Gas compressor

A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing
its volume. Compression of a gas naturally increases its temperature.

Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can
transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces
the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible, so the main action of a pump
is to transport liquids.

Types of compressors

As shown above, there are many different types of gas compressors. The two primary
categories are:

 Positive displacement compressors with two sub-categories:

o Reciprocating
o Rotary
 Dynamic compressors also with two sub-categories:
o Centrifugal
o Axial

The more important types in each of the four sub-categories are discussed below.

 Centrifugal compressors
 Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors
 Axial-flow compressors
 Reciprocating compressors
 Rotary screw compressors
 Scroll compressors
 Diaphragm compressor

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Miscellany

Air compressors sold to and used by the general public are often attached on top of a tank
for holding the pressurized air. Oil-lubricated and oil-free compressors are available. Oil-
free compressors are desirable because without a properly designed separator, oil can
make its way into the air stream. For some purposes, for example as a diving air
compressor, even a little oil in the air stream may be unacceptable.

Temperature

Charles's law says "when a gas is compressed, temperature is raised". There are three
possible relationships between temperature and pressure in a volume of gas undergoing
compression:

 Isothermal - gas remains at constant temperature throughout the process. In this

cycle, internal energy is removed from the system as heat at the same rate that it is
added by the mechanical work of compression. Isothermal compression or
expansion is favored by a large heat exchanging surface, a small gas volume, or a
long time scale (i.e., a small power level). With practical devices, isothermal
compression is usually not attainable. For example, even a bicycle tire-pump gets
hot during use.
 Adiabatic - In this process there is no heat transfer to or from the system, and all
supplied work is added to the internal energy of the gas, resulting in increases of
temperature and pressure. Theoretical temperature rise is T2 = T1·Rc ((k-1)/k)) , with T 1
and T 2 in degrees Rankine or kelvins, and k = ratio of specific heats
(approximately 1.4 for air). The rise in air and temperature ratio means
compression does not follow a simple pressure to volume ratio. This is less
efficient, but quick. Adiabatic compression or expansion is favored by good
insulation, a large gas volume, or a short time scale (i.e., a high power level). In
practice there will always be a certain amount of heat flow, as to make a perfect
adiabatic system would require perfect heat insulation of all parts of a machine.
 Polytropic - This assumes that heat may enter or leave the system, and that input
shaft work can appear as both increased pressure (usually useful work) and
increased temperature above adiabatic (usually losses due to cycle efficiency).
Cycle efficiency is then the ratio of temperature rise at theoretical 100 percent
(adiabatic) vs. actual (polytropic).

Staged compression

Since compression generates heat, the compressed gas is to be cooled between stages
making the compression less adiabatic and more isothermal. The inter-stage coolers cause
condensation meaning water separators with drain valves are present. The compressor
flywheel may drive a cooling fan.

2
For instance in a typical diving compressor, the air is compressed in three stages. If each
stage has a compression ratio of 7 to 1, the compressor can output 343 times atmospheric
pressure (7 x 7 x 7 = 343 Atmospheres).

Prime movers

There are many options for the "prime mover" or motor which powers the compressor:

 gas turbines power the axial and centrifugal flow compressors that are part of jet
engines
 steam turbines or water turbines are possible for large compressors
 electric motors are cheap and quiet for static compressors. Small motors suitable
for domestic electrical supplies use single phase alternating current. Larger
motors can only be used where an industrial electrical three phase alternating
current supply is available.
 diesel engines or petrol engines are suitable for portable compressors and support
compressors used as superchargers from their own crankshaft power. They use
exhaust gas energy to power turbochargers

Applications

Gas compressors are used in various applications where either higher pressures or lower
volumes of gas are needed:

 in pipeline transport of purified natural gas to move the gas from the production
site to the consumer.
 in petroleum refineries, natural gas processing plants, petrochemical and chemical
plants, and similar large industrial plants for compressing intermediate and end
product gases.
 in refrigeration and air conditioner equipment to move heat from one place to
another in refrigerant cycles: see Vapor-compression refrigeration.
 in gas turbine systems to compress the intake combustion air
 in storing purified or manufactured gases in a small volume, high pressure
cylinders for medical, welding and other uses.
 in many various industrial, manufacturing and building processes to power all
types of pneumatic tools.
 as a medium for transferring energy, such as to power pneumatic equipment.
 in pressurised aircraft to provide a breathable atmosphere of higher than ambient
pressure.
 in some types of jet engines (such as turbojets and turbofans) to provide the air
required for combustion of the engine fuel. The power to drive the combustion air
compressor comes from the jet's own turbines.
 in SCUBA diving, hyperbaric oxygen therapy and other life support devices to
store breathing gas in a small volume such as in diving cylinders .
 in submarines to store air for later use as buoyancy.

3
  in turbochargers and superchargers to increase the performance of internal
combustion engines by concentrating oxygen.
 in rail and heavy road transport to provide compressed air for operation of rail
vehicle brakes or road vehicle brakes and various other systems (doors,
windscreen wipers, engine/gearbox control, etc).
 in miscellaneous uses such as providing compressed air for filling pneumatic tires.

DETAILS OF TYPES OF COMPRESSORS

Centrifugal compressor

Jet Engine cutaway showing centrifugal compressor

Centrifugal compressors, (sometimes referred to as radial compressors) are a special

class of radial-flow work-absorbing turbomachinery that includes pumps, fans, blowers
and compressors.

The earliest forms of these dynamic-turbomachines were pumps, fans and blowers. What
differentiates these early turbomachines from compressors is that the working fluid can
be considered incompressible thus permitting accurate analysis through Bernoulli's
equation. In contrast, modern centrifugal compressors are higher in speed and analysis
must deal with compressible flow.

4
For purposes of definition, centrifugal compressors often have density increases greater
than 5 percent. Also, they often experience relative fluid velocities above Mach 0.3 when
the working fluid is air or nitrogen. In contrast, fans or blowers are often considered to
have density increases of less than 5 percent and peak relative fluid velocities below
Mach 0.3

In an idealized sense, the dynamic compressor achieves a pressure rise by adding kinetic-
energy/velocity to a continuous flow of fluid through the rotor or impeller. This kinetic
energy is then converted to an increase in static pressure by slowing the flow through a
diffuser.

Advantages

Centrifugal compressors are used throughout industry because they have fewer rubbing
parts, are relatively energy efficient, and give higher airflow than a similarly sized
reciprocating compressor (i.e. positive-displacement). Their primary drawback is that
they cannot achieve the high compression ratio of reciprocating compressors without
multiple stages. Centrifugal fan/blowers are more suited to continuous-duty applications
such as ventilation fans, air movers, cooling units, and other uses that require high
volume with little or no pressure increase. In contrast, multi-stage centrifugal
compressors often achieve discharge pressures of 8,000 to 10,000 psi (59 MPa to 69MPa)
re-injecting natural gas back into oil fields to increase oil production.

Centrifugal compressors are often used in small gas turbine engines like APUs (axillary
power units) and smaller aircraft gas turbines. A significant reason for this is that with
current technology, the equivalent flow axial compressor will be less efficient due
primarily to tip-clearance losses. There are few single stage centrifugal compressors
capable of pressure-ratios over 10:1, due to stress considerations which severely limit the
compressor's safety, durability and life expectancy.

For aircraft gas-turbines; centrifugal flow compressors offer several advantages including
simplicity of manufacture, relatively low cost, low weight, low starting power
requirements, and operating efficiency over a wide range of rotational speeds. In
addition, a centrifugal compressor’s short length and spoke-like design allow it to
accelerate air rapidly and immediately deliver it to the diffuser in a short distance. The
most significant drawback is the relatively larger frontal area/unit flow. For these reasons
and others, aircraft gas turbines that utilize centrifugal stages within the compressor tend
to be smaller and are used in turboshaft or turboprop applications (ref List of aircraft
engines). These smaller compressor configurations vary, but generally fall into one of
two categories; the axi-centrifugal and the 2-stage centrifugal. Tip speeds of centrifugal
compressors can often reach Mach-1.3. In current 2-stage gas-turbines, the high pressure
rise per stage allows these modern compressors to obtain overall compression ratios of
15:1.

5
Applications

A partial list of centrifugal compressor applications include:

 in pipeline transport of natural gas to move the gas from the production site to the
consumer.
 in oil refineries, natural gas processing plants, petrochemical and chemical plants
 in air separation plants to manufacture purified end product gases.
 in refrigeration and air conditioner equipment refrigerant cycles: see Vapor-
compression refrigeration.
 in industry and manufacturing to supply compressed air for all types of pneumatic
tools.
 in gas turbines and auxiliary power units
 in pressurized aircraft to provide atmospheric pressure at high altitudes.
 in automotive engine and diesel engine turbochargers
 in oil field re-injection of high pressure natural gas to improve oil recovery

Operating limits

Many centrifugal compressors have one or more of the following operating limits:

 Minimum Operating Speed - the minimum speed for acceptable operation, below
this value the compressor may be controlled to stop or go into an "Idle" condition.
 Maximum Allowable Speed - the maximum operating speed for the compressor.
Beyond this value stresses may rise above prescribed limits and rotor vibrations
may increase rapidly. At speeds above this level the equipment will likely become
very dangerous and be controlled to slower speeds.
 Stonewall or Choke - occurs under one of 2 conditions. Typically for high speed
equipment, as flow increases the velocity of the gas/fluid can approach the
gas/fluid's sonic speed somewhere within the compressor stage. This location may
occur at the impeller inlet "throat" or at the vaned diffuser inlet "throat". In most
cases, it is generally not detrimental to the compressor. For low speed equipment,
as flows increase, losses increase such that the pressure ratio drops to 1:1.
 Surge - is the point at which the compressor cannot add enough energy to
overcome the system resistance[3]. This causes a rapid flow reversal (i.e. surge).
As a result, high vibration, temperature increases, and rapid changes in axial
thrust can occur. These occurrences can damage the rotor seals, rotor bearings, the
compressor driver and cycle operation. Most turbomachines are designed to easily
withstand occasional surging. However, if the turbomachine is forced to surge
repeatedly for a long period of time or if the turbomachine is poorly designed,
repeated surges can result in a catstrophic failure. Of particular interest, is that
while turbomachines may be very durable, the cycles/processes that they are used
within can be far less robust.

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Diagonal or mixed-flow compressor

A diagonal or mixed-flow compressor is effectively a cross between a centrifugal and

axial-flow compressor. The American term diagonal-flow is very apt, because these
compressors combine both axial and radial velocity components. The prime advantage is
the relatively small diameter across the exit diffuser, compared with that of the equivalent
centrifugal compressor. A diagonal-flow compressor is featured in the Pratt & Whitney
Canada PW610F turbofan, recently certified for the Eclipse 500 Very Light Jet aircraft.
Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors are similar to centrifugal compressors, but have a
radial and axial velocity component at the exit from the rotor. The diffuser is often used
to turn diagonal flow to the axial direction. The diagonal compressor has a lower
diameter diffuser than the equivalent centrifugal compressor.

Axial compressor

Axial compressors are compressors in which the fluid flows mainly parallel to the
rotation axis. Axial flow compressors have large mass flow capacity and high
efficiencies, but have a smaller pressure rise per stage than centrifugal compressors.
Axial compressors are widely used in gas turbines, notably jet engines. Engines using an
axial compressor are known as axial-flow. Almost all modern engines are axial-flow, the
notable exception being those used in helicopters, where the smaller size of the
centrifugal compressor is useful.

Description

Axial compressors are essentially a steam turbine reversed; instead of high-pressure gas
flowing into the turbine and forcing it to rotate to provide power, in the compressor role,
power is provided from an external source in order to spin the system and compress the
gas.

Diagram of an axial flow compressor

A typical axial compressor has a rotor which looks like a fan with contoured blades
followed by a stationary set of blades, called a stator. As the diagram illustrates,
compressor blades/vanes are relatively flat in section. Turbine blades/vanes, on the other
hand, have significant curvature. Each pair of rotors and stators is referred to as a stage,
and most axial compressors have a number of such stages placed in a row along a
common power shaft in the center. The stator blades are required in order to ensure
reasonable efficiency; without them the gas would rotate with the rotor blades resulting in
a large drop in efficiency. Improvements can be made by replacing the stators with a

7
second set of fans rotating in the opposite direction, but these designs have generally
proven to be too complex to be worthwhile.

Each stage is smaller than the last, as the volume of air is reduced by the compression of
the preceding stage. Axial compressors therefore generally have a conical shape, widest
at the inlet. Compressors typically have between 9 and 15 stages.

In a jet engine the compressor is powered by a turbine placed in the hot exhaust, using up
some of its energy. In such a system axial compressors typically use between 60% and
65% of the engine's power in order to run. This explains why jet engines are not used in
cars; even when the car is standing still on idle, a turbine engine will still have to run
close to full power, thus drastically reducing efficiency. In aircraft this is not an issue,
since it is never on "idle" and its engine is always running close to full power for an
entire trip.

Axial-flow jet engines

Low pressure axial compressor scheme of the Olympus BOl.1 turbojet.

In the jet engine application, the compressor faces a wide variety of operating conditions.
On the ground at takeoff the inlet pressure is high, inlet speed zero, and the compressor
spun at a variety of speeds as the power is applied. Once in flight the inlet pressure drops,
but the inlet speed increases (due to the forward motion of the aircraft) to recover some of
this pressure, and the compressor tends to run at a single speed for long periods of time.

There is simply no "perfect" compressor for this wide range of operating conditions.
Fixed geometry compressors, like those used on early jet engines, are limited to a design
pressure ratio of about 4 or 5:1. As with any heat engine, fuel efficiency is strongly
related to the compression ratio, so there is very strong financial need to improve the
compressor stages beyond these sorts of ratios.

Additionally the compressor may stall if the inlet conditions change abruptly, a common
problem on early engines. In some cases, if the stall occurs near the front of the engine,
all of the stages from that point on will stop compressing the air. In this situation the
energy required to run the compressor drops suddenly, and the remaining hot air in the
rear of the engine allows the turbine to speed up whole engine dramatically. This
condition, known as surging, was a major problem on early engines and often led to the
turbine or compressor breaking and shedding blades.

8
For all of these reasons, axial compressors on modern jet engines are considerably more
complex than those on earlier designs.

Spools

All compressors have a sweet spot relating rotational speed and pressure, with higher
compressions requiring higher speeds. Early engines were designed for simplicity, and
used a single large compressor spinning at a single speed. Later designs added a second
turbine and divided the compressor into "low pressure" and "high pressure" sections, the
latter spinning faster. This two-spool design resulted in increased efficiency. Even more
can be squeezed out by adding a third spool, but in practice this has proven to be too
complex to make it generally worthwhile. That said, there are several three-spool engines
in use, perhaps the most famous being the Rolls-Royce RB.211, used on a wide variety of
commercial aircraft.

Bleed air, variable stators

As an aircraft changes speed or altitude, the pressure of the air at the inlet to the
compressor will vary. In order to "tune" the compressor for these changing conditions,
designs starting in the 1950s would "bleed" air out of the middle of the compressor in
order to avoid trying to compress too much air in the final stages. This was also used to
help start the engine, allowing it to be spun up without compressing much air by bleeding
off as much as possible. Bleed systems were already commonly used anyway, to provide
airflow into the turbine stage where it was used to cool the turbine blades, as well as
provide pressurized air for the air conditioning systems inside the aircraft.

A more advanced design, the variable stator, used blades that can be individually rotated
around their axis, as opposed to the power axis of the engine. For startup they are rotated
to "open", reducing compression, and then are rotated back into the airflow as the
external conditions require. The General Electric J79 was the first major example of a
variable stator design, and today it is a common feature of most military engines.

Closing the variable stators progressively, as compressor speed falls, reduces the slope of
the surge (or stall) line on the operating characteristic (or map), improving the surge
margin of the installed unit. By incorporating variable stators in the first five stages,
General Electric Aircraft Engines has developed a ten-stage axial compressor capable of
operating at a 23:1 design pressure ratio.

Bypass

For jet engine applications, the "whole idea" of the engine is to move air to provide
thrust. In most cases, the engine produces more power to move air than its mechanical
design actually allows. Namely, the inlet into the compressor is simply too small to move
the amount of air that the engine could, in theory, heat and use.

9
A number of engine designs had experimented with using some of the turbine power to
drive a secondary "fan" for added air flow, starting with the Metrovick F.3, which placed
a fan at the rear of a late-model F.2 engine. A much more practical solution was created
by Rolls-Royce in their early 1950's Conway engine, which enlarged the first compressor
stage to be larger than the engine itself. This allowed the compressor to blow cold air past
the interior of the engine, somewhat similar to a propeller. This technique allows the
engine to be designed to produce the amount of energy needed, and any air that cannot be
blown through the engine due to its size is simply blown around it. Since that air is not
compressed to any large degree, it is being moved without using up much energy from
the turbine, allowing a smaller core to provide the same mass flow, and thrust, as a much
larger "pure jet" engine. This engine is called a "turbofan."

This technique also has the added benefit of mixing the cold bypass air with the hot
engine exhaust, greatly lowering the exhaust temperature. Since the sound of a jet engine
is strongly related to the exhaust temperature, bypass also dramatically reduces the sound
of the engine. Early jetliners from the 1960s were famous for their "screaming" sound,
whereas modern engines of greatly higher power generally give off a much less annoying
"whoosh" or even buzzing.

Mitigating this savings is the fact that drag increases exponentially at high speeds, so
while the engine is able to operate far more efficiently, this typically translates into a
smaller real-world effect. For instance, the latest Boeing 737's with high-bypass CFM56
engines operates at an overall efficiency about 30% better than the earlier models.
Military turbofans, on the other hand, especially those used on combat aircraft, tend to
have so low a bypass ratio that they are sometimes referred to as "leaky turbojets."

Turbine cooling

The limiting factor in jet engine design is not the compressor, but the temperature at the
turbine. It is fairly easy to build an engine that can provide enough compressed air that
when burnt will melt the turbine; this was a major cause of failure in early German
engines which were hampered by the availabilty of high temperature metals.
Improvements in air cooling and materials have dramatically improved the temperature
performance of turbines, allowing the compression ratio of jet engines to increase
dramatically. Early test engines offered perhaps 3:1 and production engines like the Jumo
004 were about 4:1, about the same as contemporary piston engines. Improvements
started immediately and have not stopped; the latest Rolls-Royce Trent operates at about
40:1, far in excess of any piston engine.

Since compression ratio is strongly related to fuel economy, this eightfold increase in
compression ratio results in an increase in fuel economy for any given amount of power,
which is the reason there is strong pressure in the airline industry to use only the latest
designs.

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Design notes

Energy Exchange between rotor and fluid

The relative motion of the blades relative to the fluid adds velocity or pressure or both to
the fluid as it passes through the rotor. The fluid velocity is increased through the rotor,
and the stator converts kinetic energy to pressure energy. Some diffusion also occurs in
the rotor in most practical designs.

The increase in velocity of the fluid is primarily in the tangential direction (swirl) and the
stator removes this angular momentum.

The pressure rise results in a stagnation temperature rise. For a given geometry the
temperature rise depends on the square of the tangential Mach number of the rotor row.
Current turbofan engines have fans that operate at Mach 1.7 or more, and require
significant containment and noise suppression structures to reduce blade loss damage and
noise.

Velocity diagrams

The blade rows are designed at the first level using velocity diagrams. The velocity
diagram shows the relative velocities of the blade rows and the fluid.

The axial flow through the compressor is kept as close as possible to Mach 1 to maximize
the thrust for a given compressor size. The tangential Mach number determines the
attainable pressure rise.

The blade rows turn the flow through and angle ß and larger turning allows a higher
temperature ratio, but requires higher solidity.

Modern blades rows have lower aspect ratios and higher solidity.

Compressor maps

A map shows the performance of a compressor and allows determination of optimal

operating conditions. It shows the mass flow along the horizontal axis, typically as a
percentage of the design mass flow rate, or in actual units. The pressure rise is indicated
on the vertical axis as a ratio between inlet and exit stagnation pressures.

A surge or stall line identifies the boundary to the left of which the compressor
performance rapidly degrades and identifies the maximum pressure ratio that can be
achieved for a given mass flow. Contours of efficiency are drawn as well as performance
lines for operation at particular rotational speeds.

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Compression stability

Operating efficiency is highest close to the stall line. If the downstream pressure is
increased beyond the maximum possible the compressor will stall and become unstable.

Typically the instability will be at the Helmholtz frequency of the system, taking the
downstream plenum into account.

Reciprocating compressor

A motor-driven six-cylinder reciprocating compressor that can operate with two, four or
six cylinders.

A reciprocating compressor is a compressor that uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to

deliver gases at high pressure. [1] [2]

The intake gas enters the suction manifold, then flows into the compression cylinder
where it gets compressed by a piston driven in a reciprocating motion via a crankshaft,
and is then discharged. We can categorize reciprocating compressors into many types and
for many applications. Primarily, it is used in a great many industries, including oil
refineries, gas pipelines, chemical plants, natural gas processing plants and refrigeration
plants. One specialty application is the blowing of plastic bottles made of Polyethylene
Terephthalate (PET).

Rotary screw compressor

A rotary screw compressor is a type of gas compressor which uses a rotary type
positive displacement mechanism. The mechanism for gas compression utilises either a
single screw element or two counter rotating intermeshed helical screw elements housed
within a specially shaped chamber. As the mechanism rotates, the meshing and rotation
of the two helical rotors produces a series of volume-reducing cavities. Gas is drawn in
through an inlet port in the casing, captured in a cavity, compressed as the cavity reduces
in volume, and then discharged through another port in the casing.[1]

12
The effectiveness of this mechanism is dependent on close fitting clearances between the
helical rotors and the chamber for sealing of the compression cavities.

Rotary screw compressors are used in a diverse range of applications. Typically, they are
used to supply compressed air for general industrial applications. Trailer mounted diesel
powered units are often seen at construction sites, and are used to power air operated
construction machinery

Oil-flooded screw compressors

Diagram of a rotary screw compressor

In an oil-flooded rotary screw compressor, oil is injected into the compression cavities to
aid sealing and provide cooling sink for the gas charge. The oil is separated from the
discharge stream, then cooled, filtered and recycled. It is usual for some entrained
compressor oil to carry over into the compressed gas stream. In some applications, this is
[3]
rectified by coalescer/filter vessels.

Standard oil-flooded compressors are capable of achieving output pressures over 200
psig, and output volumes of over 1500 cubic feet per minute (measured at 60 °C and
atmospheric pressure).

Oil-free screw compressors

In an oil-free compressor, the air is compressed entirely through the action of the screws,
without the assistance of an oil seal. They usually have lower maximum discharge
pressure capability as a result. However, multi-stage oil-free compressors, where the air
is compressed by several sets of screws, can achieve pressures of over 150 psig, and
output volume of over 2000 cubic feet per minute (measured at 60 °C and atmospheric
pressure).

Oil-free compressors are used in applications where entrained oil carry-over is not
acceptable, such as medicial research and semiconductor manufacturing.

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Scroll compressor

Operation of a scroll compressor

A scroll compressor, also known as scroll pump and scroll vacuum pump, uses two
interleaved spiral-like vanes to pump or compress fluids such as liquids and gases. The
vane geometry may be involute, archimedean spiral, or hybrid curves.[1][2] [3][4][5] Often,
one of the scrolls is fixed, while the other orbits eccentrically without rotating, thereby
trapping and pumping or compressing pockets of fluid between the scrolls.

The device was first patented in 1905 but did not become commercially produced for air
conditioning until the early 1980’s. It waited for manufacturing to develop cost effect
methods for high-volume precision machining of these uniquely shaped parts.

These devices are known for operating more smoothly, quietly, and reliably than
conventional compressors in some applications. Unlike pistons, the orbiting scroll’s mass
can be perfectly counterbalanced, with simple masses, to minimize vibration. However,
Oldham coupling mass that ensures proper position of the orbiting scroll cannot be
balanced. The scroll’s gas processes are more continuous. The compression process
occurs over approximately 2 to 2½ rotations of the crankshaft, compared to one rotation
for rotary compressors, and one-half rotation for reciprocating compressors. The scroll
discharge and suction processes occur for a full rotation, compared to less than a half-
rotation for the reciprocating suction process, and less than a quarter-rotation for the
reciprocating discharge process. The more steady flow yields lower gas pulsations, lower
sound, lower vibration, and more efficient flow. The scroll compressors never have a
suction valve, but depending on the application may or may not have the discharge valve.
The use of the dynamic discharge valve is more prominent for high pressure ratio
applications, typical of refrigeration. Typically, the air-conditioning scroll does not have
dynamic valves. The use of dynamic discharge valve improves scroll compressor
efficiency over a wide range of operating conditions, when the operating pressure ratio is
well above the built-in pressure ratio of the compressors. However, if the compressor is
designed to operate near a single operating point, then the scroll compressor can actually
gain efficiency around this point if there is no dynamic discharge valve present (since
there are small additional discharge flow losses associated with the presence of the
discharge valve).

14
Efficiency

The scroll compression process is nearly one hundred percent volumetrically efficient in
pumping the trapped fluid. The suction process creates its own volume, separate from the
compression and discharge processes further inside. By comparison, reciprocating
compressors leave a small amount of compressed gas in the cylinder, because it is not
practical for the piston to touch the head or valve plate. That remnant gas from the last
cycle then occupies space intended for suction gas. The reduction in capacity (i.e.
volumetric efficiency) depends on the suction and discharge pressures with greater
reductions occurring at higher ratios of discharge to suction pressures.

Reliability

As for reliability, scroll compressors have fewer moving parts than reciprocating
compressors which, theoretically, should improve reliability. Conventional scroll
compressor designs have smaller available free volume (to accommodate refrigerant
flooding) compared to reciprocating compressors and have a greater tendency to ingest
liquid refrigerant in flooding conditions. Liquid flooding is known to occur in residential
split systems that are often installed by service technicians not familiar with (or not
concerned with) the proper method for charging a split system. Thus, residential split
systems are often overcharged, which can lead to refrigerant flooding. Reciprocating
compressors are more robust to such errors. Furthermore, since refrigerant lines in split
residential systems must be assembled on site under less than ideal conditions, a
substantial amount of debris is often introduced into the compressor. The larger free
volume in reciprocating compressors allows for more tolerance of debris than scroll
compressors. However, scrolls do not have suction valves, which is one of the most
vulnerable parts of the reciprocating compressor to liquid flooding. As a result, the
reliability of scroll compressors in residential cooling and heating applications has been
proven to be very competitive. Still, scroll compressors are primarily used in residential
heating and cooling systems to meet government-mandated efficiency standards
particularly for higher tonnages and customer noise requirements, not reliability
requirements.

In general, an accurate reliability comparison is not really available to those not in the
HVAC business. While manufacturers typically do not publish their reliability data,
holding it as proprietary and confidential, end users can analyze failure and warranty data
in order to assess reliability for their applications. What information does get published is
usually limited in scope and typically supports one product or the other as part of a
marketing campaign.

The strength of reciprocating machines in terms of liquid handling is in the large free
volume of the shell enclosure, which is mainly a result of the spring suspension required
by reciprocating compressors to limit vibration and noise and the weakness of
reciprocating machines is in the valve system. Design measures which normally increase
the robustness of the suction valves (thicker reeds, lower valve lift) unfortunately also

15
reduce the efficiency of the compressor so the ultimate design is a balancing act between
efficiency and reliability.

Size

Scroll compressors tend to be very compact and smooth running and so do not require
spring suspension. This allows them to have very small shell enclosures which reduces
overall cost but also results in smaller free volume. This is a weakness in terms of liquid
handling. Their corresponding strength is in the lack of suction valves which moves the
most probable point of failure to the drive system which may be made somewhat
stronger. Thus the scroll mechanism is itself more tolerant of liquid ingestion but at the
same time is more prone to experience it in operation. Comprehensive, objective
reliability comparisons are, as a rule, not available from any manufacturer.

Competition

The twenty or so years since scroll compressors were introduced to the market in the
1980s have seen a very heated competition between the newer scroll and the older
reciprocating compressor types which accounts in large part for the many different views
on, for example, reliability. The driving force behind this may be traced to the high
investment (in both R&D and capital tooling) needed to enter scroll compressor
production and the relative difficulty of adapting existing production equipment from
reciprocating to scroll compressors. Manufacturers which were heavily invested in
reciprocating compressor production have extracted maximum value from their
investment by reinvesting in reciprocating technology improvements. Prior to the
introduction of scroll compressors, progress in reciprocating technology was relatively
stagnant compared to more recent activity. However, it is worth noting that since the
introduction of the scroll compressor, the majority of investment in new production
capacity has been for the scroll type and most investment in reciprocating types has been
of a sustaining nature, that is in support of existing production capacity. Very few
manufacturers have built new reciprocating compressor factories while many have built
scroll factories. A company's decision to enter scroll production is often timed at least in
part on the obsolescence of existing production equipment.

Many residential central heat pump and air conditioning systems and a few automotive
air conditioning systems employ a scroll compressor instead of the rotary, reciprocating,
and wobble-plate compressors traditionally used.

Case study

In 2006 a major manufacturer of food service equipment, Stoetling, chose to change the
design of one of their soft serve ice cream machines from reciprocating to scroll
compressor. They found through testing that the scroll compressor design delivered better
reliability and energy efficiency in operation.

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Another method for producing the compression motion is co-rotating the scrolls, in
synchronous motion, but with offset centers of rotation. The relative motion is the same
as if one were orbiting. A scroll compressor operating in reverse is known as a scroll
expander, and can be used to generate mechanical work from the expansion of a fluid.

Partial loading

Until recently, scroll compressors operated at full capacity when powered. Modulation of
the capacity was accomplished outside the scroll set. In order to achieve part-loads,
engineers would bypass refrigerant (called hot-gas bypass), vary motor speed, or provide
multiple compressors and stage them on and off in sequence. Each of these methods has
drawbacks:

 Hot gas bypass short-cycles the normal refrigeration cycle and allows some of the
compressed gas to return directly to the compressor without doing any useful
work. This practice reduces overall system efficiency.

 A two-speed motor requires more electrical connections and switching, adding

cost, and may have to stop to switch.

 A variable speed motor requires an additional device to supply electrical power

throughout the desired frequency range.

 Compressor cycling requires more compressors and can be costly. In addition,

some compressors in the system may have to be very small in order to control
process temperature accurately.

Recently, scroll compressors have been manufactured that provide part-load capacity
within a single compressor. These compressors change capacity while running.

One method is to delay the start of compression. The beginning stages of compression are
vented back to suction. This reduces the amount of fluid that will be compressed. The rest
of the compression process is normal.

Another method is to stop discharging, intermittently. Instead of fixing the scrolls

together permanently, the scrolls are allowed to move apart periodically. As the scrolls
move apart, the motor continues to turn them. However, they are no longer able to
compress refrigerant, thus no work is performed and far less energy is used. The
compressor "engages" on a percentage of a given period equal to the load percentage
required. This type of scroll compressor capacity control through on-off cycling is
proprietary to a single major manufacturer which advertises it under the "Digital Scroll"
trade name.

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Diaphragm compressors

A diaphragm compressor (also known as a membrane compressor) is a variant of the

conventional reciprocating compressor. The compression of gas occurs by the movement
of a flexible membrane, instead of an intake element. The back and forth movement of
the membrane is driven by a rod and a crankshaft mechanism. Only the membrane and
the compressor box come in touch with the gas being compressed.

Diaphragm compressors are used for hydrogen and compressed natural gas (CNG) as
well as in a number of other applications.

The photograph included in this section depicts a three-stage diaphragm compressor used
to compress hydrogen gas to 6,000 psi (41 MPa) for use in a prototype hydrogen and
compressed natural gas (CNG) fueling station built in downtown Phoenix, Arizona by the
Arizona Public Service company (an electric utilities company). Reciprocating
compressors were used to compress the natural gas.

The prototype alternative fueling station was built in compliance with all of the
prevailing safety, environmental and building codes in Phoenix to demonstrate that such
fueling stations could be built in urban areas.

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