find the molarity of
i. sodium carbonate ans . 1
ii. Sodium ion iii. Carbonate ion

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NORMALITY:
The no. of gram equivalents of solute
dissolved in 1 L solution.

Q. Calculate the normality of the solution

containing 31.5 gm of hydrated oxalic acid in
1250 ml of solution. Abc 127

Ans 0.4 N.
➢ Also temperature dependent.

MOLALITY:
The no. of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg
solvent.
➢ Temperature independent.

Q. 2.5 gm of ethanoic acid is dissolved in 75

gm of benzene. Calculate the molality of the
solution. Ans 0.556 m abc 125

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 Q. Calculate the molality of a solution
containing 20.7 g of potassium carbonate
dissolved in 500 ml of solution ( density of
solution= 1g/ml ) Ans 0.313 abc 125

MOLE FRACTION:
No. of moles / total no. of moles.
➢ The sum of mole fraction of all the
components in a solution is 1 .

Q. Calculate the mole fraction of ethylene glycol in a

solution containing 20% of it by mass.
Ans. 0.068, 0.932 abc127

Q. Calculate the mole fraction of MgCl2 and H2O, IF 2

moles of MgCl2 are dissolved in 1000g of water.
Ans. 0.034, 0.96

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Q. An antifreeze solution is prepared from 222.6 g of
ethylene glycol and 200 g of water. Calculate the
molality of the solution.
If the density of the solution be 1.072 g/ml, what will
be the molarity of the solution.
Ans. 17.95 m, 9.11 M. ABC 131

HOME WORK SUM

Calculate the mass % of aspirin C9H8O4 in acetonitrile
when 6.5 g of C9H8O4 is dissolved in 450 g of
acetonitrile.
Ans. 1.42% abc 130

Solubility:
The maximum amount of solutes dissolved in unit
volume of solvent to form a saturated solution at a
given temp and pre.
Factors on which solubility depends:
i. Nature of solute and solvent:

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 Like dissolves like, polar solvent dissolves
polar solute, and non-polar solvent dissolves
non-polar solute.
But
For gases, the gases which are not easily liquefiable,
are less soluble in water and the gases which are
easily liquefiable, relatively more soluble in water.

ii. Temperature:
A solution, maybe exothermic or
endothermic.
If endothermic, the with ↑ temp, solubility will ↑.
If the process is exothermic, opposite will occur.
But
For gases, the dissolution is always exothermic in
nature. So, the solubility of a gas, in a liquid, always
decreases, with ↑ in temp.
NOTE:
1. so aquatic animals live in low temperature zone.

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2. Two soft drink bottles, one at normal temp and
other at freezer, which show more FIZZZ sound ?

iii. Pressure:
No effect on solid and liquid solute.
But for gases, at a constant temp, with increasing pre,
the solubility of a gas, also increases and that was the
statement of Henry’s law.

HENRY’S LAW: 1803

At a given temp, the solubility of a gas in a liquid, is
directly proportional, to the partial pressure of the
gas above the liquid surface.

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Mathematically,

Pαx
x is mole fraction of gas molecules in the
liquid.

or, P = KH .x KH = Henry’s constant.

➢ At the same temp, different gases have
different KH values. It depends on the
nature of the gas.
➢ For a particular gas, with increasing temp,
KH value also increases, that means
solubility decreases.
What will be the nature of graph of Henry’s law
graph?
Limitation:
i. If the dissolved gas undergoes association or
dissociation, the law is not applicable.
e.g., HCl in water, N2O5.
ii. If the dissolved gas reacts with solvent, the law
is not applicable.
e.g., ammonia in water.

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Q. At 298 K , the value of Henry constant of N2 gas in
water is 8.6 x 104 atm. The mole fraction of N2 gas in air
is 0.8 . How many moles of N2 gas would dissolve in 10
mol of water at 298K and 5 atm pressure. twri 83

Ans 4.65 x 10- 4

Q. KH for carbon dioxide at 298 K is 1.67 x 108 Pa.
Calculate mass of the CO2 gas dissolved in 500ml soda
water at 2 atm pre at 298K. Assume soda water is very
dilute and its density is 1 g/ml.
[1 atm= 1.013 x 105 pascal]
ans. 1.54g twri 83

Practical application of Henry’s law:

i. Scuba divers sometimes face a fatal condition
known as bends.

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 ii. At high altitude, climbers sometimes become
weak and are unable to think clearly known as
anoxia.

Vapour pressure of a liquid

To know vapour pressure, we should have an idea of
evaporation.

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So, surface molecules have 2 special properties:
They have
i. Lesser and unequal force of attraction.
ii. More kinetic energy than other molecules.
Due to these 2 factors, surface molecules can
evaporate.
But
In a closed container,

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➢ Evaporation and condensation both

are occurred simultaneously. i.e.,
an equilibrium is established between them.
➢ At this condition, the pressure applied by the
vapour above liquid surface, is known as vapour
pressure P0A
➢ Vapour pre depends on nature of liquid, temp.

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 Vapour pressure of solution:
i. If solute and solvent both are volatile:

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Pure volatile liquid BBBBBBB

A, Pure volatile
Vapour pre is PoA liquid B,

Vapour pre is
PoB

Now, after mixing,

A B A B A B A

Vap pre of component A

is PA, component B is PB

solution

The vapour pre of volatile component A and B is

governed by a law:
Raoult’s law:

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 In a solution , the partial vap pre of
each component, is directly proportional to the mole
fraction of that component in solution.
i.e.,

PA α XA and PB α XB
Or, PA = K. XA similarly, PB = K. XB

Value of K:
Suppose, only component A is present, then XA =1.
and PA = PoA
so, K = PoA
i.e., PA = PoA. XA, similarly, PB = PoB. XB
What will be PA vs XA graph?

Now according to Dalton’s law,

P= PA + PB
Therefore, P = PoA. XA + PoB. XB

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Q. If 0.78 g of benzene and 0.92 g of toluene are
mixed , find
i. partial pre of benzene and toluene.
ii. total vapour pre.(PoB = 400 mm Hg, PoT= 200mm Hg )
ans. Total pressure 300 mm. cpy 17

Q. Vapour pre of chloroform and dichloro methylene

at 298 K are 200 and 415 mm Hg.
Calculate
i. the vap pre of the solution prepared by mixing
25.5 g chloroform and 40 g dichloro methylene
at 210 K.
ans. 349.92
ii. Mole fraction of each component in solution.
Ans. 0.312, 0.688.

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 ii. Vapour pressure when solute (B) is non-
volatile and solvent (A) is volatile:

A A A A A A A

PoA is Vapour pre of pure solvent Now non-volatle solute

B is added in A →

A B A B A B AB AB A
Here,
PA.
Vap pre of solution
And PoA > P A

Raoult’s law
when Solute(B) is non-volatile and solvent(A) is
volatile:

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 In the solution, partial vap pre of
each volatile component is directly proportional to
the mole fraction of that component in solution.
i.e.,
PA α XA
(XA is mole fraction of the volatile component)
Or, PA = K. XA now, K = PoA
i.e., PA = P oA. XA
or, PA = P oA. (1-XB)
or, XB= P oA – PA/ P oA

Q. Draw a graph between vap pre of solution (P) and

mole fraction of solvent (XA).

Q. The V.P of pure water is 60 mm Hg. At the same

temp, find the vap pre of a solution containing 30g
urea dissolved in 72 g water. Ans. 53.33

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Q. Calculate the mass of a non-volatile solute ( molar
mass 40g/mol) required to be dissolved in 114 g
octane to lower its vapour pressure to 80 %.

Concept of Ideal solution

30 ml of liquid A + 20 ml of liquid B = ? ml

For ideal solution,

i. They follow Raoult’s law of vap pre at any
condition.
ii. 𝛥Vmixing = 0
iii. 𝛥Hmixing = 0

Q. Draw a graph between vap pre and mole fraction

of an ideal solution of component A and B :

Example of ideal solution:

A mixture of
i. Methanol and ethanol ( same polar nature and
same size)

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ii. Ethyl chloride and ethyl bromide
iii. n-hexane and n-heptane
iv. Benzene and toluene

iv. Non-ideal solution

𝛥Vmixing ≠ 0
𝛥Hmixing ≠ 0

-ve deviation from +ve deviation from

Raoult law ( more Raoult law (less
interaction) interaction)
i. Chloroform and i. Water and benzene
acetone ii. Water and toluene
ii. HCl and water iii. Ethanol and water
iii. Nitric acid and
water

Azeotrope mixture:
A mixture of liquids that has a constant boiling
point.
Conditions :
i. It is a binary solution formed by liquid
solute and liquid solvent.
ii. At a fixed composition act as azeotrope
mixture.
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 iii. Have a constant boiling point because they
have constant vapour pre.
iv. Fractional distillation is not possible.
v. Mol fraction of liquid phase = mol fraction
of vapour phase.

Azeotrope mixture is of 2 types:

Minimum boiling Maximum boiling
azeotrope mixture azeotrope mixture

95% ethanol and 5% 68% nitric acid and 32%

water water

Concept of dilute solution: Colligative property

Dilute solution containing non-volatile
solute , shows some physical properties that are
independent of the nature of dissolved solute,
but dependent on no. of solute particles present in
the solution .
Types of C.P
i. Relative lowering of vap pre
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ii. Elevation in boiling point
iii. Depression in freezing point
iv. Osmotic pressure

Relative lowering of vap pre:

POA – PA/ POA = XB

RAOULT’S LAW of relative lowering of vap pre:

The relative lowering of vapour
pressure of a dilute solution containing
non-volatile non-electrolyte solid solute is
equal to the mole fraction of the dissolved
solute.

Determination of molecular mass of the solute:

MB = (POA / POA - PA) WB. MA/ WA

Q. Vapour pressure of pure water at 20oC

is 17.51 mm Hg. If lowering of vapour
pre of a sugar solution is 0.0614 mm Hg,
then calculate:
i. relative lowering of vap pre
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ii. Vapour pre of solution
iii. Mole fraction of water in solution.
Elevation in boiling point
➢ The temp at which vap pre of a liquid =
atmospheric pre, is known as boiling
point of the liquid.
➢ When a non-volatile solid solute is
dissolved in a solvent, the vap pre of the
solution decreases.
➢ So the solution will not boil at that temp,
at which pure solvent boil.
➢ Because at that temp vap pre of
solution, is less than vap pre of pure
solvent.
➢ Now with increasing temp, vap pre also
increases.
➢ So at higher temp ( higher than normal
B.P) the vap pre of solution =
atmospheric pre,
➢ i.e., boiling point of solution is higher
than that of pure solvent.

Vap pre vs temp graph:

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From vap pre vs temp graph,
ΔTB ∝ m , m= molality
Or, ΔTB = KB. m

KB is known as ebullioscopic constant or

molal boiling point elevation constant.

Raoult’s law of elevation of boiling point:

Elevation in boiling point of a
dilute solution containing non-volatile, non-
electrolyte solid solute is directly proportional
to the molal concentration of the solution.

Unit of KB: K.kg/mole

Definition of KB:
ΔTB = KB. m
If m= 1,
Then,
ΔTB = KB.
Molal b.p elevation constant is defined as
the elevation in b.p when 1 mole non-volatile

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non-electrolyte solid solute is dissolved in 1 kg
solvent.

Determination of molecular mass of the solute:

Depression in freezing point:

The temp at which vap pre of liquid state

becomes equal to vap pre of its solid state, is
known as freezing point.

From Vap pre vs temp graph,

ΔTf ∝ m
Or, ΔTf = Kf. m
Kf is known as cryoscopic constant or molal
freezing point depression constant.

Raoult’s law:
The depression in freezing point of a dilute
solution containing non-volatile, non-electrolyte

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solid solute is directly proportional to the molal
concentration of the solution.

Unit of Kf: K.kg/mole

Definition of Kf:
ΔTf = Kf. m
If m= 1,
Then,
ΔTf = Kf.
Molal f.p depression constant is defined as the
depression in f.p when 1 mole non-volatile
non-electrolyte solid solute is dissolved in kg
solvent.

Determination of molecular mass of the solute:

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