University of Gondar

Institute of Technology
Department of Electrical Engineering

Applied Electronics II (EEng3082)

Chapter Four
By:
Mersha K.
Email: [email protected] 1
 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:

 Define the basic concepts of wave shaping circuits
 Analyze and design oscillators to generate sinusoidal signals.
 Analyze and design comparator Op Amp.
 Analyze and design various Schmitt trigger circuits Op Amp.
 Design and configure 555 Timer circuits for generating precise time delays and
pulse-width modulation.
 Analyze and design multi-vibrator to generate specific waveform (Laboratory).

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Introduction

In this section, we shall examine the definition, characteristics, and some application of
wave shaping circuits.

A wave shaping circuit is an electronic circuit, designed to modify the shape of an input
waveform.

 The primary purpose of wave shaping is to create new waveforms by altering the
amplitude, frequency, or phase characteristics of the input signal.

This alteration is known as the process of modify the shape of input waveforms for a
certain application.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Needs of wave shaping circuit:

The wave shaping circuit is used to perform any one of the following functions.

Generate waves: To generate waves such as square, saw-tooth , pulls, triangular, and
trapezoidal waves.

Limit voltage signal: To limit the voltage level of the waveform to some preset value and
suppressing all other voltage levels in excess of the preset level.

Cut off portions: Cut off the positive and negative portions of a waveform

Hold waveform: Hold a waveform to a particular DC level

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Classification of Wave shaping Circuits:

The wave shaping is important in most of the signal process systems and is performed by
the circuits known as differentiators, integrators, limiters, clippers and clampers.

Based on the input/output relation, wave shaping circuit can be:

 Linear wave shaping circuit

• Example: RC Circuit, RL Circuit, and RLC Circuit

 Non-linear wave shaping circuit

• Example: Clipper Circuit and Clamper Circuit

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Linear wave shaping circuits

Linear wave shaping circuits are circuits that alter the shape of signals by passing it
through a linear network.

Linear wave shaping circuits are those that utilize only linear components, such as
resistors, capacitors, and inductors, to modify the shape of electrical signals.

This process involves passing non-sinusoidal signals through a linear network, resulting in
desired waveform alterations while maintaining linearity.

Such circuit are used to perform functions of scaling, differentiation and integration.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Non Linear wave shaping circuits

Non-linear wave shaping circuits are circuits that alter the shape of a signal by passing it
through a non-linear network.

The output of a non-linear circuit is not directly proportional to its input, and output.

It’s depends on the behavior of the element or based on the condition.

The non-linear wave shaping circuits are those which (in addition to resistors, inductors
and capacitors) make use of non-linear elements such as diodes and transistors.

Such circuits are used to perform functions of amplitude limiting, clipping and clamping.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Example of linear and non-linear wave shaping circuit:

Fig4.1: a) RC Integrator Circuit b) Series Positive Clipper Circuit

 A circuit in Fig4.1 shows, the 𝑉𝑜 is directly  A circuit in Fig4.1 shows the positive clipper.
proportional to the integral of the 𝑉𝑖𝑛 .  It consists of a diode (D) and a resistor (R)
with 𝑉𝑜 taken across the resistor.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Based on the purposes in shaping and processing signals, wave shaping circuits can
be considered as:
 Oscillators circuit

 Comparator circuit

 Schmitt Trigger circuit

 Timer (the 555 Timer) circuit

 Multi-vibrators circuit

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Oscillators
What is oscillator in amplifier?

An electronic oscillator may be defined in any one of the following ways:

Oscillator is an amplifier with the positive feedback and it converts DC input signal into
AC output waveform with certain variable frequency drive.

 Oscillator is an electronic source of alternating current or voltage having sine, square or

pulse shapes waveforms.

 Oscillator is a circuit which generates an ac output signal without requiring any externally
applied input signal.

 Oscillator may be an unstable amplifier systems.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Oscillators
Note that…

An oscillator is an amplifier, which uses a positive feedback and without any external
input signal, generates an output waveform at a desired frequency.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Principle of feedback in Oscillator:

Most oscillators consist of three basic parts:

 An amplifier
 A wave shaping network
 A POSITIVE feedback path

A fraction of the amplifier’s output signal is fed back to be in phase with the input.

By adding together the feedback and the input signals, the amplitude of input signal to the
amplifier is increased.

If the amount of positive feedback is larger enough however, the result is oscillation,
where the amplifier circuit produces its own signal.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Concept of Positive Feedback:

Fig4.2: Basic Block diagram of positive feedback circuit

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Conditions for Oscillators:

Provides a set of conditions for sustained oscillations

An amplifier act as an oscillator if and only if it satisfied Barkhausen criterion.

Barkhausen Criterion states that,

The loop gain is equal to unity in absolute magnitude.

• That is, 𝐴β = 1

The total phase shift around the loop is zero or an integer multiple of 2π

• ‫ ے‬β𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑛, n ϵ 0, 1, 2, …

The product β𝐴 is called as the “loop gain”.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Oscillators
The relaxation oscillator makes use of an RC timing circuit to generate a non-sinusoidal
signal such as square wave.

Fig4.3: The possible output (waveforms) for oscillator circuit

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Classification of Oscillators:
Electronic oscillators are classified mainly into the following two categories:
 Sinusoidal Oscillators:
 The oscillators that produce an output having a sine waveform are called Sinusoidal.
 Example:
 Tuned circuit oscillators: These oscillators are made of capacitors and inductors.

 RC oscillators: These oscillators are made of capacitors and resistors.

 RL oscillators: These oscillators are made of inductors and resistors.

 Crystal oscillators: These oscillators are made of quartz crystals.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Classification of Oscillators:
Non-sinusoidal Oscillators.
 The oscillators that produce an output having a square, rectangular or saw-tooth
waveform are called Non-sinusoidal or relaxation oscillators.
 Categorized as: HIGH FREQUENCY and LOW FREQUENCY OSCILLATOR.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits
Classification of Oscillators:
LOW FREQUENCY Oscillators: is designed for the generation of low frequency sinusoidal
oscillations typically below 20 Hz.
o Phase-Shift Oscillator
o Wien-Bridge Oscillator

HIGH FREQUENCY Oscillators: is designed for the generation of high frequency sinusoidal
oscillations typically ranging from 10KHz to 300MHz.
o Colpitts Oscillator
o Hartley oscillator
o Crystal Oscillator
o Clapp Oscillator

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Comparison between an Amplifier and Oscillator,

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Op Amps as a Comparator:
The comparator is an Op Amp circuit that compares two input voltages and produces an
output indicating the relationship between them.

Comparators are most commonly used in digital applications.

Digital circuits respond to rectangular or square waves, rather than sine waves.

An ideal comparator compares two input voltages and produce a logic output signal
whose value high or low depending on which of the two input is larger.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Op Amps as a Comparator
In a comparator, the op-amp operates in open-loop mode. This means:
No feedback: There is no feedback loop that would force the op-amp to work in its linear
region. Instead, the op-amp's output fluctuates between the supply voltage limits.

High gain: The comparator's open-loop gain is very high, which makes it sensitive to even
tiny differences between the two input voltages.

Saturation output: The output is usually a saturated high or low voltage, not a
proportionate (linear) signal.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Operation of a Comparator:

A comparator compares two input voltages, 𝑉𝑖𝑛+ ​(non-inverting input) and 𝑉𝑖𝑛− (inverting
input).
 If 𝑉𝑖𝑛+ > 𝑉𝑖𝑛− : The output will be high (close to the positive supply voltage).

 If 𝑉𝑖𝑛− ​>𝑉𝑖𝑛+ : The output will be low (close to the negative supply voltage or ground, depending
on the configuration).

Note that…

 Operational amplifiers are designed for linear applications.

 Comparators have low propagation delay and fast rise and fall time.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits
Simple comparator application: thermostat

 Inverting input connected to a temperature sensor

 Non-inverting input connected to a variable reference voltage determined by the

temperature set point.

 If 𝑇𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚 < 𝑇𝑠𝑒𝑡  If 𝑇𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚 > 𝑇𝑠𝑒𝑡

• 𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 < 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 • 𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 > 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
• Output is high • Output is low
• Heat turns on • Heat turns off

Fig4.4: Simple comparator application as a thermostat

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Applications:
Analogue to Digital convertor (ADC): Comparators are used to convert an analog signal
into a digital signal by comparing it against a reference.

Zero Crossing Detectors: To detect when a signal crosses zero volts.

Level detector: The comparator circuit is able to provide level detection.

Schmitt trigger: Comparators are used to design the Schmitt trigger circuit.

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): To compare a signal against a reference voltage and
generate a square wave output.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Example 4.1: Design a Comparator Circuit Using an Operational Amplifier

You are tasked with designing a comparator circuit using an Op Amp to compare the input
voltages, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 applied to the inverting terminal with a reference/setpoint​ 𝑉𝑠𝑝 . The circuit should
produce an output based on the comparison of these two input voltages. The op-amp has a supply
voltage of ±12 V and the input voltages are given as: 𝑉𝑖𝑛 =5 V 𝑉𝑠𝑝 =3V, Assume that the op-amp is
idea.

i. What will be the output voltage 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 of the comparator circuit for the given input voltages,
𝑉𝑖𝑛 and 𝑉𝑠𝑝 ?

ii. If the input voltage 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is decreased to 1.1V, what will be the new output voltage?

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits
Quiz-3:

An engineer design a thermostat using a comparator with an Op Amp to control the room
temperature using a reference signal corresponding to the desired temperature or setpoint. The op-
amp has a ±16 V supply voltage, assumed the Op Amp is ideal (i.e., infinite open-loop gain, infinite
input impedance, and zero output impedance). Temperature is converted to an electrical signal by a
sensor, represented as 𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 ​.
Questions:
i. State about the working principle of the circuit.

ii. What will be the output signal 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ​ of the comparator circuit when the temperature signal is
𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 = 2.3𝑉 and setpoint signal is 𝑉𝑠𝑝 = 3?

iii. If the temperature signal 𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 ​ is increased by 28%, what will be the new output voltage of
the comparator?

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Schmitt Trigger (Regenerative comparator) circuit:

The Schmitt trigger is an electronic circuit that produces a stable output, eliminating
unwanted perturbations present in the input waveform.

Comparator with a positive feedback is known as Schmitt trigger.

One of the typical applications of the Op-Amp Schmitt trigger is similar to that of a
comparator, detecting when an input voltage exceeds a preset threshold voltage.

Schmitt Trigger circuit can be inverting or non-inverting mode.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Inverting Schmitt Trigger

Fig 4.5: Inverting Schmitt Trigger circuit

 The inverting mode produces opposite polarity output.

 This is fed back to the non-inverting input which is same polarity as that of output. This
ensures positive feedback.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Inverting Schmitt Trigger:

When 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is slightly greater than the upper threshold 𝑉𝑈𝑇 the output gets driven into
negative saturation at -𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 level.

When 𝑉𝑖𝑛 becomes lass than the lower threshold value 𝑉𝐿𝑇 , then output gets driven into
positive saturation at + 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 level.

Thus output voltage is always at 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 or -𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 , but the voltage at which it changes its state
can be controlled by the resistance 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 .

Thus, the reference voltage 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 can be 𝑉𝑈𝑇 or 𝑉𝐿𝑇 and obtained as per the requirement.

But how do we get the value of upper threshold, 𝑉𝑈𝑇 and lower threshold, 𝑉𝐿𝑇 ?

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Inverting Schmitt Trigger:

The values of these threshold voltage levels can be adjusted by selecting proper
values of 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 . Now 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 forms a potential divider and we can write:

𝑅2
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑜

Assume, 𝑉𝑜 = +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 , in this case upper threshold is a reference point and given by:
𝑅2 𝑅2
𝑉𝑈𝑇 = 𝑉 = 𝑉
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑜 𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑠𝑎𝑡

Assume, 𝑉𝑜 = −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 , in this case lower threshold is a reference point and given by:
𝑅2 𝑅2
𝑉𝐿𝑇 = 𝑉 =− 𝑉
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑜 𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑠𝑎𝑡

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

 If sinusoidal input is applied to the inverting Schmitt trigger, the input and output
waveforms can be shown as in the Fig4.6.

In short,
 𝑉𝑖𝑛 < 𝑉𝐿𝑇 , 𝑉𝑜 changes from −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
to +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡

 𝑉𝑖𝑛 > 𝑉𝑈𝑇 , 𝑉𝑜 changes from +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡

to −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡

 𝑉𝐿𝑇 < 𝑉𝑖𝑛 < 𝑉𝑈𝑇 , 𝑉𝑜 is previous

state.
Fig4.6: I/p and O/p waveforms of inverting Schmitt trigger

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Non-inverting Schmitt Trigger:

Fig4.7: Non-inverting Schmitt trigger circuit

The input is applied to the non-inverting input of the Op Amp.

This is fed back to the non-inverting input through 𝑅1 . This is a positive feedback.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Non-Inverting Schmitt Trigger:

T o understand the working of the circuit, let us assume that the output is positively
saturated i.e. at +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 .

Now through 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is decreased, the output continues its positive saturation level unless
and until the input becomes more negative than 𝑉𝐿𝑇 .

At lower threshold, the output changes its state from positive saturation +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 to
negative saturation -𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 .

It remains in negative saturation till 𝑉𝑖𝑛 increases beyond its upper threshold level 𝑉𝑈𝑇 .

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Non-inverting Schmitt Trigger:

As Op Amp input current is zero, 𝐼𝑖𝑛 entirely passes through 𝑅1 .

𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝑉𝑜

=
𝑅1 𝑅2

𝑅2 𝑅1
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑜

Assume, 𝑉𝑜 = +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 , in this case upper threshold is a reference point and given by:
𝑅2 𝑅1
𝑉𝑈𝑇 = 𝑅 𝑉𝑖𝑛 +𝑅 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
1 +𝑅2 1 +𝑅2

Assume, 𝑉𝑜 = −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 , in this case lower threshold is a reference point and given by:
𝑅2 𝑅1
𝑉𝐿𝑇 = 𝑅 𝑉𝑖𝑛 −𝑅 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
1 +𝑅2 1 +𝑅2

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

 If sinusoidal input is applied to the non-inverting Schmitt trigger, the input and
output waveforms can be shown as in the Fig4.8.

 If 𝑉𝑖𝑛 > 𝑉𝑈𝑇 , 𝑉𝑜 changes from

− 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 to +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡

 If 𝑉𝑖𝑛 < 𝑉𝐿𝑇 , 𝑉𝑜 changes from

+𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 to -𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡

 If 𝑉𝐿𝑇 < 𝑉𝑖𝑛 < 𝑉𝑈𝑇 , 𝑉𝑜 is previous

state.

Fig4.8: I/p and O/p waveforms of non-inverting Schmitt trigger

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

 Schmitt Trigger Vs Comparator: The various differences and similarities between

Schmitt trigger and comparator are given in the following table.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Example 4.2: For a Schmitt trigger shown in the Fig4.9, calculate threshold voltage levels
and hysteresis.

Fig4.9: circuit for example 4.2

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Exercise 4.1:

1) Design and draw the circuit of Schmitt trigger with 𝑉𝑈𝑇 = 25𝑚𝑉 , 𝑉𝐿𝑇 = −25𝑚𝑉 ,
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 1𝑉 peak to peak triangular wave with f = 100 Hz, voltage swings ± 14 V.
Calculate 𝑅1 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 . Also draw the output waveform for a single period of time.

2) Design Schmitt trigger having upper and lower threshold of 120 mV. Input to this circuit
is 1 V peak to peak triangular wave with f = 100 Hz.

3) What is the difference between basic comparator and Schmitt trigger using Op Amp.

4) With a neat circuit diagram, explain the working of Schmitt trigger using op-amp.

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Timer (the 555 Timer) circuit:

The 555 Timer is an electronics circuit which is 8-pin linear integrated circuit.

It produces accurate and highly stable time delay and square wave oscillations.

The 555 Timer can be used three different modes based on the charging and discharging of
the capacitor C.

Bistable Mode

Monostable Mode

Astable Mode

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Features of 555 Timer integrated circuit:

Supply voltage range is 5V to 18V.

Current sinking and sourcing capacity is 200mA.

High temperature stability.

Timing can be adjusted from Microseconds to hours.

The duty cycle of the output of the output is adjustable.

Good timing stability against supply voltage variations.

Low cost.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Pin Configuration:
The 555 timer integrated circuit has eight pins, each serving a specific purpose:

o Pin 1- Ground: All voltages are measured w.r.t ground.

o Pin 2- Trigger: To give external trigger voltage.
o Pin 3- Output: Load is connected b/n output & ground.
o Pin 4- Reset: It is used to reset & disable the timer.
o Pin 5- Control: To control the threshold & trigger level
Fig4.10: 555 Timer pin configuration o Pin 6- Threshold: Used as a set point (desired point).
o Pin 7- Discharge: Connected to collector transistor.
o Pin 8- Supply: Source applied to this pin.

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits

Timer (the 555 Timer) circuit:

The 555 Timer is configured from the following five electronics circuit, includes:

1. Resistive voltage divider network

2. R-S Flip-flop integrated circuit.

3. Two comparators (Op Amp)

4. Transistor

5. Invertor (NOT) gate

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 Chapter Four: Wave Shaping Circuits
Block diagram of Timer (the 555 Timer) circuit:

Output

Ground
Fig 4.11: Block diagram of 555 Timer IC

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 circuits

End of Chapter Four:

Wave Shaping Circuits
 Assignment
Problem 1: Design of Comparator Circuit Using an Operational Amplifier
Problem Statement:

You are tasked with designing a comparator circuit using an Op Amp to compare the input voltage
applied to the inverting terminal with a reference/setpoint voltage. The circuit should produce a square
waveform output voltage based on the comparison of these two input voltages. The operational
amplifier is powered with a supply voltage of ±12V. The input voltages are given as: 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 5 sin 4𝑡 𝑉
and 𝑉𝑠𝑝 = 3𝑉. Assume that the Op Amp is ideal (i.e., infinite open-loop gain, infinite input impedance,
and zero output impedance).
Questions:
i. Draw the output voltage waveform based on the comparison result for two period of time.

ii. If 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ​ is decreased by 50%, what will the new output voltage be? Draw the new waveform for the
same time period.

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 Assignment

Problem 2: Design of Schmitt Trigger Circuit using an Operational Amplifier

Problem Statement:
An engineer design a Schmitt Trigger circuit using an Op Amp to compare the input signal applied to
the non-inverting terminal with a reference voltage corresponding to the desired setpoint. The op-amp
has a ±16 V supply voltage, assumed the Op Amp is ideal (i.e., infinite open-loop gain, infinite input
impedance, and zero output impedance). the input value is converted to an electrical voltage signal by a
sensor, represented as 𝑉𝑖𝑛 .​
Questions:
i. Explain briefly the working principle of the circuit.
ii. Draw the output waveform for two period of time, when the input voltage signal
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 25 sin 100π𝑡 + 30𝑜 𝑉 and the desired voltage 𝑉𝑠𝑝 = 12𝑉?
iii. If 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ​ is increased by 25%, what will be the new output voltage of the Schmitt Trigger? Draw the
new waveform for the same time period.

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