International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology

https://doi.org/10.1007/s42947-024-00482-4

ORIGINAL RESEARCH PAPER

Performance Evaluation of Post-Consumer and Post-Industrial

Recycled Plastics as Binder Modifier in Asphalt Mixes
Dai Xuan Lu1 · Marie Enfrin1 · Hassan Masood1 · Filippo Giustozzi1

Received: 11 October 2023 / Revised: 12 July 2024 / Accepted: 6 October 2024

© The Author(s) 2024

Abstract
This study aims to analyse the behaviour of asphalt concrete produced from recycled plastic-modified bitumen. This
particular production process is known as the wet method, which involves the blending of low melting point recycled
plastics, mostly polyolefins, in hot bitumen before mixing with preheated aggregate. Based on a comprehensive research
study that investigated several recycled plastics for the wet method, two common low melting point plastics from two
different collection streams were evaluated: a low-density polyethylene from post-industrial recycling operations and a
source of commingled plastic (polyethylene and polypropylene) from the collection of post-consumer plastics. Plastic-
modified bitumen was produced with different recycled plastic contents ranging from 0.5 to 6% of the bitumen weight.
First, the storage stability of the plastic-modified bitumen was evaluated. Then, asphalt mixes were produced using the
plastic-modified bitumen. The testing scheme included measurements of the compactability and densification behaviour of
the mixes, moisture resistance, viscoelastic behaviour via the flexural stiffness test, IDEAL-CT test to evaluate cracking
tolerance, fatigue resistance through the four-point bending beam test, and rutting resistance via Hamburg wheel tracking.
The study found that adding a high plastic content significantly reduced the storage stability of the plastic-modified bitu-
men. Adding plastic was found to have a minor impact on the compactability, while it reduced the moisture resistance
with increasing plastic addition and modified the viscoelastic behaviour of the asphalt mixtures. Finally, the study found
that plastic provided benefits to the cracking and rutting resistance of asphalt mixtures to different extents depending on
the plastic type and plastic content.

Keywords Waste plastic · Recycling · Bitumen · Asphalt mix · Wet method

1 Introduction and mixed methods [7, 8]. The wet method utilises recycled
plastic to modify bitumen before the plastic-bitumen blend
Waste Plastics are a burden for the environment and require is mixed with hot aggregate [2, 9, 10]. The dry method uses
significant resources and finances to be disposed of respon- recycled plastics that do not melt at the mixing temperature
sibly. The asphalt industry has recently seen the potential of the asphalt mix as partial natural aggregate replacement
to recycle waste plastic into asphalt concrete, aiming not [1, 9]. The mixed method incorporates the same type of
only to reduce the environmental burden but also to enhance recycled plastic used in the wet method to the hot aggregate
the properties of asphalt mixtures [1–3]. Recycled plastics prior to the addition of the bitumen [11, 12].
are polymers for all intents and purposes [4–6]. Due to the Regarding the wet method, recycled plastics were
various types of plastics available with different physical selected based on their melting point, which is below the
and chemical properties, recycled plastics are introduced mixing temperature of the bitumen and asphalt mix, to
into the asphalt mix via three different methods: wet, dry, facilitate blending. This allows recycled plastic to func-
tion as a bitumen modifier [13–18]. Due to the controlled
environment during blending, the wet process is reported to
be advantageous for producing polymer-modified bitumen
Dai Xuan Lu
[email protected] with selected properties [19, 20].
A number of studies have investigated the performance
1
Civil and Infrastructure Engineering, RMIT University, of asphalt mixtures using plastic-modified bitumen that
Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia

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 D. X. Lu et al.

incorporates low melting point plastics via the wet method. for large-scale production when a high dosage of plastic is
For example, Dalhat and Wahhab [21] studied the effect of added to bitumen.
adding polypropylene (PP) and high- and low-density poly- Recent work was conducted on the wet method by Ben-
ethylene (HDPE and LDPE) to asphalt concrete in Saudi nert et al. [27] to study the effect of using plastic waste on
Arabia via the wet method by adding up to 8% of the binder asphalt concrete using three types of plastic: polyolefin,
mass. The study revealed that asphalt mixtures with 2% PP, thermoplastic, and coblock polymer plastic. The study used
2% HDPE, and 4% LDPE added to the binder had a higher 3%, 6%, and 9% plastic per bitumen weight. This study
resilient modulus (at 20 °C) than mixtures prepared with found that the separation of bitumen-plastic blends depends
unmodified bitumen; in particular, 55%, 19%, and 9% higher on the type of plastic waste used. For the asphalt concrete
moduli, respectively, were found. In another study, Al-Had- test, the study was conducted at 6% and 9% plastic per
idy [22] investigated the effect of adding 3% PP to bitumen. weight of bitumen. This study revealed that not all plastic
The study concluded that 3% PP in bitumen enhanced the is suitable for wet processes and that not all plastic types
moisture and rutting resistance of asphalt mixtures. Nouali improve the performance of asphalt concrete. In another
et al. [16] studied the effect of adding 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9% study conducted by Yu et al. [28], the authors investigated
LDPE to bitumen on the performance of an asphalt mixture. the workability of low-density polyethylene as a modifier
The study concluded that the addition of plastic reduces for bitumen and asphalt concrete via the dry and wet method
the void content during the compaction of asphalt mixtures using different dosages of bitumen and plastic. The study
for the same compaction energy, significantly increases the revealed that the wet method provides more workability for
stiffness modulus and moderately improves the moisture the asphalt mix than does the dry method. The study also
resistance. found that the bitumen content is a key factor for workabil-
Abdalfattah et al. [23] studied the performance of modi- ity even in the presence of recycled plastic in the asphalt
fied bitumen and asphalt concrete containing recycled mix, which is especially important for the dry method.
polyethylene (PE). This study used PE via wet (bitumen From the review of the current literature, it is evident
modifier) and mixed methods (bitumen and asphalt mix that there have been several studies on the use of low melt-
modifier). This study used two sources of plastics: comin- ing point plastics in bitumen and asphalt mixtures. Very
gled 50% HDPE, 50% LDPE, and 100% linear low-density few studies sourced plastics from two different collection
polyethylene (LLDPE). For the wet method, the study used streams, post-industrial and post-consumer, and compared
a single dosage of 2.5% by mass of the binder. It was found their performance. The abundance of post-consumer plas-
that rutting is improved with PE, while the intermediate- tics – mostly from a collection of various polymers rather
cracking 78 resistance is decreased under IDEAL-CT and than a single polymer—requires more decisive actions
Semi-Circular bending test using the flexibility index tests. aimed at creating more end products that further encourage
The thermal cracking of the control mix and the asphalt recycling. Additionally, past studies have incorporated large
mixes with recycled plastics were similar. However, this volumes of plastics in bitumen (i.e., up to 12%) without
study was limited in using only one dosage (2.5%) of plastic. possibly considering that storage instability could cause sig-
Abduljabbar et al. [13] investigated the mechanical prop- nificant disruptions at asphalt plants. Finally, the outcomes
erties of thin asphalt concrete overlays by adding recycled from a comprehensive mechanical testing campaign were
LDPE from plastic bags to the asphalt mix. Three dosages used to generate novel performance-based charts with the
(2%, 4%, and 6% by binder mass) were used without the aim of easily verifying the suitability of asphalt mixtures
addition of chemicals to provide storage stability to the incorporating recycled material.
blends. The study found that the rutting resistance increased In this study, two types of recycled plastics – representa-
with increasing plastic content. Similarly, the moisture and tive of a much larger cohort of plastics [15, 29] – were used:
skid resistance increased when more plastic was added. a combination of two low-density polyethylene polymers
Hao et al. [26] studied the potential of recycled waste (LDPE and LLDPE) from post-industrial recycling opera-
plastic in porous asphalt concrete via the wet method. This tions (named RPE) and a commingled plastic that included
study used three types of plastic, LDPE, PP, and HDPE, both polyethylene and polypropylene from post-consumer
each at three concentrations of 5%, 10%, and 15% by recycling operations (named RPE-PP). This study con-
weight of the bitumen. The study revealed that adding recy- ducted a comprehensive performance testing campaign to
cled plastics enhances the rutting and moisture resistance evaluate the construction-related aspect (compactability),
of asphalt mixtures and extends the fatigue life but acceler- moisture resistance, non-damaged viscoelastic behaviour
ates crack propagation. However, the study did not consider through the flexural stiffness test, resistance against rut-
the storage stability of the bitumen-plastic mixture when a ting and cracking resistance of asphalt mixes modified with
high plastic content was added, which is a common issue plastics via the wet method. Note that the comprehensive

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Performance Evaluation of Post-Consumer and Post-Industrial Recycled Plastics as Binder Modifier in Asphalt…

Table 1 Basic physical properties of the C170 and A35P bitumen Table 2 Physical properties of the RPE and RPE-PP plastics
Physical Property Testing Method C170 A35P Properties Test method RPE RPE-PP
Penetration @ 25 °C (0.1 mm) AS 2341.12 64 21 Composition N/A LDPE PP (61%),
Dynamic Viscosity @135°C (Pa.s) AS/NZS 2341.4 0.35 2.67 (68%), LDPE
Softening point (°C) AGPT T-131 48.1 67 LLDPE (16%),
(32%) LLDPE
Density @ 15 °C (g/cm3) AS 2341.7 1.05 1.04
(23%)
Melting point of polymer ISO 11357-3 108 112
1 (°C) (LDPE) (LDPE)
Melting point of polymer ISO 11357-3 122 122
2 (°C) (LLDPE) (LLDPE)
Melting point of polymer ISO 11357-3 N/A 163 (PP)
3 (°C)
Density (g/mm3) ASTM D792 1.01 0.93
Water Contact Angle ASTM D7334 77.7 109.3
(Degree)
Melt Flow Index (g/10 ASTM D1238 1.07 3.61
min)

Fig. 1 Physical appearance of RPE-PP (a) and RPE (b) studies were obtained directly from recycling companies in
Australia and used without any additional treatment or fur-
performance testing plan was based primarily on the stor- ther processing to obtain predetermined sizes and shapes.
age stability of the plastic-modified binder, considering the This approach aimed to accommodate the production of
application for large-scale production in asphalt plans. In plastic-modified bitumen directly from recycled plastic
addition to plastic-modified asphalt mixes, an HMA mix without increasing the environmental footprint associated
from a conventional unmodified bitumen and an HMA mix with the processing of recycled plastic. The appearance of
from a commercial polymer-modified binder with a plas- the recycled plastics used in this study is shown in Fig. 1.
tomeric polymer (5-5.5% ethylene vinyl acetate) were also RPE-PP was provided in flake form, while RPE was pro-
prepared for comparison purposes. vided in pellet form. Both RPE-PP and RPE showed low
melting points (see Table 2), and for that, they were selected
for modifying the bitumen via the wet method.
2 Materials and Mix Design The natural aggregates, including white granite and sand-
stone, were obtained from a local quarry and used in this
2.1 Materials study. The application of hydrated lime (1% of the total
aggregate weight) was used as a part of the filler composi-
This study used one type of unmodified bitumen (C170), tion. This approach aims to enhance the moisture resistance
which is classified using the current Australian viscos- of the asphalt mix.
ity grade system in AS2008 (AS, 2013). C170 bitumen is
a soft bitumen (see the physical properties of the binder 2.2 Bitumen Modified with Recycled Plastics
in Table 1); thus, it is commonly chosen in practice as a
neat binder for modifying polymer-modified bitumen. To The plastic-modified binder was produced by blending the
evaluate the effects of the modification of C170 bitumen recycled plastic in hot bitumen. This was done by preheat-
with recycled plastic, a commercial polymer-modified ing the binder at 180 °C before adding recycled plastic to the
binder named A35P was used. The properties of A35P are bitumen. The blending temperature of 180 °C was chosen to
also shown in Table 1. A35P is an Ethylene-vinyl acetate- be higher than the melting point of recycled plastics (see
modified bitumen with 5-5.5% EVA content by mass of the Table 2) to ensure total melting and blending of recycled
binder. plastic in the bitumen.
Two types of recycled plastic were used in this study, The blending was conducted using a high shear mixer,
including a combination of low-density polyethylene Silverson L5 M-A, on an automatically controlled hot plate
sources of LDPE and LLDPE (named RPE) and an assem- setup. First, the shear mixer stirred the preheating binder at
bly of commingled plastics of polyethylene (PE) and poly- 1,500 rpm for 60 s to homogenise the bitumen temperature.
propylene (PP) (named RPE-PP). RPE is obtained from Next, the speed of stirring was increased to 3,500 rpm, and
post-industrial operations, while RPE-PP is obtained from that setting was maintained for the remainder of the blend-
post-consumer recycling. The recycled plastics used in the ing process. A high stirring speed in the blending process

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 D. X. Lu et al.

and a closed mixing environment were chosen to reduce the for large-scale production. The storage ability of bitumen
blending time, potentially limiting additional ageing of the modified at different recycled plastic contents was evaluated
binder. During the process, the heat power of the hot plate following ASTM D7173, and the results are summarised in
was automatically adjusted to maintain a constant bitumen Fig. 2. As expected, an increase in the plastic content was
temperature because a temperature probe was connected found to reduce the storage ability of the recycled plastic-
directly to the hot plate to monitor the bitumen tempera- modified binder. While 2% RPE (by mass of bitumen)
ture throughout the blending process. To avoid clustering resulted in a softening point difference (top and bottom sec-
and allow diffusion of recycled plastics into the bitumen, a tions of the cigar tube separation test) slightly higher than
small quantity was added each time with care. Typically, it 10 °C, this is still deemed reasonable for further analysis at
took approximately 10 min to melt all recycled plastic parti- the asphalt mix level. However, the addition of 4% and 6%
cles and diffuse into the bitumen, depending on the recycled RPE (by mass of bitumen) significantly decreased the stor-
plastic content. age ability of the plastic-modified bitumen, proving that it
During the blending process, the height of the shear mixer was difficult for further use; thus, it was decided to produce
was adjusted between the top and the bottom of the mixing asphalt mixtures for subsequent mechanical tests using only
container to ensure that all plastic particles were incorpo- 1% and 2% recycled plastic by mass of the bitumen.
rated in the blending process. This process aimed to produce
homogeneous blends of recycled plastic-modified bitumen. 2.3 Mix Design
To determine the suitable time for blending, a sensitivity
analysis was conducted for different blending times of 60, An asphalt mix with a nominal maximum aggregate size
90 and 120 min. Note that a shorter blending time is prefer- (NMAS) of 13.2 mm was designed and is known as the
able, yet it could lead to a nonuniform modified binder. On AC14 mix. This asphalt mix design is typically used as a
the other hand, a longer blending time could produce a more wearing course for moderate to heavily trafficked pave-
homogeneous blend but would further age the bitumen. The ments in Australia. The mix design followed the require-
sensitivity analysis was performed based on physical and ments for the aggregate gradation of asphalt mixes required
rheological tests for the plastic-modified bitumen, includ- by the Department of Transport in Victoria, Australia. Fur-
ing elastic recovery, penetration, dynamic viscosity, Lin- ther consideration of the restricted zone for the sand fraction
ear Amplitude Sweep, and Multiple stress creep recovery. was also applied following the Superpave method (AAS-
More information on the sensitivity analysis can be found in HTO 2001), aiming to avoid the possible rutting resistance
Giustozzi et al. [8]. Finally, a blending time of 90 min was issue of the mix due to excessive fines. Note that the gra-
found to be sufficient to produce homogeneous blends and dation of the designed asphalt mix does not pass through
was thus chosen for this study. Note that the blending time the restricted zone (Fig. 3). The optimum binder content
of 60 min was found to be too short to dissolve all plastic of AC14 was found to be 5.1%, and the volumetric prop-
particles, especially at high proportions, which could also erties of the mix are summarised in Table 3. The bitumen
be visually observed during the process. On the other hand, film index (FI), voids in the mineral aggregates (VMA),
mixing for 120 min was found to generate some degree of and voids filled with bitumen (VFB) – of the mix satisfied
ageing although it was minimal. the requirements set by the Victorian Department of Trans-
In reality, bitumen at asphalt plants is produced, modified port, Australia, and AASHTO was used as a reference. An
and stored in large silos for multiple uses. Thus, the stor- optimum binder content of 5.1% was also used for all other
age ability of recycled plastic-modified bitumen is crucial

Fig. 2 Storage stability of modi-

fied bitumen

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Performance Evaluation of Post-Consumer and Post-Industrial Recycled Plastics as Binder Modifier in Asphalt…

Fig. 3 Gradation of the hot mix

asphalt mix (AC 14)

Table 3 Volumetric properties of AC14 cycles. The number of gyrations and corresponding height of
Mixes HMA Superpave Requirement the sample were recorded during compaction and were used
Binder film index (FI) 9.3 N/A to construct the compaction curves. The curves describe the
VMA (%) 14.6 14 gyration number and the corresponding relative density of
VFB (%) 72.7 65–75 the compacted sample, in which the relative density-gyra-
Dust to binder ratio 0.95 0.6–1.2
tion relationship was formed based on ASTM D6925 − 15.
For each asphalt mixture, three replicates were used for
mixes produced with recycled plastic-modified binder and the compatibility test. Two densification properties, ϑ (1)
A35P bitumen. (self-compaction) and K (compactability), were calculated
The asphalt mixtures were prepared by mixing the pre- from the compaction curves according to Eq. 1. ϑ (1) is the
heated aggregate (170 °C) with preheated neat bitumen sample’s air void after one gyration. This property is linked
(155 °C) in a pugmill mixer at a constant mixing tempera- to the initial compaction of the loose mixture after being
ture of 155 °C. The mixing procedure was conducted con- laid from the paver and levelled by the screed (known as
tinuously for 5 to 10 min. In the case of the plastic-modified the self-levelling unit of the paver). The compactability K is
binder, the recycled plastics were blended with the bitumen the slope of the fitting linear regression for the compaction
using the procedure presented in Sect. 2.2. Immediately curve from 20 to 200 gyration. Finally, the parameter ϑ (ng)
after the preheated aggregate was poured into the mixer, (%) is the air void content of the sample at gyration ng.
the plastic-bitumen blend was added, and a similar mixing
protocol to that used for neat bitumen was applied. After ϑ (ng) = ϑ (1) − (K × ln (ng)) (1)
mixing, the loose mixture was placed in small trays and
reheated for 2.5 h at 150 °C on the day of compaction to
prepare the samples for further mechanical tests. Note that 3.2 Moisture Resistance
the mixing and compaction temperatures were chosen as per
AS/NZS 2891.1.1 (Australia/New Zealand standard). Moisture resistance tests were performed to investigate the
moisture resistance of asphalt mixtures possibly affected
by the modification of bitumen with recycled plastics. The
3 Mechanical Behaviour test procedure was conducted according to the Australian/
New Zealand standard for stripping tests (AG: PT/T232)
3.1 Compactability [30]. Six samples were prepared for each mixture, and the
samples were divided into two groups with three samples
The compactability test aims to study the behaviour of each for the dry test and wet test. All the samples measured
asphalt mixtures under compaction. A loose asphalt mixture 100 mm in diameter and 65 mm in height, and the air void
with a mass of 1200 g was compacted by a gyratory compac- content ranged from 8 ± 1%. For testing, samples for the
tor using a 100 mm diameter mould under 350 compaction wet test were first subjected to vacuum saturation at 50 °C to

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 D. X. Lu et al.

achieve a saturation degree of 55–80%. Then, the saturated samples were prepared with a diameter of 150 mm, a thick-
samples were conditioned in a water bath at 60 °C for 24 h. ness of 62 mm, and an air void content of 7 ± 0.5%. After
After removal from the water bath, the samples were condi- being conditioned in a temperature-controlled chamber for
tioned in water at 25 °C for 2 h before testing. On the other 2 h at 25 °C, the samples were tested. Note that a 4-hour
hand, the dry samples were only air-conditioned at 25 °C for oven aging period was not applied prior to testing to better
2 h before testing. All samples in the moisture susceptibility differentiate between the cracking tolerances of the various
test were subjected to a monotonic loading rate of 50 mm/ mixes. The application of 4-hour oven aging is expected to
min using the indirect tensile (IDT) testing scheme to deter- result in significantly lower CT index values. During the
mine the indirect tensile strength (ITS). Finally, the ratio of test, the samples were subjected to an IDT loading scheme
the average ITS from the wet and dry samples was calcu- with a monotonic loading rate of 50 mm/min. The load and
lated as the tensile strength ratio (TSR), which provides an load vs. displacement curves were recorded during the test.
indication of the moisture susceptibility of asphalt mixtures. Finally, the CT index was calculated using the load and load
vs. displacement data. The CT index of each mixture is the
3.3 Flexural Stiffness average of 5 replicates.

A flexural stiffness test was carried out to investigate the 3.5 Fatigue Test
effect of the addition of recycled plastic to the bitumen
on the undamaged viscoelastic behaviour of the asphalt The fatigue test was conducted using a four-point bend-
mixtures. The stiffness test followed the Austroads test ing testing scheme to evaluate the fatigue resistance of the
method AGPT/T274, using a four-point bending beam asphalt mixtures. The test was performed in accordance
loading apparatus. The test samples had dimensions of with AGPT/T274 [31]. The samples for the fatigue test had
390 × 50 × 63.5 mm (length × depth × width), a tolerance dimensions and air voids similar to those of the samples pre-
of 5 mm, and an air void target of 5 ± 0.5%. The stiffness pared for the flexural stiffness test. Note that the flexural
was tested at four different temperatures, 0 °C, 10 °C, 20 °C stiffness and the fatigue test use a similar loading scheme
and 30 °C, using a four-point bending beam loading appa- of four-point bending. In the fatigue tests, the samples were
ratus. At each temperature, a sinusoidal load waveform was subjected to sinusoidal loading under strain-controlled
applied to the samples at various frequencies, namely, 10, 5, mode with a loading frequency of 10 Hz at 20 °C. At least
2, 1, and 0.1 Hz. To avoid damage to the test sample during 18 beams were prepared per the requirement from AGPT/
the operation, a strain level of 50 µɛ was used. Finally, the T274, providing test results with at least 6 beams per strain
flexural modulus master curves were built using Eqs. 2, 3 level. Determination of a sample’s fatigue life was based on
and 4, where E ∗ is the flexural modulus; δ , α , β , γ are fit- a 50% reduction in the initial sample stiffness as a failure
ting parameters; and fr and f are the reduced frequency and criterion. The initial stiffness was defined as the stiffness of
actual loading frequency, respectively. aT is the time‒tem- the sample at the 50th cycle. In the fatigue test,  6 is defined
perature shift factor determined by fitting a second-order as the strain at which a tested beam has a fatigue life of
polynomial relationship as per Eq. 4, in which a and b are 1 million cycles. This  6 parameter is used as an indicator
fitting parameters and Tref is the reference temperature or to evaluate the fatigue resistance of the mixtures. The value
temperature of interest. of  6 was determined by fitting the fatigue data (fatigue life
Nf vs. strain level  ) according to Eq. 5 in accordance with
α
log 10 |E ∗ | = δ + (2) ASTM D8237-21 (ASTM 2021). f (Nf ) is a fitting function
1+ eβ +γ log10fr of the fatigue curve; A0 and A1 are regression parameters of
the fitting model.
fr = aT × f (3)
f (Nf ) = A0 6A1 (5)
log 10 (aT ) = a(T − Tref )2 + b (T − Tref ) (4)

3.6 Rutting Resistance

3.4 IDEAL-CT Test
The rutting test was conducted in accordance with AASHTO
The IDEAL-CT test determines the CT index of the test T 324 − 17 [32] using a Hamburg wheel tracking (HWT)
sample, which is used as an indicator of the cracking tol- apparatus (wet test). The test samples had dimensions of
erance of the asphalt mix. The test and calculation of the 150 mm × 62 mm (diameter × height), and 7 ± 0.5% were
CT index followed ASTM D8225 − 19 [24], in which the in air voids. The samples were tested in water at 50 °C after

13
Performance Evaluation of Post-Consumer and Post-Industrial Recycled Plastics as Binder Modifier in Asphalt…

dp
being conditioned for 45 min. During the test, a metal roll- = ABN (B−1) + CDeDN (7)
ing wheel applied a load of 705 N to the sample by moving dN
back and forth at a speed of 26 cycles or 52 passes each
∂ 2 p
minute. The number of cycles and corresponding rut depth = AB (B − 1) N (B−2) + CD2 eDN (8)
were recorded for the duration of the test. When either a ∂ N2
rut depth of 25 mm was reached or the number of passes   
α λ
reached 20,000, the test was terminated. Note that the rut- p = ∞
p exp − (9)
LC
ting test was conducted under wet conditions; thus, the total
rut depth is determined by both the mechanical load and the
moisture (water) effect [33]. Once stripping occurs, the rut
depth is accelerated because of the degradation in the bond
between aggregate particles due to the water effect. In this
study, a method proposed by Yin et al. [33] was applied to 4 Results and Discussion
determine the mechanical load-induced rut depth (no mois-
ture effect) from the total rut depth (with the moisture effect). 4.1 Compactability
This separation method involves two main steps. The first
step is to fit the rutting curve (number of passes– rut depth) The compactability results show that adding recycled plas-
by using the Franken model (Eq. 6) [34] to find the stripping tics as a bitumen modifier had no significant effect on the
point. This step is associated with taking the first and second compactability of the mixtures (Fig. 5). In addition, since
derivatives (Eqs. 7 and 8) of Eq. 6. The stripping point is the mixtures had identical aggregate gradations, the differ-
the number of passes at which the second derivative sign ence in the compactability of the asphalt mixtures depends
changes from negative to positive. After that, the second on the recycled plastic content in the binder. Overall, the
step was conducted by applying the Tseng–Lytton model addition of up to 2% plastic to the bitumen did not have a
[35] (Eq. 9) to fit the rutting curve from the beginning of significant impact on the compactability behaviour of the
loading to the stripping number (see Fig. 4 for illustration). asphalt mixtures.
In Eqs. 6, 7, and 8, p (N) is the permanent deformation or
rut depth; N is the number of loading passes; and A, B, C, 4.2 Moisture Susceptibility
and D are fitting parameters. In Eq. 9, ∞p is the saturated rut
depth, and α , λ is the model coefficient. The moisture resistance test results, including the indirect
tensile strength (ITS) of dry-conditioned samples, wet-con-
p (N) = AN B + C eDN − 1 (6) ditioned samples, and the tensile strength ratio (TSR), are
 

shown in Fig. 6. Compared to HMA C170, the addition of

Fig. 4 Illustration of the separa-

tion of rut depth induced by the
mechanical load and moisture
effect from the HWT after apply-
ing fitting models

13
 D. X. Lu et al.

Fig. 5 Compactability test results

of the asphalt mixtures

Fig. 6 Moisture susceptibility

test results

recycled plastic to bitumen increased the ITS of the asphalt tends to reduce the moisture resistance of the asphalt mix-
mixtures in the dry-conditioned samples, regardless of the ture. The mechanism behind this reduction is complex and
recycled plastic type and content. However, the ITS of the was not investigated in this study. However, this decrease
recycled-plastic-modified asphalt mixtures was still lower in the TSR value can be explained by the lower adhesion
than that of A35P. between the plastic-modified binder and the aggregates
In terms of the wet-conditioned samples, a significant in the presence of water. It is thought that the wettability
increase in the ITS was observed for the plastic-modified of plastic to aggregate, shown via the high water contact
asphalt mixes in comparison to the unmodified asphalt mix angles of the recycled plastics (see Table 2), could be a con-
(HMA C170). There was only an exception in the case of tributor to the reduction in the TSR of the plastic-modified
2% RPE-PP, in which the mix had similar ITS results to asphalt mixtures. Furthermore, the viscosity of the recycled
HMA C170 for the wet-conditioned samples. A35P was still plastics, which is affected by the melting point and the
the mix that produced the highest ITS values for wet condi- melting index, could also contribute to the adhesion of the
tioning; note that A35P contains 2 to 3 times more polymer plastic-modified binder to the aggregates when subjected
than the plastic-modified mixes. to water damage, resulting in a decrease in the TSR when
For the moisture resistance evaluation via the TSR, all more recycled plastic is added to the bitumen. The compat-
the asphalt mixtures exhibited satisfactory moisture resis- ibility of recycled plastic and bitumen can also be a factor
tance, i.e., more than 80%, which is a common acceptance contributing to the reduction in adhesion in the presence of
criterion worldwide. However, the addition of recycled water. The reasoning behind the potential increase in mois-
plastics tends to decrease the TSR, especially in the case ture damage of plastic-modified asphalt mixtures is worth
of 2% recycled plastics for both RPE and RPE-PP. These exploring in future works.
results also indicate that adding a greater amount of plastic

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Performance Evaluation of Post-Consumer and Post-Industrial Recycled Plastics as Binder Modifier in Asphalt…

Fig. 7 Flexural modulus master

curves of the asphalt mixtures at
a reference temperature of 20 °C

with RPE-PP and RPE, regardless of the proportion, did not

reach the same stiffness as A35P, which is normally modi-
fied with 5.0–5.5% EVA polymer, at low reduced frequen-
cies (Zone 1) and a portion of Zone 2. Afterwards, all the
plastic-modified mixes exhibited greater stiffness than did
A35P at the end of Zone 2 and within Zone 3.
Overall, it was observed that a higher level of polymer
modification reduced the temperature susceptibility of the
binder and thus resulted in a more horizontal master curve
trend. This behaviour can be beneficial for rutting resistance
at high temperatures, yet it could be more prone to cracking
at low and intermediate temperatures.

4.4 IDEAL-CT Test

Fig. 8 CT indices of the asphalt mixtures
The results from the IDEAL CT are shown in Fig. 8 for
the CT index, while the mechanical properties are presented
4.3 Flexural Stiffness in Fig. 9. On average, RPE-modified asphalt mixtures tend
to produce CT indices similar to those of the control mix
The stiffness master curves of the asphalt mixtures were HMA 170. The addition of 2% RPE resulted in a slightly
built at a reference temperature of 20 °C (Fig. 7). Adding greater CT index than the addition of the 1% RPE mixture.
plastic to the bitumen changed the viscoelastic behaviour of For the RPE-PP mixtures, the addition of recycled plastics
the blend, which was clearly shown via the stiffness mas- seemed to slightly reduce the CT index in comparison to
ter curve results. The stiffness of all the plastic-modified that of the neat binder asphalt mix, and a greater addition of
asphalt mixtures was greater than that of the control mix RPE-PP resulted in a greater reduction in the CT index. The
HMA C170. The 1% RPE and 2% RPE mixes showed mar- results indicate different modification mechanisms of differ-
ginal differences in stiffness over a large range of reduced ent recycled plastics in the asphalt mix, resulting in changes
frequencies. Similar behaviour was observed when compar- in the mix behaviour.
ing the stiffness of the 1% RPE-PP mixture with that of the A35P had the lowest CT index among the tested asphalt
2% RPE-PP mixture. Among the recycled plastics, the RPE- mixtures. By looking into the peak load, the A35P also
PP mixtures consistently exhibited greater stiffness than did showed the best resistance to the peak load. However, the
the RPE mixtures at low and medium reduced frequencies mix had the lowest l75 and the highest post-peak slope. These
(Zones 1 and 2). However, all plastic-modified mixtures results indicate that it is likely that A35P is more brittle in

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 D. X. Lu et al.

ports, and other heavily trafficked pavements due to its

high stiffness. It was expected that A35P would produce a
higher peak load (Fig. 9) and a much steeper slope at 75%
load post-peak, which emphasises its more brittle cracking
behaviour compared to that of SBS-modified binders. Addi-
tionally, EVA is a highly variable polymer that can include a
larger content of vinyl acetate groups (more rubbery behav-
iour) or fewer vinyl acetate groups (more brittle behaviour).
In general, there is still debate about various asphalt crack-
ing tests, and the authors believe that there is still scope to
view the CT index test results from different perspectives.
When comparing the IDEAL CT results from this study
with those of previous studies, it should be noted that 4 h of
ageing of the loose mix in the oven prior to testing was not
applied in this study. The reason behind this choice was the
uncertainty associated with the ageing of plastic-modified
mixes compared to standard unmodified mixes. Since Aus-
tralian specifications do not consider ageing for bitumen or
asphalt mixtures; hence, the decision is made to test without
the additional variability given by ageing.

Fig. 9 Mechanical parameters in the IDEAL CT test: a) peak load and

4.5 Fatigue Resistance
displacement at 75% of the peak load l75, b) fracture energy and abso-
lute value of m75 The fatigue performance at the tested strain levels was plot-
ted and fitted against the fatigue cycles, and the ɛ6 values
terms of crack resistance and thus is prone to crack propa- were used to evaluate and compare the fatigue resistance
gation once a crack initiates. Note that the fracture energies of different asphalt mixtures (Fig. 10). Overall, the addition
of the asphalt mixtures in this study were not significantly of different RPE contents (1% and 2%) resulted in fatigue
different, indicating that fracture energy alone might not be resistance similar to that of the control mix HMA C170. The
able to predict the overall cracking resistance of the mix. fatigue curves of the RPE mixes were almost identical to
A35P is a binder that has been heavily modified with EVA those of HMA C170. In contrast, the addition of RPE-PP to
copolymer. Commonly, in Australia, 5.5% EVA is added to the neat binder resulted in better fatigue resistance. Accord-
the binder to produce A35P. This binder is used on airports, ing to both the ɛ6 and the fatigue curves, the 2% RPE-PP

Fig. 10 Fatigue curves and ε6 of

the asphalt mixtures

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Performance Evaluation of Post-Consumer and Post-Industrial Recycled Plastics as Binder Modifier in Asphalt…

mix also exhibited better fatigue resistance than did the in which the plastic-modified asphalt mixtures tend to show
1% RPE-PP mix. The ɛ6 values of the 1% and 2% RPE-PP high stiffness at low loading frequencies (or equivalent to
mixes were 14% and 26% greater than that of HMA C170, high-temperature behaviour).
respectively. The results indicate that the addition of poly-
propylene (PP in the case of RPE-PP) compared to polyeth- 4.7 Performance Discussion
ylene alone (in the case of RPE) could enhance the fatigue
resistance of the asphalt mix. Any recycled material added to asphalt mixtures is expected
Among the studied mixes, A35P showed superior fatigue to have a final mix with similar or better performance than
performance at different strain levels and significantly the conventional mix. In that sense, the application of plas-
greater resistance to fatigue than the other mixes, includ- tic as a bitumen modifier was screened by checking the
ing plastic-modified asphalt mixes and conventional asphalt performance of the plastic-modified asphalt mix in terms of
mixes. The ɛ6 of A35P was approximately three times greater compactability, resistance to moisture, cracking and rutting
than that of the control mixture. Generally, more plastic- resistance.
modified bitumen tends to enhance the fatigue resistance Regarding compactability, a minimum of 2% or 2.5% air
of the mix, although the result is mainly dependent on the voids are required for the specimen after the compactabil-
chemical components of the recycled plastics and the com- ity test for heavy duty pavements, depending on the differ-
patibility of the recycled plastic with the bitumen. Overall, ent Australian states and New Zealand. This approach aims
the fatigue resistance of plastic-modified asphalt mixtures to avoid possible instability of the mix and results in rut-
relies on the type and content of plastic used in the mixture. ting-related issues of the asphalt mix in service. All mixes
modified with plastic showed satisfactory compactability
4.6 Rutting Resistance requirements. The addition of plastic to the bitumen did not
significantly change the compactability of the mix.
The results of the rutting test are shown in Fig. 11. Among the For moisture resistance, a minimum TSR of 80% is regu-
mixes, the control unmodified mix HMA C170 showed the lated in Australia and New Zealand. Considering the thresh-
greatest rut depth, while the lowest rut depth was observed old of 80% for TSR, all plastic-modified asphalt mixtures in
for A35P (only equivalent to 10% rut depth of HMA C170). the scope of this study satisfied this condition.
In terms of the plastic-modified mixes, the addition of plas- In terms of the stiffness behaviour, Australia and New
tic improved the rutting resistance. Mixtures with RPE- Zealand use two parallel standards—the flexural stiffness
PP and RPE had significantly lower rut depths than HMA test and the resilient modulus test—in which the former test
C170. On average, the addition of 1% RPE and 1% RPE- was used in this study. Note that the stiffness data from this
PP resulted in a reduction of approximately 56% in the rut test can be used for pavement design purposes but not for
depth compared to that of the unmodified mix. Similarly, the the purpose of providing rejection or acceptance of the mix
addition of 2% RPE and 2% RPE-PP reduced the overall rut performance.
depth by approximately 43% and 48%, respectively, in com- In addition to the threshold-based criteria, two main per-
parison to HMA C170. The results indicate that the rutting formance tests need to be considered: cracking resistance
performance of the modified mix improved regardless of the and rutting resistance. The applicability of new materials
recycled plastic used. This is due to the reduction in the tem- such as recycled plastic in asphalt mixtures is based on the
perature susceptibility of the binder when it is modified with comparison of the performance of the material with that
plastic. This behaviour is clearly shown in the stiffness test, of the control or conventional mix, in which the plastic-
modified asphalt mix is expected to exhibit equal or better
fatigue and rutting resistance. The concept of a performance
graph is introduced to compare the performance of the
plastic-modified asphalt mix with that of the conventional
mix (Fig. 12). Note that the addition of the IDEAL-CT test
is a further effort to assess the applicability of rapid tests
for evaluating the cracking resistance of asphalt mixtures,
acknowledging that the IDEAL-CT test is relatively new for
cracking assessment and is not currently adopted in Austra-
lia and New Zealand.
In a performance graph, four quadrants can be identified
by using the rut depth and fatigue indicator ɛ6 of HMA C170,
Fig. 11 Rut depth after 20,000 passes and the reduction in rut depth for instance. In the performance graph, quadrant 1 contains
(%) of the asphalt mixtures compared to HMA C170

13
 D. X. Lu et al.

Fig. 12 Performance graphs of asphalt mixtures considering rutting vs. cracking: a) rut depth vs. ɛ6 and b) rut depth vs. CT index

mixes with better fatigue and rutting resistance than the con-
trol mix. Mixes with higher fatigue resistance but lower rut 5 Conclusion
resistance belong to quadrant 2. Mixes in quadrant 2 can be
considered for pavements where fatigue cracking is domi- This study investigated the behaviour of asphalt concrete
nant. Quadrant 3 consists of stiff mixes with better rutting produced from recycled plastic-modified binder. Low-melt-
resistance but low fatigue life. Thus, mixes in this quadrant ing point recycled plastics were added to preheated bitumen
are for pavements with rutting concerns. Finally, mixes in before mixing with preheated aggregate to produce asphalt
quadrant 4 have lower fatigue and rutting resistance than the mixtures. Based on the results of the comprehensive testing
control mix. Quadrant 4 mixes do not provide any benefit program, the following conclusions are drawn:
to performance value and thus should not be considered for
use. ● The addition of recycled plastics modified the physi-
In this study, all the asphalt mixtures exhibited greater cal and rheological properties of the binder to different
rutting and fatigue resistance than did the HMA C170 con- degrees. Adding a high percentage of recycled plastic
trol mix when conventional unmodified bitumen was used, leads to poor storage stability of the blend (e.g., 4% and
indicating that recycled plastics improved the performance 6% recycled plastic in this study). Thus, compatibilisers
of the mix. Mixtures lying on the quadrant boundary lines are needed when adding high recycled plastic content to
are considered iso-performance mixes. A similar concept assure the storage ability of the blends.
of a performance graph was used considering the CT index ● The recycled plastic-modified binder did not significant-
against the rutting resistance. Most of the asphalt mixtures ly impact the compactability of the asphalt mixtures.
fell into quadrant 3, indicating better rutting resistance The moisture resistance of the mix tends to decrease
but greater cracking potential than that of the control mix. slightly when a high plastic content is added. The visco-
Overall, the application of any recycled material in asphalt elastic behaviour of the asphalt mixtures changed with
mixtures (such as recycled plastic in this study) should be the addition of recycled plastic, following the trend of
considered based on a combination of many performance enhancing the stiffness of the mix over a large range of
factors. One would expect the mix with recycled materials reduced frequencies compared to that of the neat binder.
to provide equivalent or better performance benefits com- ● The cracking and rutting resistance of asphalt mixtures
pared to conventional mixes. were proven to differ depending on the type and content
of plastic used. A greater content of recycled plastics
provides greater benefits, yet additives are required to
provide storage stability and reduce viscosity.

13
Performance Evaluation of Post-Consumer and Post-Industrial Recycled Plastics as Binder Modifier in Asphalt…

3. Al-Hadidy, A., Hameed, A. T., & Joni, H. H. (2023). Recycling of

Overall, the use of recycled plastic from polyolefin sources Waste Sulfur and Waste Polyethylene in paving mixtures. Interna-
in the binder to produce an asphalt mix is beneficial for tional Journal of Pavement Research and Technology: pp. 1–12.
the asphalt mix in terms of cracking and rutting resistance 4. Vargas, C., & Hanandeh, A. E. (2023). The Utilisation of Poly-
based on a comprehensive investigation under laboratory ethylene Waste Pyrolytic Wax as an Additive to Enhance the
Performance of Virgin and Polypropylene-Modified Bitumen.
conditions. A similar methodology can be used to assess International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology: pp.
the application of other recycled materials. It is highly rec- 1–23.
ommended that the application of new recycled materials 5. Joohari, I. B., Maniam, S., & Giustozzi, F. (2022). Enhancing
should be thoroughly considered based on the comparison the storage stability of SBS-plastic waste modified bitumen using
reactive elastomeric terpolymer. International Journal of Pave-
of their performance with that of mixes that are already in ment Research and Technology: pp. 1–15.
use. This study is limited in that it investigated only dense 6. Nizamuddin, S., Jamal, M., & Biligiri, K. P. (2023). and F. Gius-
graded asphalt gradation and has not investigated the poten- tozzi. Effect of Various Compatibilizers on the Storage Stability,
tial for recycled plastics to be applied to other types of Thermochemical and Rheological Properties of Recycled Plastic-
Modified Bitumen. International Journal of Pavement Research
asphalt mixtures. Future research to extend this investiga- and Technology: pp. 1–14.
tion is recommended. In addition, future research on the 7. Lu, D. X., Enfrin, M., Boom, Y. J., & Giustozzi, F. (2023). Future
long-term performance of asphalt concrete modified with recyclability of hot mix asphalt containing recycled plastics. Con-
recycled plastics and its performance under field conditions struction and Building Materials. 368.
8. Giustozzi, F., Enfrin, M., Xuan, D. L., Boom, Y. J., Masood, H.,
is also recommended. Audy, R., & Swaney, M. (2022). Use of road-grade recycled plas-
tics for sustainable asphalt pavements: final performance and
Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the finan- environmental assessment: part A.
cial contribution of Austroads Ltd. through the funding of the project 9. Goli, A., Rout, B., & Cyril, T., and V. Govindaraj (2023). Evalu-
APT6305 – Use of road-grade recycled plastics for sustainable asphalt ation of mechanical characteristics and plastic coating efficiency
pavements. in plastic-modified asphalt mixes. International Journal of Pave-
ment Research and Technology, 16(3), 693–704.
Funding Open Access funding enabled and organized by CAUL and 10. Revelli, V., Kabir, S. F., Ali, A., Mehta, Y., & Cox, B. C. (2024).
its Member Institutions Understanding the storage stability of polyethylene modified
binders: A laboratory case study using waste plastics. Journal of
Data availability The raw data is available upon request from the cor- Materials in Civil Engineering, 36(4), 04024038.
responding author for a reasonable request. 11. Boom, Y., Lu, D., Enfrin, M., Swaney, M., Masood, H., Pra-
manik, B., Robert, D., & Giustozzi, F. (2023). Engineering prop-
erties, microplastics and emissions assessment of recycled plastic
Declarations modified asphalt mixtures. The Science of the Total Environment:
pp. 164869–164869.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of 12. Giustozzi, F., Enfrin, M., Xuan, D., Boom, Y., Swaney, M., Audy,
interest. R., & Masood, H. (2022). Use of road-grade recycled plastics for
sustainable asphalt pavements: final performance and environ-
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons mental assessment: part B.
Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, 13. Abduljabbar, N., Al-Busaltan, S., Dulaimi, A., Al-Yasari, R., &
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, Sadique, M. and H. Al Nageim. 2022, the effect of waste low-
as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the density polyethylene on the mechanical properties of thin asphalt
source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate overlay. Construction and Building Materials. 315: p. 125722.
if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this 14. Liang, M., Xin, X., Fan, W., Zhang, J., & Jiang, H., and Z. Yao
article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless (2021). Comparison of rheological properties and compatibility
indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not of asphalt modified with various polyethylene. International
included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended Journal of Pavement Engineering, 22(1), 11–20.
use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted 15. Giustozzi, F., Lu, D., Enfrin, M., Masood, H., Audy, R., & Boom,
use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright Y. (2021). Use of road-grade recycled plastics for sustainable
holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit ​h​t​​​​t​p​:​/​/​c​r​e​​a​​t​​i​v​e​​c​​o​​m​m​o​n​s​.​o​ asphalt pavements: Towards the selection of road-grade plastics:
r​g​/​l​i​c​e​n​s​e​s​/​b​y​/​4​.​0​/​​​​.​ ​​ An evaluation framework and preliminary experimental results.
16. Nouali, M., Derriche, Z., Ghorbel, E., & Chuanqiang, L. (2020).
Plastic bag waste modified bitumen a possible solution to the
Algerian road pavements. Road Materials and Pavement Design,
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Performance Characteristics and Environmental Impact. Trans- Dai Xuan Lu obtained his PhD from Monash University in 2021. His
portation Research Record: p. 03611981211065733. research interest is in the field of road and pavement engineering. Dr.
24. ASTM. (2019). D8225– 19. Standard test method for determi- Lu has published many studies on asphalt concrete via experiments
nation of cracking tolerance index of asphalt mixture using the and numerical simulation tools, especially the discrete element method
indirect tensile cracking test at intermediate temperature. ASTM (DEM).
International.
25. AASHTO. (2018). AASHTO T 124– 18. Standard method of test Marie Enfrin completed her PhD in chemistry and chemical engi-
for determining the fracture potential of asphalt mixtures using neering at the University of Surrey (UK) in collaboration with Deakin
semicircular Bend geometry. American Association of State University (Australia). Dr. Enfrin’s research interests lie in the field of
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), Northwest, plastic pollution and, more specifically, in developing solutions that
Washington DC. reduce and control the impact of microplastics on aquatic and terres-
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S. (2024). Recycling of plastic waste in porous asphalt pavement:
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of Cleaner Production, 440, 140865. from RMIT University. His research interests lie in the field of road
27. Bennert, T., Ericson, C., Haas, E., Wass, E., & Tulanowski, D. and pavement materials.
(2024). and N. Cytowicz. Assessment of plastic waste modifica-
tion to asphalt materials using the wet process. Transportation Professor Filippo Giustozzi is an accomplished expert specialising
Research Record: p. 03611981241230298. in road and airport infrastructure. He earned his second Ph.D. from
28. Yu, S., Musazay, J. A., Zhang, C., Hu, P., & Shen, S. (2024). Virginia Tech University (USA) and served as the Chair of the Techni-
Workability of low-density polyethylene modified asphalt mix- cal Committee on Sustainable and Resilient Pavements at the Trans-
tures: A statistical analysis of particle kinematics. Journal of portation Research Board of the National Academies of Sciences and
Cleaner Production, 447, 141564. Engineering in the USA from 2017 to 2022. Since 2008, he has been
29. Audy, R., Enfrin, M., Boom, Y. J., & Giustozzi, F. (2022). Selec- actively involved in numerous significant road and airport construc-
tion of recycled waste plastic for incorporation in sustainable tion projects worldwide. Professor Giustozzi engages in collabora-
asphalt pavements: A novel multi-criteria screening tool based tive efforts with national and international government bodies, local
on 31 sources of plastic. Science of the Total Environment, 829, governments, industry, and product stewardship associations. Prof.
154604. Giustozzi and his team are dedicated to delivering practical research
30. AG:PT/T232. (2007). Stripping potential of asphalt– tensile outcomes that significantly advance the Australian infrastructure sec-
strength ratio. Austroads Manual of Test Methods. tor and update current technical specifications.
31. Austroads (2006). AGPT/T233. Fatigue Life of Compacted Bitu-
minous Mixes Subject to Repeated Flexural Bending.

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