Interamerican Journal of Psychology, 197.

3, 7, 1-2 S e c c io n E s p e c ia l

CO U N SELIN G AND G U ID A N C E: WHAT W IL L TH EY

BECO M E IN T H E R EM A IN IN G YEARS OF T H E
T W EN T IET H C E N T U R Y ?

Edwin L. Herr
The Pennsylvania State University
U.S.A.

Speculating about the form and substance of counseling and guidance

two or three decades into the future is fraught with the likelihood that
one’s pronouncements will be composed of a large error quotient. To do
so at all assumes that man will not destroy himself during the period being
forecast, that students will still be wrestling with identity questions, that
students will still have choices to contemplate. Taking an optimistic view,
this paper accepts these conditions as likely and contends that the services
subsumed by the rubric “counseling and guidance” will become more
rather than less viable responses to student needs in the decades immedi­
ately ahead.
W'hile the future specifics of counseling and guidance can at best be
extrapolations from current trends, there is ambiguity about how different
from today they will be. In other words, will counseling and guidance
services be extensions and refinements of what exists today or completely
different. There are current factors and forces which are pushing for change
of revolutionary magnitude; there are also other forces supportive of
change in counseling and guidance but within the general parameters of
these services as they have evolved since the beginning of the twentieth
century.
Regardless of whether the changes in counseling and guidance are par­
tially or totally different from what exists in the 1970’s, the seeds of these
transmutations are likely to already be growing. The following sections
will identify those concepts and forces which appear most likely to have
an impact on the future characteristics of change in counseling and guid­
ance. The reader is cautioned, however, not to view these possibilities as
probabilities or the probabilities as certainties. The contigency factors
which operate to constrain or oppose each of these outcomes are diverse
and subtle.
SYSTEMS THINKING
Lloyd-Jones (1970) has suggested that man’s view of himself and the

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world has undergone at least three sweeping revolutions. The first two
had to do with man as a tender of plants and man as a tender of machines.
However, with the pervasive effects of the electronics age, man is begin­
ning to have another totally new view of himself as one who can develop
and maintain systems. A systems approach does not use the idea of parts
geared into other parts, but that of interacting aspects, all changing as
they act on other aspects and as they are acted upon.
During the past thirty years or so, the systems approach has been ap­
plied to problems of warfare and the development of weaponry, the manu­
facturing of products, and, recently, to the delivery of human services.
Such an approach suggests that if you wish to attain some outcome —i.e.
a student who possesses vocational maturity, an institution which provides
a psychological climate that is mentally healthy — you build toward that
goal by taking into consideration the functional relations between parts,
elements and components which make it up (Herr and Cramer, 1972). In
essence, you attempt to understand a problem whole and to account for
the effects of different actions you might take to resolve it. Basically, a
systems approach to educational or to psychological problems requires
such steps as the following:
1. Translate the broad aims of the enterprise into objectives which are
explicit and operational.
2. Design the procedures which are intended to accomplish these ob­
jectives, identify the relevant variables which the procedures are in­
tended to order and change, and construct a model which suggests
a priori and consequent relationships among the identified variables.
3. Implement the model and evaluate the results of the innovation in
terms of the operationally stated objectives.
The implications of systems thinking have affected counseling and guid­
ance at several levels. Perhaps the most influential of these levels has been
in terms of stating objectives. Counseling and guidance has historically
experienced difficulty in articulating what its purposes are. This difficulty
has been expressed in resurgent demands for role and function studies or
other responses to role identity crises.
Shaw (1968) has contended that frequently one finds in descriptions of
guidance services simple inventories of what will be done (e.g., individual
counseling, testing) rather than a rationale expressing why anything is to
be done at all or the objectives which the guidance services are to meet.
Shaw has further maintained, as have other observers, that when guidance
objectives are stated, they are stated in such gross terms (e.g.. to assist

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students to be happy or successful) that they can not be operationalized

or they do not represent areas which call upon skills or competencies
unique to guidance practitioners. Krumboltz speaking to these points
states specifically that ' it is crucial that we conceptualize human problems
in ways that s u g g e s t possible steps we can take to help solve them.” Fur­
ther, “they must be translated into specific kinds of behavior appropriate A
to each client’s problems so that everyone concerned with the counseling
relationship knows exactly what is to be accomplished” ( Krumboltz, 1966).
The future will likely bring greater specificity to expectations for coun­
seling and guidance efforts and a greater eclecticism to their implementa­
tion. Several responses to systems thinking and the lack of specificity in
the objectives and direction of the counseling and guidance effort are now
underway which may presage th e future. For example, the State of Wash­
ington has just completed a school counselor certification plan which calls
for behaviorally stated performance standards related to client outcomes.
Professional identity and involvement are encouraged through counselor
self-assessment against specific performance criteria, individualized train­
ing and s e lf-r e n e w a l programs, and lifelong professional development
plans (Brammer and Springer, 19 71). Specifically, the statements of par­
ameters of counselor behavior include such examples as the following:
1.0 The c o u n se lo r facilitates goal achievement o f specific clients or
client populations. The term client refers to anyone who seeks in­
formation from or consults with a specialist. Included among the
counselor’s clients are:
1 .1 Students
1.2 Teachers
1.3 Administrators
1.4 Colleagues
1.5 Parents
1.6 C o m m u n ity' Representatives
1.7 Employers

3.0 As appropriate, the counselor is able to elicit responses from clients

and goal facilitators ( 1.1 - 1.2) which include one or more of the
following:
3.1 Specific informational responses
3.2 G e n e r a l informational responses
3.3 Affective responses
3.31 Feelings about self

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3.32 Feelings about others

3-33 Feelings about self in relation to others
3.34 Feelings about self in relation *o environmental factors
3-35 Other
3.4 Cognitive responses

3.5 Commitment responses

4.0 Together with a specific client or specific client population or goal

facilitators, the counselor realistically (4.1 vs. 4.2) identifies the
contributions he can make toward the achievement or approxima­
tion of specific goals:
4.1 Ideal goals
4.2 Realistic goals within an estimated time limit
4.3 Immediate goals

9.0 From within the framework of a selected rationale (8.0), the coun­
selor interacts with specific clients or specific client populations and
with significant elements in the client’s life space in a manner which
enables the client to achieve or approximate the goals (4.0) toward
which both have agreed to work (Springer and Brammer, 1971).
In addition to the examples of the parameters of counselor behavior
given, the same levels of specificity and detail are applied to modes of in­
teraction. context of interaction, types of information to be exchanged, and
evaluation of counselor-client interaction.
It is likely that the emergence of attempts to specify quite precisely the
characteristics of school counselor behavior, the modes of interaction with
different student concerns relative to different problem contexts, and other
pertinent areas will also yield a variety of alternative, functional approaches
to human services. This in turn will lead to the requirement for systematic
management of human service systems by which the delivery of subsys­
tems or alternatives in the systems can be tailored to individual needs. This
may occur within the context of pupil personnel services or some other
model of the delivery' of interactive services. Further, this will involve con­
cerns for differentiated staffing, tise of paraprofessionals, new career lad­
ders for counseling and guidance personnel and other similar modifications
to existing procedures and models (Ehrle, 1972).
MICROCOUNSELING AND SIMULATION
Other trends at least partially attributable to systems thinking are micro­

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counseling and simulation. These approaches have begun to influence

counselor training programs. Fundamentally, microcounseling is an ap­
proach in which trainees work with volunteer “clients” in brief counseling
interviews in order to acquire specific behaviors (Kelly, 19 71). The as­
sumption on which both microcounseling and simulation are based is that
“realistic” samples of expected professional behavior can be developed so
that trainees can rehearse professional competencies under supervision
without posing difficulties for “real” clients. Obviously, the analysis of
counselor behaviors, modes of interaction, types of information which
counselors use with different clients, as these were cited above, represent
a large repertoire of specific behaviors which a counselor needs and which
can be learned in separate “packages.” A number of current applications
of such packages exist. For example, W ittm e r and Lister (1972) and
Panther ( 1971 ) have trained counselors in consultation skills through the
use of video taping. Fredrickson and Popken (1972) have used similar
simulation techniques in training directors of guidance to deal with such
problems as guidance staffing, budgeting and program development. Hack­
ney (1971) developed a pre-practicum counseling skills model which in­
cluded specific training in such skills as learning to tolerate and use silence
as a tool, learning to listen and learning to identify feelings through verbal
and n o n v e rb a l communication channels. Danish (1971) has developed a
film-simulated counselor training model which uses a series of filmed emo­
tional vignettes: (a) to increase trainee self-awareness and (b) to provide
the trainee a basic repertoire of counseling behaviors. Higgins, Ivey and
Uhlemann (197°) have developed a programmed approach to teaching
behavioral skills emphasized in mutual communication which they have
entitled media therapy. Ivey, Normington, Miller, Morrill and Haase
(1968) have developed a set of instructional materials designed to facili­
tate the learning of the following counseling skills:
1. Attending behavior
a. Eye contact
b. Postural position, movement, gestures
c. Verbal following (counselor’s responding to a client’s comment
without introducing new data)
2. Reflection of feeling
3. Summarization of feeling
Such approaches to the preparation of counseling and guidance person­
nel have moved from separate packages dealing with specific techniques
to the structure for total programs of counselor preparation in such places

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as Stanford University and Michigan State University (Horan, 1972). One

can only expect that such approaches to counselor preparation will grow
in numbers and status in the future.

TECHNOLOGY
Systems thinking, microcounseling and simulation all relate in some way
to technology as an idea or as a term describing the uses of mechanical
devices. Walz (1970), for example, has suggested that “The future of guid­
ance could well depend on the capacity of the counseling profession to
utilize technology effectively.” The microcounseling and simulation ap­
proaches just identified which are used to train counselors in some set of
skills rely on devices — e.g., films, video taping, programmed manuals —
to illustrate or reinforce the behaviors to be acquired. But these devices
are not confined to preparing counselors. They are being used in a variety
of ways to assist clients alter their behavior. Games, work samples, films,
film strips, problem solving kits, computers used for information retrieval
or as interactive systems with which clients can have a dialogue are each
examples of forms of technology which can help counselors facilitate ex­
ploratory behavior, information-seeking skills, awareness of alternatives
or contingency factors, decision-making strategies and a host of other possi­
bilities for client activity. While these forms of technology make it possible
for counselors to do old things in new ways or to do things which were
never possible before, they also introduce new problems of confidentiality,
privacy, and management of personal data. They further require that the
counselor become familiar with the capabilities, the limitations, and the
procedures for use of a wide range of technological concepts or devices.
Beyond that, however, they tear at the historical images of the counselor
and stimulate the need for sharpening or new directions. Role and func­
tion questions are not answered by the availability of man-machine sys­
tems or counselors and technology coming into new symbiotic relation­
ships; they are simply reordered and changed.

THE COUNSELOB AS APPLIED BEHAVIORAL SCIENTIST

It seems presently apparent that the counseling and guidance practi­

tioner of the future will become increasingly eclectic in his professional
behavior and increasingly empirical in his attempts to determine his effec­
tiveness. Thoresen (1969) and. more recently, Berdie (1972) have sug­
gested the need for the counselor to become an applied behavioral scien­

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tist. Thoresen suggests the need for such an emphasis because: “It is
almost as though what goes on in the name of counseling could be de­
scribed as a ‘happening,’ that is a cluster of somewhat unconnected random
events. Seldom do we actually know of the consequences of our efforts/’ It
is his contention that the rigidities of theoretical dogma or the obscurity
of complex abstractions to describe human problems or counseling methods
need to give way to the systematic evaluation of a variety of techniques
applied to a range of human problems.
Berdie who is less optimistic about the survival of counseling in its tra­
ditional senses recommends that it be replaced by a discipline called ap­
plied behavioral science. While Thoresen seems to support the evolution
of counselors into applied behavioral scientists, Berdie suggests essentially
beginning again with new training programs, new expectations, and new
emphases. He contends that counseling and guidance have failed to dem­
onstrate their ability to satisfy basic and continuing needs of individuals
and hence have not been accepted by society1. However, his model applied
behavioral scientist will be able to apply very specifically a wide range of
theories, ideas, and concepts which have empirical bases and coherence
for solving a broad range of human problems.
To suggest a movement toward applied behavioral science is not to
suggest that other perceptions no longer persist. Certainly the skepticism
about the effects of technology on man’s “humaneness” continues to occupy
a place in the professional literature. For example, Gamboa, Kelly and
Koltveit (1972) have addressed their perception of the humanistic coun­
selor in a technocratic society. They have indicated that, “because educa­
tion is committed to human growth and improvement, educators must
accept technology and at the same time deal with the dehumanization that
is its by-product.” Their solution to the onslaught of technology upon all
aspects of life is for the school counselor to assist others in developing a
humane educational environment within the school or to conceive such
experiences as will enhance the humanization process.
The perceptions just cited are natural extensions of humanistic psychol­
ogy as it has appeared in the work of such persons as Frankl (1959)5 Mas-
low (1965). May (1961) or Rogers (1961) or as it has been manifested in
T-groups, encounter groups and other similar consciousness raising ex­
periences. All of these share in common the intent of helping the individual
act in more positive, meaningful ways interpersonally; to help him become
more sensitive to himself and to others; to help him be more aware and
empathic.
HERR

Until fairly recently, humanistic psychology and applied behavioral

science tended to be viewed dichotomously. as though they represented
polarities rather than differences in emphasis. It is likely that this disso­
nance will be diminished in the future. For example, Thoresen (1972)
currently speaks of behavioral humanism as a way of translating human­
istic concerns into human response terms in such a way as to encourage
systematic and scientific inquiry about the “overt and covert processes that
influence the actions of individuals.”

THE COUNSELOR AS CHANGE AGENT

The forces which are pushing the counselor toward becoming an applied
behavioral scientist are also heightening the pressure for him to individual­
ize or tailor his responses to students or clients. That is to say, counselors
are increasingly being encouraged to depart from the traditional one-to-
one relationship with counselees and, instead, to adapt and use any ethical
technique which will result in the appropriate altered behavior. In addi­
tion, counselors are being encouraged to look outside of the person for
resolution of certain types of problems and in so doing to treat the environ­
ment rather than the person.
Treating the environment can mean in gross terms “environmental modi­
fication” or “environmental manipulation.” Environmental modification
may mean assisting others in changing the reinforcement schedules pro­
vided a particular person, or becoming more encouraging or supportive of
a given student, or developing diverse learning experiences attuned to a
wider range of student needs than was previously possible. Environmental
manipulation, on the other hand, may mean actually removing a person
from one environment and placing him in another more congenial to his
needs or to repairing his educational deficits.
Regardless of whether one practices environmental modification or
manipulation, these techniques give rise to the counselor being described
as a change agent (Baker and Cramer, 1972), environmental engineer,
manipulator, or behavioral engineer (Arbuckle, 1971; Mathew, 19 71).
These roles, in addition to a focus on the environment as the object of con­
cern, also suggest that the counselor of the future might have minimal
personal involvement with the students with whom he works; in essence,
since his energies will be expended 011 making the psychological climate
more positive he will proffer his skills indirectly rather than directly in be­
half of students.

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CHANGING THEORETICAL MODELS FOR COUNSELING

AND GUIDANCE

Berdie has suggested, when addressing the characteristics of the prep­

aration for the counselor of the future (the applied behavioral scientist),
that the present counselor’s difficulty is “not that he has too much theory,
but rather too little. He does not have enough ideas and concepts to under­
stand the problems that face him or to develop approaches and solutions
to these problems.” Thus, he recommends that in the future counselors
should be well acquainted with theories of the following types: social in­
fluence, reinforcement and learning, cognitive development, field, psycho­
analytic, trait-and-factor, role, decision, organizational and vocational de­
velopment. Further, he maintains that counselor insights from anthropol­
ogy, economics and sociology will need to have increased attention.
Tyler seems to echo awareness that the conceptual background for
counseling and guidance efforts is less than complete when she states:
“Perhaps more than it needs answers, at this juncture counseling research
needs new questions —questions not about what cou n selors do but about
the developmental process they are attempting to promote.” She argues
that the dominant personality theories “give us useful conceptual tools
with which to tiiink about what is wrong with a person and how it might
be set right, but not to consider the question: What might this person
do?” (Tyler, 1969, p. 21).
In response to Tyler’s concerns are the implications radiating from
evolving knowledge and theory about career development. One of the
axioms which has gained wide agreement in the dieoretical approaches
describing career development is that decision-making is a process which
has a longitudinal character. It finds its roots in early childhood and ex­
tends throughout one’s life. Indeed, it appears that the process of career
development is intimately associated with the process of personality de­
velopment more broadly conceived. In essence, every individual has a
cumulative history which continues to express itself in present choice-
making behavior and in one’s orientations to the future. Decision-making,
then, involves translations of how one has come to view himself and his
orientation to the past, present, and future as this is expressed in what he
thinks he can do, what he chooses to do, and what he does.
Collectively, these views of career development and of choice behavior
indicate that how man views himself and his choice possibilities is a learned
characteristic based upon the accuracy and scope of the information one
has about the self, environmental opportunities, planning, ways of pre­

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paring oneself for what he chooses and ways of executing what one has
planned. In other words, career development does not unfold unerringly
from some chromosomal or genetic mechanism but is primarily a function
of learned responses, whether negative or positive in their results.
The current state of career development theory is such that a variety of
developmental tasks (Super, Starishevsky, Matlin and Jordaan, 1963; Herr
and Cramer, 1972), elements or themes (Herr, 1972) can be identified
which can be used to answer tentatively such questions as “What can man
do?” “What behaviors do individuals need to acquire an information pro­
cessing strategy?” or “What knewledge, attitudes, values or skills comprise
decision-making prowess?” Thus, career development theory as presently
constituted provides a powerful stimulus to considering counseling and
guidance as having two functional roles: stimulation or treatment (Herr
and Cramer, 1972). Stimulation is essentially synonymous with develop­
ment. In this role, counselors can create experiences by which students
will develop the attitudes, knowledge, and skills conducive of personal
competence in decision-making. On the other hand, career development
provides the structure for a cognitive map of potential conflicts by which
counselors can serve in a treatment capacity for certain students.
Mathewson (1970) has indicated that since 1950, the development of
the individual’s ability to make his own choices and to direct his own af­
fairs has become an overriding concern; recurrent needs and problems
are seen as opportunities to foster individual capacity for self-determina­
tion. Thus, to a growing degree in the future, counseling and guidance
shall “employ educative (not impositional) processes aimed at fostering,
on a developmentally graduated scale, the capabilities of the individual
for self-direction. . . . In these educative forms of guidance, the guidee will
be looked upon as a learner and the counselor as an educator who provides
—or helps to provide —special forms of learning experience, who aids the
learner to interpret and evaluate his experiences and his approaches to
experiences, and who accompanies the learner as he shapes his autobio­
graphical pattern among many subject matter, over many years of school­
ing, and through many types of personal and social experiences (Mathew­
son, 1970, p. 14 1).
In a more global conceptual sense than is presently found in career de­
velopment theory, Foa and Turner (1970) argue that by the year 2000 we
can expect to experience an integration of behaviorism and psychophysiol­
ogy; a movement from the study of single behavioral variables to organ­
ized behavioral wholes; a greater knowledge of structural dynamics —

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liovv behavioral patterns become progressively differentiated as one ma­

tures; more attention to the notion that cultures are complex learning pro­
grams which have different structures and emphases among them of
importance to the understanding of persons of ethnicity, racial or social
differences.
Such a perspective validates the growing importance of a developmental
theory or structure — for example, career development theory —to guide
the stimulative efforts of counseling and guidance. In addition, it also adds
credence to the growing perspective that many problems experienced by
counselees are indeed problems of learning. Thus, insights into operant
and classical conditioning, reinforcement, contingency management, as
well as social learning, modeling, vicarious reinforcement will experience
growing attention as conceptual structures for counseling and guidance
effors.
It is important to note that concerns for development are not confined
to decision-making, choice behavior, or information processing. Mosher
and Sprinthall (19 71), for example, have promoted the importance of de­
veloping personal or psychological maturity of the self. This requires, of
course, not only theories about abnormal behavior but, more importantly,
models of human effectiveness. It imputes increasing vitality to questions
like “What is self-actualized behavior?” “What are the constellation of
traits which comprise psychological maturity?” “How did persons so de­
scribed acquire such characteristics?” “What are the possibilities of man
and his nature?” ‘ How can human fulfillment be described and assessed
as well as facilitated by changes in psychological climates?” (Walker,
1967, pp. 451-452). Such concerns will likely spur new emphases on ego
psychology and the psychology of personal dynamics or interpersonal dy­
namics as these have been identified at other points in tins paper.

OTH ER EM ERG IN G T R EN D S

Spatial limitations preclude an adequate examination of other trends

which possess, like those already identified, the potential to influence the
shape and character of counseling and guidance in the next quarter cen­
tury. Many of them arc refinements or variations of the trends already
identified. Among them are such possibilities as:
1. As it becomes increasingly clear that human behavior is complex it
will become equally clear that no one group of specialists can effect
substantial behavioral change alone. Thus, it can be expected that
guidance and counseling specialists will operate increasingly on a

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collaborative basis with other professionals (Harris, 1969). In es­

sence, there will be a growing affirmation of the teamwork concept
among school counselors and other pupil personnel specialists as
well with teachers, parents, and representatives of various communi­
ty agencies ( Dugan, 1963).
■1. The counseling and guidance profession will place more emphasis
in the future on preventative emphases, rather than operating prin­
cipally as a remedial or ex post facto approach to counseling students
with problems. In this sense, counseling and guidance personnel will
become active rather than reactive in the discharge of their profes­
sional responsibilities. Long-term guidance efforts will begin in the
pre-school period and continue throughout adult life ( Harris, 1969 ).
As a result, there will be steady incremental increases in the pro­
vision of counseling and guidance in the elementary school and a
significant increase of out-reach activities from the school counselor
to the unemployed dropout and floundering young adult.
3. The increase in the delivery of guidance services in the intermediate
future will likely be a function of growing numbers of nonprofes­
sionals being used in combination with various forms of technology.
It is unlikely in the foreseeable decades that there will be enough
professionally trained counselors available to meet the demands for
sendee.
4. It is likely that increasingly effective group guidance and counseling
procedures will be used to help youth clarify problems, to rehearse
coping mechanisms, and to serve as the context for simulation of
different styles of chance behavior.
5. The perspectives of counseling and guidance will stress more fully
in the future concern about guiding the individual as he chooses
among a multiplicity of life styles and value commitments rather
than vocations in the narrow sense of that term.
6. Because of a growing thrust toward clarification and definition of
professional status for counseling and guidance personnel at all edu­
cational levels, public and legislative support for these practitioners
will grow. Part of this outcome will be related to the evolution of
higher quality controls in school counselor selection, preparation,
and certification (Dugan. 1963).
7. As the world moves toward the end of the century, counseling and
guidance will serve a more cosmopolitan clientele whose concerns
¿ire international in focus. The techniques and insights which under­

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gird the skills of the counseling and guidance professional of this

period will be less parochial or national in origin than is currently
the case and will symbolize a synthesis of techniques with a world­
wide empirical base.

SUMMARY
This paper has contended that while it is difficult if not dangerous to
predict the future, there are current trends which give promise of having
major impact on counseling and guidance during the next quarter century.
From the vantage point taken here the most prominent trends are: systems
thinking, microcounseling and simulation, technology, the counselor as ap­
plied behavioral scientist and the counselor as change agent. Given the
continuing interaction between counseling and guidance and political and
social realities, dramatic changes in the latter will likely transform the
former in ways w'hieh can not be predicted. It can only be hoped that what­
ever future changes occur in counseling and guidance result in effects which
expand and free man’s “humaneness” toward himself and his fellows rather
than restrict it.

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