Community Research and Action

Aims of Community Research

• Prevention of problems
• Conducting surveys and awareness programs
• To develop sense of community
• Need assessment of the different sectors of
community
• Developing effective interventions
• Conducting research
• Promoting quality of life in various members
of community
 Methods of Community Research
Both quantitative and qualitative:

• Observation
• Survey
• Case study
• Interviews
• Focus group discussions
• Field experiments
• Ex post facto research
 Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory
research. It provides insights into the problem
or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for
potential research. Qualitative Research is
also used to uncover trends in thought and
opinions, and dive deeper into the problem.
Qualitative data collection methods vary using
unstructured or semi-structured techniques.
 Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research is used to quantify the
problem by way of generating numerical data
or data that can be transformed into usable
statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes,
opinions, behaviours, and other defined
variables and generalize results from a larger
sample population. Quantitative data
collection methods are much more structured
than Qualitative data collection methods.
 Observation
Controlled Observation:
Controlled observations (usually a structured
observation) are likely to be carried out in a
psychology laboratory. The researcher decides where
the observation will take place, at what time, with
which participants, in what circumstances and uses
a standardised procedure.
Limitations:
Controlled observations can lack validity due to the
Hawthorne effect. When participants know they are
being watched they may act differently.
Strengths:
1. Controlled observations can be easily replicated.
This means it is easy to test for reliability.
2. The data obtained from structured observations is
easier and quicker to analyze as it is quantitative,
making this a less time consuming method
compared to naturalistic observations.
3. Controlled observations are fairly quick to conduct
which means that many observations can take
place within a short amount of time.
 Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation (i.e. unstructured observation)
involves studying the spontaneous behaviour of
participants in natural surroundings. The researcher
simply records what they see in whatever way they
can.
Strengths:
• By being able to observe the flow of behaviour in its
own setting studies have greater ecological validity.

• Like case studies naturalistic observation is often used

to generate new ideas. Because it gives the researcher
the opportunity to study the total situation it often
suggests avenues of enquiry not thought of before.
Limitations:
• These observations are often conducted on a micro
(small) scale and may lack a representative sample
(biased in relation to age, gender, social class or
ethnicity). This may result in the findings lacking the
ability to be generalized to wider society.
• Natural observations are less reliable as other variables
cannot be controlled. This makes it difficult for another
researcher to repeat the study in exactly the same way.
• A further disadvantage is that the researcher needs to be
trained to be able to recognise aspects of a situation
that are psychologically significant and worth further
attention.
• With observations we do not have manipulations of
variables (or control over extraneous variables) which
means cause and effect relationships cannot be
established.
 Participant Observation
It means the activities of a group in which an observer
himself participate and note the situation. He willingly
mixes with the group and perform his activities as an
observer not merely a participator who criticize the
situation. In other words he takes place and share the
activities with his group.
For example: when we study the rural and urban
conditions of Asian people, we have to go there and
watched what is going on. The best philosophy of
participant observation is that we watch the phenomena
not to ask. The actual behaviour of the group can be
observed only by participant observation not by any
other method.
Merits:
• The observer is personally involved in group
activities and shares their feelings and
prejudices.
• He participate himself and get insight into the
behaviour of the group.
• It motivates and stimulates mutual
relationship b/w the observer and observe.
• He can get more information with accuracy
and precision.
Demerits:
• The observer may develop emotional
attachment to his group which will lose the
objectivity of the study.
• Cannot observe a certain phenomenon in a
short time available to him.
• Cannot cover a wide area through this
method.
 Non-Participant Observation
• The non-participant observation has a lack of
participation of the observer in his group activities. He
either watch the phenomena from a distance or
participate in the group but never in its activities. He only
sit in the group but do not interest in the process.
• The difference between participant & non-participant
observation is that, the observer himself take part in a
group and become the member of that group also
participate in their activities with full fledge.
• In non-participant observation, he watch from a distance
and do not participate in the activities.
Merits:
• Although observer himself never attach to the group but
the objectivity maintained.
• Less emotional involvement of the observer leads to
accuracy and greater objectivity.
• Through non-participant observation the research
remains very smooth.
Demerits:
• Do not have full knowledge about the group activities.
• Cannot understand the whole phenomena.
• Cannot get real and deep insight into the phenomena.
 Survey
A survey is a data collection tool used to gather
information about individuals. Surveys are
commonly used in psychology research to collect
self-report data from study participants. A survey
may focus on factual information about
individuals, or it might aim to obtain the opinions
of the survey takers. Surveys are one of the most
commonly used research tools and can be utilized
to collect data.
• A survey can be used to investigate the
characteristics, behaviours, or opinions of a group
of people.
• A survey can be administered in a couple of different
ways. In one method known as a structured
interview, the researcher asks each participant the
questions. In the other method known as a
questionnaire, the participant fills out the survey on
his or her own.
• Surveys are generally standardized to ensure that
they have reliability and validity. Standardization is
also important so that the results can be generalized
to the larger population.
 Advantages of using Survey
• Surveys allow researchers to collect a large amount
of data in a relatively short period.
• Surveys are less expensive than many other data
collection techniques.
• Surveys can be created quickly and administered
easily.
• Surveys can be used to collect information on a
broad range of things, including personal facts,
attitudes, past behaviors and opinions.
 Disadvantages of Using Surveys
• Poor survey construction and administration can
undermine otherwise well-designed studies.
• The answer choices provided on a survey may not be
an accurate reflection of how the participants
actually feels.
• The social desirability bias can lead people to
respond in a way that makes them look better than
they really are. For example, a respondent might
report that they engage in more healthy behaviours
than they do in real life.
 Types of Survey Data Collection
Some of the most common ways to administer survey
include:
Mail - An example might include an alumni survey
distributed via direct mail by your alma mater.
Telephone - An example of a telephone survey would
be a market research call about your experiences with
a certain consumer product.
Online - Online surveys might focus on your experience
with a particular retailer, product or website.
At home interviews - The U.S. Census is a good
example of an at-home interview survey
administration.
 Case Studies
• Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single
person, group, event or community. Typically, data
are gathered from a variety of sources and by using
several different methods (e.g. observations
& interviews). The research may also continue for an
extended period of time, so processes and
developments can be studied as they happen.
• Case studies are often conducted in clinical medicine
and involve collecting and reporting descriptive
information about a particular person or specific
environment.
In psychology, case studies are often confined to
the study of a particular individual. This
information is mainly biographical and relates to
events in the individual's past, as well as to
significant events which are currently occurring
in his or her everyday life.
 Sources of Information Used
• Direct observation: This strategy involves observing the subject,
often in a natural setting. While an individual observer is
sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of
observers.
• Interviews: One of the most important methods for gathering
information in case studies. An interview can involve structured
survey-type questions or more open-ended questions.
• Documents: Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records,
etc.
• Physical artifacts: Tools, objects, instruments and other artifacts
often observed during a direct observation of the subject.
• Participant observation: Involves the researcher actually serving
as a participant in events and observing the actions and
outcomes.
 Types of Case study
• Explanatory case studies are often used to do causal
investigations. In other words, researchers are
interested in looking at factors that may have actually
caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies are sometimes used as a
prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows
researchers to gather more information before
developing their research questions and hypotheses.
• Descriptive case studies involve starting with a
descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed and
the information gathered is compared to the pre-
existing theory.
• Intrinsic case studies are a type of case study in which
the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean
Piaget's observations of his own children are good
examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute
to the development of a psychological theory.
• Collective case studies involve studying a group of
individuals. Researchers might study a group of people
in a certain setting or look at an entire community of
people.
• Instrumental Case Studies: This case study type allows
researchers to interact more with the individual or
group. Researchers gather information that is not
readily observable to them by persuading the case
study.
Strengths of Case Studies:
• Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further research.
Limitations of Case Studies:
• Can’t generalize the results to the wider population.
• Researchers' own subjective feeling may influence
the case study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time consuming.
 Interview
The interviewer in one-to-one conversation
collects detailed personal information from
individuals using oral questions. The interview is
used widely to supplement and extend our
knowledge about individual(s) thoughts, feelings
and behaviours Or how they think they feel and
behave. Interviews can give us
both quantitative and qualitative data about
participants' thoughts, feelings and behaviours.
Structured Interview:
• This is also known as a formal interview (like a job interview).
• The questions are asked in a set / standardized order and the
interviewer will not deviate from the interview schedule or
probe beyond the answers received (so they are not flexible).
Strengths:
• Structured interviews are easy to replicate as a fixed set of
closed questions are used, which are easy to quantify – this
means it is easy to test for reliability.
• Structured interviews are fairly quick to conduct which means
that many interviews can take place within a short amount of
time. This means a large sample can be obtained resulting in
the findings being representative and having the ability to be
generalized to a large population.
Limitations:
• Structure interviews are not flexible. This means
new questions cannot be asked during the
interview.
• The answers from structured interviews lack
detail as only closed questions are asked which
generates quantitative data. This means a
research will won't know why a person behaves
in a certain way.
 Unstructured Interview
• These are sometimes referred to as ‘discovery
interviews’ & are more like a ‘guided conservation’
than a strict structured interview. They are sometimes
called informal interviews.
• An interview schedule might not be used, and even if
one is used, they will contain open-ended
questions that can be asked in any order. Some
questions might be added / missed as the Interview
progresses.
Strengths:
• Unstructured interviews are more flexible as questions
can be adapted and changed depending on the
respondents’ answers. The interview can deviate from
the interview schedule.

• Unstructured interviews generate qualitative data

through the use of open questions. This allows the
respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own
words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense
of a person’s understanding of a situation.

• They also have increased validity because it gives the

interviewer the opportunity to probe for a deeper
understanding, ask for clarification & allow the
interviewee to steer the direction of the interview etc.
Limitations:
• It can be time consuming to conduct an unstructured
interview and analyze the qualitative data (using
methods such as thematic analysis).

• Employing and training interviewers is expensive,

and not as cheap as collecting data
via questionnaires. For example, certain skills may be
needed by the interviewer. These include the ability
to establish rapport & knowing when to probe.
 Focus Group Discussions
A focus group discussion (FGD) is a good way to
gather together people from similar backgrounds
or experiences to discuss a specific topic of
interest. The group of participants is guided by a
moderator (or group facilitator) who introduces
topics for discussion and helps the group to
participate in a lively and natural discussion
amongst themselves.
 Limitations of Focus Group Discussion
• Unlike questionnaires and interviews, the Focus Group
Discussion method is not a good way to obtain
numerical information,
• When interpreting the information gathered through
FGD, one should remember that the consensus that
usually forms in a group does not necessarily represent
the opinions of all the members. Frequently, a few
individuals tend to dominate the discussion and the
less assertive people tend not to contribute. Thus, FGD
may not be a representative method of data
collection.
 Field Experiments:
Field Experiments take place in real-life settings such
as a classroom, the work place or even the high
street. Field experiments are much more common in
sociology than laboratory experiments.
Advantages:
• Better external validity
• Larger Scale Settings
Limitations:
• Deception/ Lack of Informed Consent is an issue
• Reliability is a problem
• Extraneous variables
 Ex Post Facto
An ex post facto research design is a method in which
groups with qualities that already exist are compared
on some dependent variable. Also known as "after the
fact" research, an ex post facto design is considered
quasi-experimental because the subjects are not
randomly assigned - they are grouped based on a
particular characteristic or trait.
For example, a researcher is interested in how weight
influences self-esteem levels in adults. So the
participants would be separated into differing groups
(underweight, normal weight, overweight) and their
self esteem levels measured. This is an ex post facto
design because a pre-existing characteristic (weight)
was used to form the groups.
Merits:
• It is considered as a very relevant method in those
behavioural researches where the variables can not
be manipulated or altered
• It is more useful than an experimental research as it
can be used in analysing a cause on basis of the
effect, which is impossible in an experimental
research.
• It is less time consuming as well as economical.
Limitations:
• As discussed earlier, in an ex-post facto research, the
researcher can not manipulate the independent
variables.
• The researcher can not randomly assign the subjects
to different groups.
• The researcher may not be able to provide a
reasonable explanation for the relationship between
the independent and dependent variables under
study.
 Models of Mental Health
1. Clinical Models:
In this model patient is the victims of a
psychiatric condition, therefore professional
care must be imposed by society, for his sake
and the welfare of others. It is in this sense that
the model is described as custodial. Patient are
often committed involuntary, but even if
admitted at their own request, the hospital
takes over the major responsibility for their
lives. The patient condition is usually viewed as
a diseases likely of biological origin. Patient are
given drugs, electroshock, and other somatic
therapies.
Therapeutic:
What is common to all approaches within
“therapeutic” model is faith in the efficacy of
psychological intervention of one or another sort,
for bringing about desirable changes in patient. In
this model clinicians work directly with the patient
and Interventions are offered by professionally
trained mental health worker.
2. Community Model
At the clinical pole, intervention methods are
generally of the same type as in the therapeutic
model, though adapted to the special needs and
life style of particular communities.
Service is offered in setting that are less
professional frequently in collaboration with
family members and community “caretakers”
sometime with the help of specially trained
community members.
The present problems of the client and his
immediate social behaviour are more the focus
concern than his life history, personality
organisation and functioning.
Public Health Pole:
Here the shift is from direct involvement with the
human problems of particular people toward efforts
to alter some of the social condition which affect
whole communities. The family, schools, police,
factory and social ecology in which the person lives
are more important then the thinking, feelings or
actions of that person.
3. Social Action Model:
According to this model the goals of mental health
might be best achieved by influencing major social
programme. The social action model focuses
on structural inequalities as the root cause of
community distress. It argues that the medical
model of curing the individual is only a 'band aid'
approach. The main aim of the social action model
of community psychology is to mobilise
communities to put pressure on institutions to
bring about the necessary structural changes that
will improve the quality of people’s lives.