Unit 2: Research Process

Before embarking on the details of research methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate to

present a brief overview of the research process. Research process consists of series of actions or

steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps. The

chart shown in Figure 1 well illustrates a research process.

The chart indicates that the research process consists of a number of closely related activities, as

shown through I to VII. But such activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly

prescribed sequence. At times, the first step determines the nature of the last step to be

undertaken. If subsequent procedures have not been taken into account in the early stages,

serious difficulties may arise which may even prevent the completion of the study. One should

remember that the various steps involved in a research process are not mutually exclusive; nor

they are separate and distinct. They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order and

the researcher has to be constantly anticipating at each step in the research process the

requirements of the subsequent steps. However, the following order concerning various steps

provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the research process: (1) formulating the

research problem; (2) extensive literature survey; (3) developing the hypothesis; (4) preparing the

research design; (5) determining sample design; (6) collecting the data; (7) execution of the

project; (8) analysis of data; (9) hypothesis testing; (10) generalisations and interpretation, and

(11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions

reached.

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1. Formulating the research problem:

There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those

which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher must single out

the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a

subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad

general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the

feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the

problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus,

constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating

the research problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into

meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.

The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with

those having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the

help from a guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind.

Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow it

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down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In private business units or in governmental

organisations, the problem is usually earmarked by the administrative agencies with whom the

researcher can discuss as to how the problem originally came about and what considerations are

involved in its possible solutions.

The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted

with the selected problem. He may review two types of literature—the conceptual literature

concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made

earlier which are similar to the one proposed. The basic outcome of this review will be the

knowledge as to what data and other materials are available for operational purposes which will

enable the researcher to specify his own research problem in a meaningful context. After this the

researcher rephrases the problem into analytical or operational terms i.e., to put the problem in

as specific terms as possible. This task of formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step of

greatest importance in the entire research process. The problem to be investigated must be

defined unambiguously for that will help discriminating relevant data from irrelevant ones. Care

must, however, be taken to verify the objectivity and validity of the background facts concerning

the problem. Professor W.A. Neiswanger correctly states that the statement of the objective is of

basic importance because it determines the data which are to be collected, the characteristics of

the data which are relevant, relations which are to be explored, the choice of techniques to be

used in these explorations and the form of the final report. If there are certain pertinent terms,

the same should be clearly defined along with the task of formulating the problem. In fact,

formulation of the problem often follows a sequential pattern where a number of formulations

are set up, each formulation more specific than the preceeding one, each one phrased in more

analytical terms, and each more realistic in terms of the available data and resources.

2. Extensive literature survey:

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Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory

for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the topic and

submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval. At this juncture the

researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this

purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are

the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books

etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be

remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to

the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher

at this stage.

3. Development of working hypotheses:

After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or

hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its

logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research hypotheses are

developed is particularly important since they provide the focal point for research. They also

affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the

quality of data which is required for the analysis. In most types of research, the development of

working hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the

piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the

researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his

thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem. It also indicates the

type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.

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How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the following

approach:

(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in

seeking a solution;

(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,

peculiarities and other clues;

(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and (d) Exploratory

personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale with interested

parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the

problem.

Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the subject, examination of

the available data and material including related studies and the counsel of experts and interested

parties. Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms. It

may as well be remembered that occasionally we may encounter a problem where we do not

need working hypotheses, specially in the case of exploratory or formulative researches which do

not aim at testing the hypothesis. But as a general rule, specification of working hypotheses in

another basic step of the research process in most research problems.

4. Preparing the research design:

The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required

to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which

research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as

efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of research design

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is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and

money. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research

purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis,

and (iv) Experimentation. A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering

many different aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research

study is that of exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a

situation or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one that minimises

bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed.

There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis

testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-and-after without

control, after-only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal designs (such as

completely randomized design, randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and complex

factorial designs), out of which the researcher must select one for his own project.

The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves

usually the consideration of the following:

(i) the means of obtaining the information;

(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);

(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised and

the reasoning leading to the selection;

(iv) the time available for research; and

(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.

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5. Determining sample design:

All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A

complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be

presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance is left and

highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element of

bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observations increases.

Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey

or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and

energy. Not only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For

instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items

from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically

called a sample.

The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the

sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are

actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to select 12 of a

city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design. Samples can be either

probability samples or non-probability samples. With probability samples each element has a

known probability of being included in the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow

the researcher to determine this probability. Probability samples are those based on simple

random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-

probability samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota

sampling techniques.

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In practice, several of the methods of sampling may well be used in the same study in which case

it can be called mixed sampling. It may be pointed out here that normally one should resort to

random sampling so that bias can be eliminated and sampling error can be estimated. But

purposive sampling is considered desirable when the universe happens to be small and a known

characteristic of it is to be studied intensively. Also, there are conditions under which sample

designs other than random sampling may be considered better for reasons like convenience and

low costs. The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into

consideration the nature of the inquiry and other related factors.

6. Collecting the data:

In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence,

it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the

appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at

the disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be collected either through experiment or

through survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative

measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his

hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following

ways: (i) By observation; (ii) Through personal interview; (iii) Through telephone interviews; (iv) By

mailing of questionnaires; (v) Through schedules.

The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into consideration

the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, finanical resources, available time

and the desired degree of accuracy. Though he should pay attention to all these factors but much

depends upon the ability and experience of the researcher. In this context Dr A.L. Bowley very

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aptly remarks that in collection of statistical data commonsense is the chief requisite and

experience of the chief teacher.

7. Execution of the project:

Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of the

project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable.

The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the

survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-

processed. In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. If the data

are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and

training of the interviewers. The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which

explain clearly the job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to

ensure that the interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently. A careful watch

should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much realistic as possible.

This, in other words, means that steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under

statistical control so that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard

of accuracy. If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods should be

designed to tackle this problem. One method of dealing with the non-response problem is to

make a list of the non-respondents and take a small sub-sample of them, and then with the help

of experts vigorous efforts can be made for securing response.

8. Analysis of data:

After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them. The

analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of

categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then

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drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few

manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data

into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage

through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and

counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the

stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified

data are put in the form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A

great deal of data, especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only

save time but also make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem

simultaneously.

Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages,

coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis,

relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be

subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any

conclusion(s). For instance, if there are two samples of weekly wages, each sample being drawn

from factories in different parts of the same city, giving two different mean values, then our

problem may be whether the two mean values are significantly different or the difference is just a

matter of chance. Through the use of statistical tests we can establish whether such a difference is

a real one or is the result of random fluctuations. If the difference happens to be real, the

inference will be that the two samples come from different universes and if the difference is due

to chance, the conclusion would be that the two samples belong to the same universe. Similarly,

the technique of analysis of variance can help us in analysing whether three or more varieties of

seeds grown on certain fields yield significantly different results or not. In brief, the researcher can

analyse the collected data with the help of various statistical measures.

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9. Hypothesis-testing:

After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if

any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be

contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various

tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the purpose.

The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the

nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the

hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalisations

established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent

researches in times to come.

10. Generalisations and interpretation:

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at

generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability

to arrive at certain generalisations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might

seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process

of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further

researches.

11. Preparation of the report or the thesis:

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report

must be done with great care keeping in view the following:

1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,

and (iii) the end matter.

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2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague

expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.

3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the

information more clearly and forcibly.

4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced

in conducting research operations may as well be stated.

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