Unit 15

Automation, Robotics and

Programmable Logic
Controllers (PLCs)
Lecture 3 – Actuators

Lecturer
Dr. (Mrs) R. M. M. Ruwanthika
[email protected]

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 What is an Actuator?
❑ A hardware device that converts a controller command signal
into a change in a physical parameter.
❑ The change in the physical parameter is usually mechanical,
such as a position or velocity change.

❑ A transducer, because it changes one type of physical quantity,

such as electric current, into another type of physical quantity,
such as rotational speed of an electric motor.

❑ The controller command signal is usually low-level,

▪ an actuator may require an amplifier to strengthen the signal
sufficiently to drive the actuator.

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 Categories of Actuators

❑ According to the type of amplifier

1. Electric Actuators
▪ electric motors of various kinds, solenoids, and electromechanical relays.
2. Hydraulic Actuators
▪ use hydraulic fluid to amplify the controller command signal.
▪ Hydraulic actuators are often specified when large forces are required.
3. Pneumatic Actuators
▪ use compressed air as the driving power.
▪ Because of the relatively low air pressures involved, these actuators are
usually limited to relatively low-force applications compared with
hydraulic actuators.
❑ All actuators can be either linear (output is linear displacement)
or rotational (output is angular displacement).

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 Classification of Actuators

❑ Process actuators – Directly operate a process (load, plant)

ex: joint motors in a robotic manipulator
❑ Control actuators – Operate controller components (final
control elements)
ex: servovalves in process control applications
❑ Servo actuators – Automatically use response error signals
from a process in feedback to correct the operation of the
process (to drive the process according to a desired response)
ex: servomotors
❑ Incremental-drive actuators (ex: stepper motors)
❑ Continuous-drive actuators (ex: DC torque motors, induction motors,
hydraulic and pneumatic motors, piston-cylinder drives)

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 Electric Motors

❑ An electric motor converts electrical power into mechanical

power.
❑ Linear motors and rotary motors are available.

A rotary electric motor: (a) typical configuration and (b) diagram showing its operation.
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❑ The motor consists of two basic components, a stator and a
rotor.
❑ The stator is the ring-shaped stationary component, and the
rotor is the cylindrical part that rotates inside the stator.
❑ The rotor is assembled around a shaft
▪ Shaft is supported by bearings, and the shaft can be coupled to
machinery components such as gears, pulleys, leadscrews, or spindles.

❑ Electric current supplied to the motor generates a continuously

switching magnetic field that causes the rotor to develop
torque and rotate in its attempt to align its poles with the
opposite poles of the stator.

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 Variety of Electric Motors

❑ Common classification
1. The details relating to the type of current (alternating or direct)
▪ AC motors
▪ DC motors
2. How the continuously switching magnetic field is created,
3. other aspects of the motor’s construction

❑ Four types that are used in automation and industrial control

▪ DC motors
▪ AC motors
▪ Stepper motors
▪ Linear motors

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 DC Motors
❑ DC motors are powered by a constant current and voltage.

❑ The continuously switching magnetic field is achieved by means

of a rotary switching device, called a commutator,
▪ rotates with the rotor
▪ picks up current from a set of carbon brushes that are components of the
stator assembly.
▪ Its function is to continually change the relative polarity between the
rotor and the stator, so that the magnetic field produces a torque to
continuously turn the rotor.

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❑ Use of a commutator is the traditional construction of a DC
motor.
❑ This is a disadvantage because it results in arcing, worn
brushes, and maintenance problems.

❑ A special type of DC motor avoids the use of the commutator

and brushes. Called a brushless DC motor, it uses solid-state
circuitry to replace the brushes and commutator components.
❑ Elimination of these parts has the added benefit of reducing
the inertia of the rotor assembly, allowing higher speed
operation.

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 How DC Motors Work

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 Why DC Motors

❑ DC motors are widely used for two reasons.

1. The convenience of using direct current as the power source.
▪ For example, the small electric motors in automobiles are DC because
the car’s battery supplies direct current.

2. The torque–speed relationships are attractive in many

applications compared to AC motors.

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 DC Servomotor

❑ A common type of DC motor used in mechanized and

automated systems.
❑ The term servomotor simply means that a feedback loop is
used to regulate speed.
❑ In a DC servomotor, the stator typically consists of two
permanent magnets on opposite sides of the rotor.
❑ The rotor, called the armature in a DC motor, consists of
copper wire windings around a ferrous metal core.

❑ Input current is provided to the windings through the

commutator and interacts with the magnetic field of the stator
to produce the torque that drives the rotor.

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❑ The magnitude of the rotor torque is a function of the current
passing through the windings
𝑇 = 𝐾𝑡 𝐼𝑎
where
T = motor torque, (Nm)
𝐼𝑎 = current flowing through the armature, (A)
𝐾𝑡 = the motor’s torque constant, (Nm/A).

❑ When current is first applied to the motor, torque is at its

maximum value.
❑ This is called the stall torque, and the corresponding current is
also a maximum value.

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❑ As the armature begins to rotate, both torque and current
decrease
▪ because rotating the armature in the magnetic field of the stator
produces a voltage across the armature terminals, called the back-emf.
❑ The back-emf increases with rotational speed as follows:
𝐸𝑏 = 𝐾𝑣 𝜔
where
𝐸𝑏 = back-emf, (V)
𝜔 = angular velocity, (rad/sec)
𝐾𝑣 = the voltage constant of the motor, (V/(rad/sec))

❑ The effect of the back-emf is to reduce the current flowing

through the armature windings.
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❑ The angular velocity in rad/sec can be converted to the more
familiar rotational speed as follows:
60𝜔
𝑁=
2𝜋
where 𝑁 = rotational speed, (rev/min).

❑ Given the resistance of the armature 𝑅𝑎 and an input voltage

𝑉𝑖𝑛 supplied to the motor terminals, the starting armature
current is given by the following:
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑅𝑎
❑ Starting torque
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 = 𝐾𝑡
𝑅𝑎
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❑ But as the armature begins to rotate, it generates the back-emf
𝐸𝑏 , which reduces the available voltage.

❑ Thus, the actual armature current depends on the rotational

speed of the rotor,
𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑏 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝐾𝑣 𝜔
𝐼𝑎 = =
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎
❑ The torque produced by the DC servomotor at a speed 𝜔 is
𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝐾𝑣 𝜔
𝑇 = 𝐾𝑡
𝑅𝑎

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❑ The mechanical power delivered by the motor is the product of
torque and velocity, as defined in the following equation:
𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔
where
𝑃 = power in Nm/sec (Watts)
𝑇 = motor torque, Nm
𝜔 = angular velocity, rad/sec.
❑ The corresponding horsepower is given by
𝑇𝜔
𝐻𝑃 =
745.7
where the constant 745.7 is the conversion factor 745.7 W = 1hp.

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❑ The servomotor is connected either directly or through a gear
reduction to a piece of machinery.
▪ The machinery may be a fan, pump, spindle, table drive, or similar
mechanical apparatus. The apparatus represents the load that is driven
by the motor.
❑ The load requires a certain torque to operate, and the torque is
usually related to rotational speed in some way.
❑ In general, the torque increases with speed. In the simplest
case, the relationship is proportional:
𝑇𝐿 = 𝐾𝐿 𝜔
where
𝑇𝐿 = load torque, Nm
𝐾𝐿 = the constant of proportionality between torque and
angular velocity, Nm/(rad/sec).
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❑ The functionality between 𝐾𝐿 and 𝑇𝐿 may be other than
proportional, such that 𝐾𝐿 itself depends on the angular
velocity.
▪ For example, the torque required to drive a fan increases approximately
as the square of the rotational speed, that is, 𝑇𝐿 ∝𝜔2 .

❑ The torque developed by the motor and the torque required by

the load must be balanced.
▪ That is, 𝑇 = 𝑇𝐿 in steady-state operation and this torque is called the
operating point.

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❑ The motor torque relationship with angular velocity can be
plotted, called the torque–speed curve. Also shown in the
figure is the load-torque relationship.
❑ The intersection of the two plots is the operating point, which
is defined by the values of torque and angular velocity.

Torque–speed curve of a
DC servomotor (idealized),
and typical load torque
relationship.
The intersection of the two
plots is the operating point.

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Example 1

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Example 2

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 AC Motors

❑ DC motors have several attractive features, but they have two

important disadvantages:
(1) The commutator and brushes used to conduct current from the
stator assembly to the rotor result in maintenance problems
with these motors
(2) The most common electrical power source in industry is
alternating current, not direct current.

❑ In order to use AC power to drive a DC motor, a rectifier must

be added to convert the alternating current to direct current.

❑ For these reasons, AC motors are widely used in many

industrial applications.
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❑ AC motors operate
▪ by generating a rotating magnetic field in the stator,
▪ the rotational speed of the rotor depends on the frequency of the input
electrical power.

❑ The rotor is forced to turn at a speed that depends on the

rotating magnetic field.

❑ AC motors can be classified into two broad categories:

1. Synchronous motors
2. Induction motors.

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 Servo Motor

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 Stepper Motors

❑ Provides rotation in the form of discrete angular

displacements, called step angles.
❑ Each angular step is actuated by a discrete electrical pulse.
❑ The total angular rotation is controlled by the number of pulses
received by the motor, and rotational speed is controlled by the
frequency of the pulses.
❑ The step angle is related to the number of steps for the motor
according to the relationship
360
𝛼=
𝑛𝑠
where
𝛼 = the step angle, degrees, °
𝑛𝑠 = the number of steps for the stepper motor, which
must be an integer value. 29
❑ Typical values for the step angle in commercially available
stepper motors are 7.5°, 3.6°, and 1.8°, corresponding to 48,
100, and 200 steps (pulses) per revolution of the motor.

❑ The total angle through which the motor rotates 𝐴𝑚 (measured

in degrees, °) is given by
𝐴 𝑚 = 𝑛𝑝 𝛼
where
𝑛𝑝 = the number of pulses received by the motor
𝛼 = the step angle.

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❑ The angular velocity 𝜔 (rad/sec) and speed of rotation N
(rev/min) are given by the expressions
2𝜋𝑓𝑝
𝜔=
𝑛𝑠
60𝑓𝑝
𝑁=
𝑛𝑠
where
𝑓𝑝 = pulse frequency, pulses/sec or Hz
𝑛𝑠 = the number of steps in the motor, steps/rev or
pulses/rev.

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 Stepper Motor

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Servo Motor Advantages And Disadvantages

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Stepper Motor Advantages And Disadvantages

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 Rotary-to-Linear Motion Conversion

❑ Many actuator applications require linear motion and the

application of force.

❑ A rotating motor can be used in these applications by

converting its rotary motion into linear or translational motion.

❑ The following are some of the common conversion

mechanisms used for this purpose:
1. Leadscrews and ball screws.
2. Pulley systems.
3. Rack and pinion.

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 Leadscrews and ball screws

❑ The motor shaft is connected to a leadscrew or ball screw,

which have helical threads throughout their lengths.

❑ A lead nut or ball nut is threaded onto the screw and prevented
from rotating when the screw rotates; thus, the nut is moved
linearly along the screw.

❑ Direction of linear motion depends on the direction of rotation

of the screw.

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 Pulley systems

❑ The motor shaft is connected to the driver wheel in a pulley

system, around which a belt, chain, or other flexible material
forms a loop with an idler wheel.

❑ As the motor shaft rotates, the flexible material is pulled

linearly between the pulley wheels.

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 Rack and pinion

❑ The motor shaft is connected to a pinion gear that is mated

with a rack, which is a straight gear with tooth spacings that
match those of the gear.

❑ As the gear is rotated, the rack is moved linearly.

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 Linear Motion Control

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 Linear Motors

❑ A linear electric motor provides a linear motion directly.

❑ Its operation is similar to that of rotary electric motors, except
that the ring-shaped stator and cylindrical-shaped rotor are
straight rather than circular.

❑ The rotor, known as the forcer in linear motor terminology,

consists of wire windings encased in a non-conducting
material such as epoxy.
❑ The magnetic field that drives the forcer consists of a series of
magnets contained in a straight track, which corresponds to the
stator.

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❑ Just as a rotary motor requires bearings to align the rotor
inside the stator, creating a small air gap between them, a
linear motor requires straight guideways that support the forcer
and maintain a gap between it and the magnetic track.

❑ Linear encoders can be used to indicate the position and speed

of the forcer along the track, just as rotary encoders are used to
determine angular position and speed of a rotary motor.

❑ Unlike a rotary motor, in which the rotor rotates inside a

stationary stator, a linear motor can be designed so that either
the forcer or the track moves.

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❑ Linear motors are available in three styles
a) Flat
b) U-channel
c) Cylindrical

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 Actuator- DC Motor Gears
❑ Gears are used to alter the output torque of a motor
❑ The force generated at the edge of a gear is equal to the ratio the torque
and the radius of the gear (T = F r), in the line tangential to its
circumference
❑ By combining gears with different radii, we can manipulate the amount of
force/torque the mechanism generates
❑ E.g
▪ Suppose Gear1 with radius r1 turns with torque t1, generating a force
of t1/r1 perpendicular to its circumference.
▪ If we mesh it with Gear2, with r2, which generates t2/r2, then t1/r1 =
t2/r2
▪ To get the torque generated by Gear2, we get: t2 = t1 r2/r1
▪ If r2 > r1, we get a bigger number, if r1 > r2, we get a smaller number

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 Other Types of Actuators

❑ Solenoids
❑ Relays
❑ Contactors
❑ Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators

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 Relays

❑ Was one of the conventional / traditional control elements

❑ Now used as auxiliary devices

▪ The PLC is not designed to switch high currents or voltages

▪ The relay converts the control signal from the PLC in to a high voltage
ON/OFF signal to a machine / component

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 Contactors

❑ Used for heavy-duty switching

❑ Provides isolation from high voltages and large currents

❑ Usefully for large inductive currents, such as motor starting

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 Motor Starters

❑ Contactor + Overload Relay

❑ Overload relays were usually heaters and bimetal strips

▪ The bimetal strip separates when heated

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 Solenoid

❑ A solenoid consists of a movable plunger inside a stationary

wire coil.
❑ When a current is applied to the coil, it acts as a magnet,
drawing the plunger into the coil.
❑ When current is switched off, a spring returns the plunger to
its previous position.

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 Solenoid

❑ Linear solenoids of the type described here are often used to

open and close valves in fluid flow systems, such as chemical
processing equipment.

❑ In these applications, the solenoid provides a linear push or

pull action.

❑ Rotary solenoids are also available to provide rotary motion,

usually over a limited angular range (e.g., neutral position to
between 25° and 90°).

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 Pneumatic Actuators

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THANK YOU
Questions?

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