Part-I

a) What are composites? How are these different from mixtures?

 Composites: Materials made by combining two or more distinct constituents (matrix

and reinforcement) to create a material with improved properties. The components
remain distinct but work synergistically.
 Difference from mixtures: In composites, the components are combined in a
controlled manner, often with distinct interfaces and specific roles (e.g., reinforcement
for strength, matrix for binding), whereas mixtures involve physical blending without
such structural or functional interactions.

b) Advantages and disadvantages of polymer composite materials:

 Advantages:
1. High strength-to-weight ratio.
2. Corrosion resistance.
3. Tailorable properties for specific applications.
4. Reduced maintenance requirements.
 Disadvantages:
1. High initial cost.
2. Difficult to recycle.
3. Limited thermal stability.
4. Complexity in repair.

c) Define mass fraction and volume fraction:

 Mass fraction: The ratio of the mass of a constituent to the total mass of the
composite.
Mass Fraction (w)=Mass of componentTotal mass of composite\text{Mass Fraction
(w)} = \frac{\text{Mass of component}}{\text{Total mass of
composite}}Mass Fraction (w)=Total mass of compositeMass of component
 Volume fraction: The ratio of the volume of a constituent to the total volume of the
composite.
Volume Fraction (v)=Volume of componentTotal volume of composite\text{Volume
Fraction (v)} = \frac{\text{Volume of component}}{\text{Total volume of
composite}}Volume Fraction (v)=Total volume of compositeVolume of component

d) What are prepregs?

Prepregs are reinforcing fibers (e.g., carbon, glass) pre-impregnated with a resin system.
They are stored in a partially cured state and require controlled curing conditions (e.g., heat
and pressure) for final shaping.

e) Define nano-composites. Give an example.

Nano-composites are composites where at least one component (matrix or reinforcement) has
dimensions in the nanometer range (1–100 nm), enhancing properties like strength, thermal
stability, or conductivity.

 Example: Clay-reinforced polymer nanocomposites used in packaging.

f) Two important properties of epoxy resin as a matrix:

1. Excellent adhesion to various substrates.

2. High mechanical strength and chemical resistance.

g) Functions of matrix and reinforcement:

 Matrix:
1. Binds the reinforcement together.
2. Transfers load to the reinforcement.
3. Provides shape and protects the reinforcement from environmental damage.
 Reinforcement:
1. Provides strength, stiffness, and other mechanical properties.
2. Enhances specific properties like thermal conductivity or impact resistance.

h) Define SMC and DMC. Which products can be manufactured using these?

 SMC (Sheet Molding Compound): A ready-to-mold composite sheet with chopped

fibers and resin. Used for making automotive panels, electrical enclosures, etc.
 DMC (Dough Molding Compound): A thicker, dough-like material with short
fibers. Used for making small components like housings and switches.

i) Examples of bio-fibers used as reinforcement material. Two drawbacks compared to

commercial fibers:

 Examples: Jute, hemp, flax, coir.

 Drawbacks:
1. Lower mechanical properties compared to synthetic fibers like carbon or glass.
2. Prone to moisture absorption, leading to degradation.

j) Define major and minor Poisson's ratio:

 Major Poisson's ratio (ν): The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain in the
principal loading direction.

Minor Poisson's ratio (ν'): The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain in a perpendicular
direction to the principal axis.
 Part-2

a) Classify polymer composites with suitable examples:

1. Fiber Reinforced Composites (FRC):

o Composed of fibers embedded in a matrix to enhance strength and stiffness.
o Examples:
 Carbon fiber reinforced epoxy (used in aerospace components).
 Glass fiber reinforced polyester (used in boats).
2. Particle Reinforced Composites:
o Particles are distributed within the matrix to improve mechanical or thermal
properties.
o Examples:
 Silicon carbide particles in aluminum (used in automotive brakes).
3. Structural Composites:
o Laminates or sandwich structures combining layers with different properties.
o Examples:
 Carbon fiber laminates for aircraft wings.
 Honeycomb sandwich panels for building facades.

b) Define FRP. How can the density of FRPs be estimated theoretically?

 FRP (Fiber Reinforced Plastic): A composite material where fibers like glass,
carbon, or aramid are embedded in a polymer matrix (e.g., epoxy or polyester). These
materials offer high strength and stiffness-to-weight ratios.
 Density Estimation:
The density of FRPs is determined using the rule of mixtures:

ρcomposite=vfρf+vmρm\rho_\text{composite} = v_f \rho_f + v_m \rho_mρcomposite

=vfρf+vmρm

o Where: vfv_fvf, vmv_mvm: Volume fractions of fiber and matrix,

respectively.
o ρf\rho_fρf, ρm\rho_mρm: Densities of fiber and matrix, respectively.

c) Examples of curing agents, inhibitors, and accelerators:

 Curing Agents: Amine, anhydrides.

 Inhibitors: Hydroquinone, benzoquinone.
 Accelerators: Cobalt octoate, tertiary amines.
d) Common manufacturing processes:

(a) Open Molding:

1. Hand lay-up.
2. Spray-up.

(b) Close Molding:

1. Resin transfer molding (RTM).

2. Compression molding.

(c) Winding:

1. Filament winding.

e) Applications of composites in automobile and construction industries:

1. Automobile Industry:
o Lightweight body panels for weight reduction.
o Composite leaf springs for improved durability.
o Interior parts for aesthetics and functionality.
2. Construction Industry:
o Reinforced bridge decks for corrosion resistance.
o Cladding panels for lightweight and durable facades.
o Roofing sheets for better thermal insulation.

f) Pultrusion Process Sketch:

g) Short notes:

1. Glass Fiber Mats:

o Non-woven sheets made from chopped or continuous glass fibers.
o Provide isotropic strength, often used in laminates.
2. Glass Fiber Rovings:
o Bundles of untwisted continuous glass fibers.
o Used in filament winding and pultrusion processes.
3. Glass Fiber Filaments:
o Individual thin fibers made from molten glass.
o Have high tensile strength and are used as reinforcements.
h) Best manufacturing methods for components:

1. Water Tank: Filament winding.

2. Cylinder: Compression molding.
3. 3 cm OD Pipe: Pultrusion.
4. Nose of Rocket: Resin transfer molding (RTM).

i) Sectors replacing traditional materials with polymer composites:

1. Aerospace: Replacing metals for weight reduction and fuel efficiency.

2. Automotive: Replacing steel for improved performance and mileage.
3. Sports: Replacing wood or metal for better strength and durability..

j) Injection Molding for Thermoset Polymer Blending

Injection molding is not commonly used for thermoset polymers because thermosets cure
(cross-link) upon heating, and injection molding typically requires the polymer to remain in a
molten, non-cross-linked state for it to be injected into a mold.

Justification:

1. Thermosets' Nature:
o Once cross-linked, thermosets cannot be remelted or reshaped, limiting their
process compatibility with injection molding.
o Thermoset materials are typically processed using other methods like
compression molding or transfer molding.
2. Alternative Injection Techniques:
o Specialized injection molding (e.g., reaction injection molding, RIM) can be
adapted for thermosets.
o In RIM, liquid thermoset components are mixed and injected into a mold,
where they chemically react and solidif

k) Rule of Mixture and Inverse Rule of Mixture

Rule of Mixture (ROM):

 Definition: Predicts the effective properties of a composite material based on the

properties and volume fractions of its constituents.
 Formula (for modulus): Ec=VfEf+VmEmE_c = V_f E_f + V_m E_mEc=VfEf+Vm
Em Where:
o EcE_cEc: Composite modulus
o Ef,EmE_f, E_mEf,Em: Moduli of fiber and matrix
o Vf,VmV_f, V_mVf,Vm: Volume fractions of fiber and matrix

Inverse Rule of Mixture (IROM):

  Definition: Used to estimate properties like transverse modulus or thermal
conductivity of composites, where the load or property is carried inversely relative to
the material's stiffness or conductivity.
 Formula: 1Ec=VfEf+VmEm\frac{1}{E_c} = \frac{V_f}{E_f} + \frac{V_m}
{E_m}Ec1=EfVf+EmVm This is applied when properties are governed by weaker or
limiting phases.

l) Stress-Strain Diagram for FRP Composite

Stress-Strain Curve (Explanation):

1. Linear Elastic Region:

o The composite behaves elastically, following Hooke's law.
o The slope in this region gives the Tensile Modulus (EcE_cEc).
2. Yield Point:
o Point at which plastic deformation begins.
o Often corresponds to matrix cracking or fiber-matrix debonding.
3. Post-Yield Behavior:
o Fibers dominate the load-bearing.
o After significant matrix failure, the stress may plateau or increase due to fiber
contribution.
4. Failure Point:
o Catastrophic failure occurs when fibers fail.

Toughness:

 Definition: The area under the stress-strain curve, representing the energy absorbed
by the composite until failure.
 FRP composites exhibit moderate toughness due to the brittle nature of fibers and
matrix.

Diagram:

A schematic stress-strain curve for FRP composites can be drawn showing these features:

 X-axis: Strain (%)

 Y-axis: Stress (MPa)
  Labels: Elastic region, yield point, fiber dominance region, and failure point.

Part-3

(a) Effect of Factors on FRP Properties

(a) Moisture

 Hygroscopic Nature: FRP composites absorb moisture from the environment,

especially when the matrix contains hydrophilic functional groups.
 Effects:
o Mechanical Degradation: Reduced stiffness, tensile strength, and interfacial
bonding.
o Dimensional Changes: Swelling or warping of composites.
o Chemical Changes: Hydrolysis can degrade the resin matrix over time.

(b) UV Radiation

 Degradation Mechanisms: UV exposure breaks down polymer chains in the matrix,

leading to discoloration, surface chalking, and a reduction in mechanical properties.
 Effects:
o Surface Erosion: Loss of gloss and surface finish.
o Matrix Weakening: Reduction in load transfer efficiency.
o Fiber Exposure: UV degradation can expose fibers, leading to further
mechanical degradation.

Q4

Raw Materials and Products by Processes

(b) Autoclave

 Raw Materials:
o Thermosetting resins (e.g., epoxy, phenolic)
 o Prepregs (fiber-reinforced resin systems)
o Carbon, glass, or aramid fibers.
 Products:
o Aerospace components (e.g., fuselage, wing sections)
o High-performance automotive parts
o Medical equipment (prosthetics).

(c) Compression Molding

 Raw Materials:
o Thermoset or thermoplastic resins (e.g., polyester, vinyl ester).
o Fibers (short, long, or continuous glass, carbon).
 Products:
o Automotive components (e.g., bumpers, hoods).
o Electrical enclosures, panels, and consumer goods.

(d) Filament Winding

 Raw Materials:
o Continuous fibers (e.g., glass, carbon, aramid) impregnated with thermoset
resin.
 Products:
o Cylindrical or spherical structures (e.g., tanks, pipes, pressure vessels).
o Aircraft parts like radomes.

(a) Pultrusion

 Raw Materials:
o Continuous fibers (e.g., glass, carbon).
o Thermosetting resins (e.g., polyester, epoxy).
 Products:
o Structural profiles (e.g., rods, beams, channels).
o Ladders, gratings, and window frames.

Q5 Composite Property Calculations

(a) Longitudinal Modulus EcE_cEc:

Ec=VfEf+VmEmE_c = V_f E_f + V_m E_mEc=VfEf+VmEm Vf=0.55,Vm=1−Vf=0.45V_f

= 0.55, \quad V_m = 1 - V_f = 0.45Vf=0.55,Vm=1−Vf=0.45 Ec=(0.55)(30)+(0.45)
(3.5)=19.575 GPaE_c = (0.55)(30) + (0.45)(3.5) = 19.575 \, \text{GPa}Ec=(0.55)(30)+(0.45)
(3.5)=19.575GPa

(b) Tensile Strength σc\sigma_cσc:

σc=Vfσf+Vmσm\sigma_c = V_f \sigma_f + V_m \sigma_mσc=Vfσf+Vmσm σc=(0.55)
(600)+(0.45)(100)=360+45=405 MPa\sigma_c = (0.55)(600) + (0.45)(100) = 360 + 45 =
405 \, \text{MPa}σc=(0.55)(600)+(0.45)(100)=360+45=405MPa

(c) Fraction of Load Taken by Fibers:

Fraction=VfEfVfEf+VmEm\text{Fraction} = \frac{V_f E_f}{V_f E_f + V_m

E_m}Fraction=VfEf+VmEmVfEf \text{Fraction} = \frac{(0.55)(30)}{(0.55)(30) + (0.45)
(3.5)} = 0.946 \, \text{(94.6% by fibers)}

Q6 Techniques Notes

(a) Hand Lay-up Technique

 Process: Fibers or fabric layers are manually placed in a mold, followed by resin
application using rollers or brushes.
 Applications: Boat hulls, large panels, wind turbine blades.
 Advantages: Simple, low-cost, suitable for large structures.

(b) Compression Molding Technique

 Process: Fiber-reinforced thermosetting or thermoplastic resins are compressed under

heat and pressure in matched metal molds.
 Applications: Automotive parts, electrical panels.
 Advantages: High production rate, good surface finish, complex shapes.

(c) Vacuum Infusion Molding

 Process: A vacuum pulls resin through dry fiber layers sealed in a vacuum bag.
 Applications: Yacht hulls, wind turbine blades, and aerospace components.
 Advantages: Improved fiber-resin ratio, reduced voids, minimal waste.