ot BRR, TH Someen Nanvee ripun Dew OY eee Heats (wy snk" AR ode a P vs svt) vo Sa) Z ne rita, 18 i‘ M% r wolvii) oe GL Sin) A Piviode : : i eee voviii) CLOESyuin, i where, Pr Transmitter Power, i G@> Maximum Gain of Antena Ae Aperture aren of receiving Antenna 6 © Cross section area of the target S,,, = Minimunt detectable signal (mds) A, © Maximun range of radar ‘This is the fimdamental form of radar range equati transmitting gain and the receiving effective area, The transmitter power Pt has not been spe ion. The important parameters are the fied as either the avgrage or the peak power, Ifthe same antenna is used for both tansmitting and receiving, as it usually is in cadar. antenna theory gives the relationship between transmit gain Gand the receive effective area Ae as G 5 : eA = wavelength (A =e/f where ¢ © velocity of propagation and f= frequency) ) tion effects in operation of radar (10) Ans, Electromagnetic wavetionts travel through empty space in straight lines at the speed of light, but the REFRACTIVE INDEX of the atmosphere affects bath the travel i nd the speed of the electromagnetic wavefront. The path followed by electromagnet : sa 5; in the atmosphere, whether divect or reflected, usually is slightly curved; and the speed i naieeea by temperature, atmospheric pressure, and the amount of Water vapor present mee me meee which all affect the refractive index. As altitude ineveases, the combined eltects ofthese intleenea: under normal alnosplieric conditions, cause a sivall, uniform increase in signal speed The fone in speed causes the travel path to curve slightly downward, as shown in fist), The dome ny curve extends the radar horizon beyond line tangent to the earth, as illustiated in fee The reason for the downward curve ean be illustrated using line AB in heer represents the surfact of wavettont with point A higher in altitude than point Bagh AB moves to the point represented by A°B", the speed at A and A’ is faster than ihe eee rs B’ since A and A’ are at a greater altitude, Theretore, in a given time, the upper pa as nig wavefront moves farther than the lower part, The wavetvont leans slightly formeelac nace Since the direction of energy propagation is always perperidicular to the surtnee of wenden ee © the tilted wavefront causes the energy path to curve downward, eee Q.4.(b) Explain propa‘Radar and Sonar Engine 94 Hs aed . : SSS} fon Se oS Earth Surface Fig.(1) : Waveform Path : Radartine of sight Optical range- Radar range far 55.77 miles Radar range given weather condition 77.3 miles \ Fig.(2) : Extension of the Radar Horizon Refraction : Refraction is the bending of electron the density of the medium through which the waves electromagnetic refraction is.the apparent displacement __ bending of light as it passes from the ati Index of Refraction : degree of refraction, or bending, caused by different substances, Be magnetic waves caused by a change in are passing. A visible example of of underwater objects caused by the mosphere into the water, of the atmosphere T certain conditions the uch a situation is ‘called ide. However, tinde temperature may first increase with height and then begin to decrease, S| a temperature inversion. ‘ Moisture Lapse : An even more important deviation from ocean. Since the atmosphere close to the surface over large bodies of water may contain more than a normal amount of moisture, the moisture content may decrease more rapidly athe: just above the sea. This effect is referred to as MOISTURE LAPSE, Ducting : Either temperature inversion or moisture Cause a large change in the refraction index of the lowest fow-hundred, feet of the Atmosphere. The result is a greater bending of the radar waves Passing through the abnormal condition. the increased bending ins such a situation is referred to as DUCTING and may greatly attéet radar Performance. The radar horizon. inay be extended or redu pending on the direction the radar waves are bent. The effect of ducting on radar waves is illustrated in fig.(3). normal may exist over the lapse, alone or in Conbination, can Heed, depNo Duct Ducting effect on the Radagginve oh, wn radar pepfornance is cased by particles suspended e h absorption, reflection, ijiffuse aydar energy throug! ‘aagequently, the returgsecho is smaller. The ries widely with weather coriditions. The her conditions such as affected by weat ended in the air can greatly decrease the Another effect of the atmosphere 0! in the air. Water droplets and dust particles and scattering so less ent strikes the target. rall effect is a reduction in usable range thar? ar the frequency of a radar system, the mor clouds, In come parts of the world, dust Z gram of FMCW°ridar and explain its working.“ (10) d CW (FMCW#Radar : The transmitter in a CW radar is de range of the target nor sense which particular stant, This major drawback éan.be eliminated by | even it increases the bandwidth. The spectrum ofa lication of modulation, amplitude, frequency. or rain normal range of high-frequency radar. Be Q.5.(a) Draw block diay Ans, Frequency Modulate not modulated. Therefore jt can neither provi cycle of oscillation is being received at any in: frequency modulating the transmitted signal CW transmission can be broadened by the app! phase. An example of an amplitude modulation is eg “Theory of Operation : A widely used technique to broaden the spectrum of CW radar _ is to frequency - modulate the carrier. The timing mark is the changing frequency. The transit time is proportional to the difference in frequency between the echo signal and the transmitter signal. The greater the transmitter frequency deviation in a given time interval, the more accurate the measurement of the transit time and the greater will be the transmitted spectrum. By measuring the frequency of the retum signal, the time delay between, transmission and can reception be measure and therefore the range: determined as before. Of course, the amount of frequency ‘Modulation must be significantly greater than the expected doppler shift or the results will be he pulse radar.” affected. increase the.frequency. In other The simplest way to modulate the wave is to linear words, the transmitted frequency will change at a constant rate. The FMCW system measures the instantaneous difference between the transmitted and received fequencies. Af. This diffrence is directly proportional tothe time delay, A. whiel je takes the radar signal to reach the target and return. From this the range can be found using the usual formula, i) Rec x M2 The time delay can be found as follows: . Sree Sa Ar=T x AMf.-f) Giy where: = maximum frequencyRadar anil Souar Engineering % /~ minimum frequency T~ period of sweep from £10 / ; and AY the difference between transmitted and received NAA Received Froquency Transmitted Frequency Fig (a): FMCW Radar Theory of Operation ‘ ‘Tx Antenna : Fu Frequency Saw Tooth Transmitter Modulator Generaiar Mor ¢@———)_Amptitier | Limiter | Froquenny _Countsy Cisior) PEW Rudy, Hx Antenna Fig (b) | Block Diagram of Simple PN ‘There isa slight problem, which occurs when the sweep resets the frequeney, and the frequency difference becomes negative (as show Min the plot of AYvs, time). The SYSTEM Uses discriminator to clip off the negative signal, leaving only the Positive part, which is directly pro- Portionial to the range. : Combining these equations (i) &(ii) into asingle form for the range SANB.Tech., 1 Semesen Sitved papers. Dée 2019 5 iii) Re cll (f-f) ~ 2 eceived frequel Where Af is the difference between the transmitted and received frequency (when both ive) are from the same sweep, ie. when it is po: A block diatom istraing the principle of Of the transmitter signal acts as the reference sigma D hieaa aon ala eve, Ideally, the isolation between transmitting and Vine a acetty ito the receiver via a Cane reduce to a negligible fevel the transmitter ae ae coupling between the antennas. ‘The beat fr. a amplitude fluctuations. The frequency oFamp! : counting frequency meter calibrated in FEM-CW radar is shown in Fig.(b). A portion required to produce the beat frequency. ft is is made sufficiently lar h arvives at the receiver quency is amplitied and limited to remov' tude limited beat note is usually measured with a cycle d receiving ante teakage, whi tance. Q.5.(b) Diseuss Doppler effect in detail and explain working of Pulse Bay Radar. Pa i Ans. Doppler effect: The Doppler effect is a frequeney shift that ees motion between a frequency source and a listener. The Doppler shift is sete Coe speed between source and listener, frequency of the source and the speed the wave (speed of or eles metic). Esp : itis well ee Bae of optics and acoustic that ifeither the suorce of oscillation or the observer of the oscillation is in motion, an apparent shift in frequency will result. This is the Doppler effect and is the basis of continuous wave(ew) radar: If, suppose the range to the target is r and the wavelength A. The energy travel from the radar antenna to the target and from target to the radar than the total wavelength is given by 24 ?and there is 27 radian is the phase change. The unit for R and the A is considered same. As the energy travel two-way so then the total phas change () is b= In x APA rad oF a. =4n-R/A rad The # will change continuously as the target is in motion so the phase will also change accordingly. A change in phase with respect to the time may be culied as angular frequency («) may be given by w= Inf = debidt =(4n I) (Rat) Therefore, w= 4nbri, ~ (AR = Yr) 3 Where, d= Doppler frequency shift divat is the radial velocity (meter with time, ec) or rate of change of range Pulse Doppler Radar + Pulse radar is a combination of pulse radar and CW radar. It works on the principal of Doppler shift as MTT radar follows. As per the Nyquist Criterion the sampling rote (Le. PRE) should be ereater and equal to the twiee of the dapplet shift frequency but in MTT duc to use of low frequency its became under sampled 1 will leads to ambien estimation of target speed and occurence of blind speed, where tet appears stations ved unresolvable against ack ground cuter. Pulse Doppler radar being high PRE radar yon remove the doppler ambiguities, To extract the doppler shit information ofthe earir the pulse08 Radar and Sonar Engineering radar should be modified by introducing a coherent oscillator (COHO) for frequency stability in at oti tees ei radar system: th nitter and receiver chain. 1 employs the coherent rad . Palse Doppler radar is classified as high PRE and as medium PRE. in high PRE. pulse radar there is ambiguity in the range but mambiguities in the velocity. In the medium PRE pulse adar there is ambiguities in range and velocity both. The block diagram of Pulse Doppler Radar is shown as Fig (a) below pena es Stato. : f ;— Prese | __ oe | Detector Jaf ransetar| a Leckog o cOHS | Fig,(a) : The block diagram of Putse Doppler Radar ASTALO (stable local oscillator) is used to allow. the phase of transmitter signal to be maintained by a locking mixer. The output of locking mixer given to lock the COHO phase and inum it serves as reference phase for.the detector at intermediate frequency. Now the phase detector measures the difference.in phase between two RF signal. Due to the target motion the phase path of the echo changes pulse to pulse and by the same amount phase difference will vary, F ‘ A Fag Unit — HT Q.6.(2) With the help of block diagram discuss operation.of MT1 radar using Range gated Doppler filters. (0) Ans. In order to separate moving targets from stationary clutter, the delay line canceller has been widely used in MTI radar. Quantizing the time in to small interval can eliminate the loss of range information and collapsing loss, This process is known as the range gating where width depends on range accuracy desired, After quantizing the radar return to range interval, the output from each gate is applied to a narrow band filter, A block diagram of the video of an MT! radar using multiple range gates followed by clutter rejection filter is shown in fig.(1), Here the range giites sample the output of the phase detector sequentially range interval. Each range open in sequence just long enough to sample the voltage of the video waveform Corresponding to a different range interval in space or it acts as a switch/gate which open and close at the Proper time. The output of the range gate is given to a circuit known as box car generator, Its function is to aid in the filtering and detection process enhancing the fundamental of the modulation frequency and eliminating harmonies of the PRE. The clutter rejection filter is nothing bute band Pass filler whose bandwidth band width depends on the extent of the expected clutter spectrum, The filtered output trom the Doppler filter is further feed to a full wave linear detector Which convert the bipolar video to unipolar video. A99 B.Tech, 7 Semeser Solved papers, Pee 2019 vonay video to the threshok detection elicult, Any thexe unipok The outputs frons each range channels low pass filter or integrator passes a ignal crosses the threshold fevel is treated a8 4 EMEEE TO are combined! for dispiay-on the PPD or any other display uot fect wae | [tow 4 gL rn wna > a ofa face fet oon sh To data display ‘e Range Fant Gatos Rango],f Box ron {| Car Gon ny of MTT Radar using Ram so) Pee Dotector we Gate and Doppler Filter. Fig.(1) : Block d Relative Response os Fig.(2) : Frequency response characteristies of MTT Radar using Range Gate and Doppler Filter. The presentation of this type of MT radar is far better than the display from normal MTI radar: ; The freqiiency-response characteistics of an MTI radar using vange gates and filter is, shown in fig.(2), the shape of the rejection band is mainly determined by the shape of the band pass filter. : ‘ It must be pointed out that the MT! radar using range gates and filters is more complex then an MTI with single delay line canceller a better MTI performance hieved froma better match between clutter filter characteristics and élutter spectrum, Q.6.(b) Explain functioning and operation of Coherent AMT radar. (10) Ans. MTT From Moving Platform(AMTH ; When the radar is mounted on a ship or an aircraft and it is in motion, the detection ofa moving target in presence of clutter becomes: more difficult than when it is stationary, The doppler ferquency shift of the chitter varies with the ion angle to the clutter, and clutter appears to be in radar in compatison to a ship borne direction of antenna in azimuth and the cle motion. The design of an MTT is more critic radar due to the higher speed and the gre with airborn range of elevation angle,Radurand Sonar Engineering 100 od on a moving platform is called AMT radar Set the letter An MTI radar when used w furvatfianse- rade; the FelailVé Gluitét velocky lepends on Rah aceasta cali clutter relative io ths alréraft velocity vector. In addition eine wnerne ena of the clutter, its spectrum is also saienes Mie spectral wt canbe oan oppose Hy eondetiog the diferent of the Doppler resuency. fd = vd) cos O . or A fi» 2v? sin 0 AO where y= platforms speed A= wavelength O= Azimuth angle If the beam width is taken as AU, then A fi represents a measure of the width of doppler frequency spectrucm. The effect of platform velocity may be considered as havirig two compo- Yeats, one is in the direction of antenna Pointing and the other is normal to the direction of antenna pointing. : pact Coherent AMTI + However, in general all MTI techniques can bé applied to the AMTI but itis usually more diffecult to achieve good MT radar. The coherent MTI. radar may be.used as AMTI radar. The frequency of the Coho is shifted to compensate for the relative velocity of the radar platform with respect to the clutter, ‘The block diagram of coherent ANTI is shown as Fig. In this, a doppler-frequency oscillator is being used, which isa tuned oscillator, The output of this oscillator is made to be Proportional to references, : ‘The signal is coherent with the transmitted signal but itis shifted in frequency velocity of clutter. : : é The frequency since the relative clutter velocity changes with the dir effective doppler frequency of the ground clutter of interestand make the doppler compensation of ‘narrow pencil beam may be used in which changes in Doppler accur as antenna is’scanned in angle, _ Non-Coherent AMT: Due to less weight and space ‘occupied. by a non-coherent MTI, it is being preferred in ai crafts. The non-coherent AMT is limited, as its ground based counter part, by the need for sufficient clutter signal to provide the references upon which the doppler fluctuations may be detected, Fluctuation Caused by