E3S Web of Conferences 92, 05006 (2019) https://doi.org/10.

1051/e3sconf/20199205006
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Creep behaviour of undisturbed London Clay in triaxial stress

space
Truong Le1,∗ , David Airey2 , and Jamie Standing3
1
Geolabs Limited; formerly at the University of Sydney
2
University of Sydney
3
Imperial College London

Abstract. The evolution of the creep strain component in triaxial stress space was investigated through
performing a series of multistage drained compression tests on London Clay using a specially designed lo-
cally instrumented triaxial apparatus. Experiments along specifically defined stress paths showed significant
rotation of the local creep strain component as the samples were sheared towards failure. The results indicate
a need for a more complex plastic potential function to correctly predict incremental creep strains at different
states in triaxial stress space. Creep deformations for stress path controlled drained compression tests were
also found to require a reinterpretation of the classic secondary compression behaviour. Creep strain-rates
were found to fall well outside the normal power decay function. Test data and previously reported drained
creep test results on London Clay have been combined to provide a complete understanding of the incre-
mental creep component. The experiments show how creep behaviour significantly depends on the stress
conditions imposed and the approaching strain rate.

1 Introduction solidation as related to settlement (where settlement fur-

ther increases after excess pore pressures have dissipated).
The effects of time on the strength and deformation be- Further, there is little interconnection between the two
haviour of soft and stiff clays have been the focus of nu- phenomena despite their obvious similarities. Second, the
merous investigations over the past few decades. Expand- problem of creep has primarily been investigated in terms
ing on the concepts of limit and critical states to describe of oedometer test results and therefore principally under
the behaviour of isotropic normally consolidated clays as one-dimensional conditions. As such, the findings from
originally proposed by Roscoe et al. [1] and Roscoe and these investigations are very limited in relation to in-situ
Burland [2], a number of other researchers [e.g. 3–5] have scenarios and creep in general stress space.
also demonstrated the that limit state applies to samples of Regarding the distinction between strength and defor-
intact overconsolidated clays. Tavenas [6] has shown that mation situations, Tavenas et al. [8] have concluded that
the shape of the limit state surface of a natural clay reflects the difference between creep and secondary consolidation
the stress anisotropy during deposition and consolidation. is mostly artificial. Combining the concept of the limit
Assuming that the time dependent framework proposed by state with the observed time effects, Tavenas et al. [10]
Bjerrum [7] could be applied to the entire limit state sur- have shown that the entire limit state surface of a natural,
face, Tavenas et al. [8] have shown that the volumetric and undisturbed clay is age and rate dependent. That is, when
shear strain components of creep deformations can be de- loading an overconsolidated aged clay, the measured pre-
scribed by referring to their position relative to the limit consolidation pressure will be a function of (a) the age of
state. Further, the results presented by Leroueil [9] have the clay and (b) the duration of loading, increasing propor-
shown that a general stress-strain-time function may ex- tionally with the rate of loading or strain rate.
ist which can be expressed in terms of the equation of the A number of researchers have suggested that aspects of
limit state surface. time-dependent phenomena, i.e., volumetric and shear de-
As previously highlighted by Tavenas [6], investiga- formations, strength variation and change in preconsolida-
tions into the effects of time-dependent behaviour have tion pressure are a result of a unique physical process and
suffered from two fundamental weaknesses. First, in- should therefore be captured in a single framework [e.g.
terpretations of soil behaviour have classically separated 8–11]. Starting with the classical assumption that time de-
problems involving stability from problems of settlement. pendent deformations, expressed as an increment of void
As a consequence, two separate long-term time effects ratio, ∆e, develop according to a function of the form
have been defined: creep as related to strength problems
(where strength increases with creep) and secondary con- ti + t
∆e = Cα log (1)
∗ e-mail: [email protected] ti

© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
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where Cα is the coefficient of secondary consolidation and

assumed to be a constant, ti is the origin of time and t is
time. This was later extended to the ’secondary consoli-
dation’ approach to model the development of volumetric
and axial strains with time, with the equation taking the
form

Cα ti + t
ε1 = v = log (2)
1 + e0 ti

where ε1 is strain measured in the vertical direction, v is

the volumetric strain and e0 is the initial void ratio. The
application of secondary consolidation to simulate in-situ
conditions has, however, been complicated due the re-
ported variation of Cα with applied stress and time [e.g.
12, 13]. Alternatively, the ’creep’ approach has resulted in
a general phenomenological equation for the variation of
axial strain rate, ε̇, with deviatoric stress, q, and time [14].
The creep equation typically takes the form

 t m Fig. 1. Stress conditions for which εv , ε1 , ε3 , ε s are zero, as ob-

1
ε̇ = Aeαq (3) tained from stress controlled tests on an undisturbed lightly over-
t
consolidated clay (modified from[8])
where A is a parametric constant and αq is a stress depen-
dent creep function. In both approaches, strains vary with
the logarithm of time. This therefore requires an arbitrary 2 Time-dependent deformations in
definition of the origin for time, ti . It is common for the general stress space
origin of time to be taken as equal to end-of-primary con-
solidation in Equation (2) and 1 day in Equation (3). A As is typical in soil mechanics, stress and strain vari-
major difficulty with both these approaches has been in ables are separated into compression–change of size–and
problems that involve applied loads that vary with time. In distortion–change of shape. For axisymmetric conditions
such cases, both the origin of time and change in effective of the triaxial test, mean effective octahedral stress p =
stress are not obvious. (σa + 2σr )/3 and deviatoric stress q = (σa − σr ), and
Rheological models of the forms the corresponding work-conjugate strain increments: vol-
umetric strain δε p = δεa + 2δεr and distortional strain
δεq = 2(δεa − δεr )/3 are used to describe conditions of
R(σv , e, σ̇v , ė) =0 (4) stress and strain in soils.
R(σv , e, ė) =0 (5) In triaxial stress space, Tavenas et al.[10] have shown
that there are zones for which different strain components
have been formulated to overcome the difficulty of an ori- become zero. Figure 1 shows an example of the various
gin of time by describing the behaviour of a material so stress conditions that result in a zero strain component
that it depends only on its present condition and not as a [10].
function of previous history [9]. Such models are equiva- By considering the use of strain energy as an indicator
lent to the ’isotache concept’ first suggested by Šuklje [15] for yielding of lightly overconsolidated clays, Tavenas et
as the rate of volumetric deformations are a unique func- al. [10] found that it was necessary to integrate all compo-
tion of the void ratio and the effective stress. Tavenas et al. nents of the strain tensor to describe the stress-strain be-
[8] demonstrate how the concept of isotaches can be ex- haviour. Consequently, it was found that a ’threshold en-
panded to apply to all strain tensors in general stress space. ergy level’ assumes a similar shape to those of the limit
Tavenas et al. [8] therefore argue that isotache curves can state surface. In a triaxial test, the strain energy W dissi-
be associated with a limit state such that there are bound- pated can be expressed as
ing surfaces of constant ε̇ in the e-q-p space.
The purpose of this paper, following a brief summary  σ + σ 
of the existing literature on time-dependent deformation ai a(i+1)
W= [εa(i+1) − εai ]
in stress space, is to present the results from a series of 2
  
long-term triaxial tests on undisturbed London Clay. Dis- σri + σr(i+1)
cussion focuses on the viscous behaviour of soil during a +2 [εr(i+1) − εri ] (6)
2
multi-stage creep test in order to review the existing un-
derstanding of time-dependent phenomena in overconsol- The volumetric and shear component of strain energy be-
idated clays. ing respectively,

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 p + p
i (i+1)
Wv = [v(i+1) − vi ] (7)
2

q + q
i (i+1)
Ws = [ε(i+1) − εi ] (8)
2
In more general cases of triaxial loading, the strain en-
ergy can be written in the form

 
p d p q dq
W= + (9)
K 3G

where K is the bulk modulus and G is the shear modulus.

During creep, the dissipation of strain energy with time
has been reported to be similar to that of the measured vol-
umetric, axial and shear strain rates [10]. That is, the log-
arithm of the rate of energy dissipation decreases linearly
with the logarithm of time. The expression for the dissipa-
tion of strain energy therefore takes a function of the form

 t m Fig. 2. Stress conditions applied in creep test on a lightly over-

1
W=Ω (10) consolidated clay (modified from [8])
t
where Ω is a creep stress function. It is should be ap-
parent that the strain energy dissipation equation is of the
limit state surface. Tavenas et al. [8] therefore suggested
same form as Equation (3). The effect of stress path on the
that the limit state surface would be related to both the vol-
rate of dissipation of strain components was investigated
umetric and shear strain rate components. It first appears
by Tavenas et al. [10]. The stress conditions under which
as if the transition between homothetic curves of volumet-
creep tests were carried out are shown in Figure 2. It was
ric and shear strain rate occurs at conditions of constant
found that for an incrementally loaded test on a lightly
radial effective stress, line 3. Recent discussions on the in-
overconsolidated clay, the creep parameter m varies be-
cremental strain component [e.g. 16] have shown that loci
tween 0·6 and 0·82, where the value of m decreases with
of constant volumetric strain rate can be assumed for stress
increasing shear stress. Tavenas et al. [8] found that while
levels up to approximately 0·6M, where M is the critical
the classical approach to volumetric creep predicts the pa-
state stress ratio.
rameter m should be equal to 1, the lower values of m
are associated with a primary consolidation phenomenon.
Further, Tavenas et al. [8] suggested that the higher values 3 Experimental programme
of m are associated with the lower stress levels, reflecting
the perfectly linear log ε̇ − log t where negligible effects of The test programme was carried out on samples of undis-
primary consolidation were experienced by the sample. turbed London Clay from Hyde Park, London. All sam-
At higher stress levels, Tavenas et al. [8] found log ε̇ ples were selected from similar depths, 26.40 – 29.80 m,
to decrease initially, reach a minimum strain rate and then and of the same geological formation, Division B2 [17].
rapidly increase until failure. The latter phenomenon is A total of four 70 mm dia. samples were tested in special
also known as creep rupture, although this is more com- triaxial apparatus designed to investigate long-term creep
monly encountered in undrained creep tests where pore effects. Descriptions of the apparatus can be found in Ab-
pressures continuously develop until the stress state ap- dalla and Sim [18] and Le [19]. Table 1 summarises the
proaches failure from the right of the critical state line. index properties of the clay from Hyde Park.
In defining the stress–strain rate relationship, such as Following set-up and an undrained saturation stage,
in Equation (3), Tavenas et al. [8] plotted the various com- all samples were reconsolidated isotropically back to the
ponents of the strain tensor in terms of equal strain rates approximate in-situ mean effective stress. As all samples
throughout the triaxial stress space. As shown in Figure 2, were from very similar depths, a common initial isotropic
lines of equal volumetric strain rate are plotted in red and stress was selected. From this origin, four different stress
lines of equal shear strain rate are plotted in blue. From paths were followed until drained failure of the sample.
Figure 2, it follows that a large area of the stress space, Along each stress path, target stresses were achieved using
between lines 4 and 5, correspond to very small or zero computer control. Shearing was performed at sufficiently
volume change. In the same space, lines of constant shear low stress rates (1 kPa/hr) so as to not generate excess pore
strain rate were found to be approximately parallel to the pressure. At predetermined stress states along the spec-

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Table 1. Index property of London Clay at Hyde Park

Depth Water Liquid Plastic Specific

Borehole below G.L. content [%] Limit [%] Limit [%] Gravity
BH03 28.20 m 24.5 70 30 2.75
BH09 26.60 m 23.7 73 30 2.77
BH09 29.80 m 25.8 75 27 2.74

Table 2. Properties London Clay from Division B2 and nature of the clay led to the sample demonstrating signifi-
summary of creep test conditions
cant dilation. Following the peak shear stress, the samples
Stress path Creep stress exhibited strain softening with localisation of the strains
Test Number Stage being associated with the formation of a distinct shear
∆q/∆p p , q [kPa]
plane. Figure 3 show total accumulated volumetric and
LC1 C1 15.6 444.2, 12.6
shear strains for the four samples of London Clay with
C2 446.4, 62.7
time.
C3 455.5, 198.8
During stages of constant stress, all specimens showed
C4 458.1, 248.2
trends in time-dependent behaviour that were consistent
C5 464.2, 346.8
with the material’s stress state and geological history
LC2 C1 6.12 450.7, 51.4
(overconsolidated nature). Figure 4 plots the ratio of in-
C2 458.9, 102.8
cremental viscous strain components for London Clay in
C3 469.5, 164.0
stress space during the various creep stages. The be-
C4 475.9, 204.9
haviour was found to be consistent with that presented
C5 489.6, 285.9
by Tavenas et al. [8] and [10]. At stress ratios less
C6 500.8, 355.0
than 0·2M, little to no volumetric and shear deformations
LC3 C1 4.69 510.5, 321.4
were measured after an extended period of time; where
LC4 C1 -3.87 367.7, 288.1
viscous strains were measured, volumetric deformations
were found to dominate. With continued increase in de-
ified stress path, stages of constant stress were defined; viator stress, where the stress ratios were between 0·2M
stages of constant stress were held for a minimum of 1000 and 1·0M, total measured shear strains were found to in-
mins. Table 2 summarises applied stress path and creep crease during drained compression. Subsequently, time-
stress states for each of the four tests. Throughout shear- dependent shear strains were found to increasingly con-
ing, axial and radial deformations were directly measured tribute to the total viscous deformation. The increase in
using local instrumentation. Volumetric and shear strains viscous strain during stages of constant stress and total
were calculated from measured local displacements. contribution of shear strain can be seen in Figure 4 through
(a) the counter-clockwise rotation of the viscous strain
vector as the stress state approaches the peak stress ratio
4 Creep behaviour of London Clay and (b) the relative increase in strains measured during the
stage.
4.1 Creep strain increment Creep compression tests along constant σ3 drained
compression and constant σ1 drained compression for
Departing from the artificial distinction between sec-
London Clay from Lovenbury [20] are also included in
ondary consolidation and creep, the present investigation
Figure 4 for completeness. Combining the results found
has more generally considered the time-dependent devel-
for London Clay with those presented by Tavenas et al.
opment of volumetric and shear strains in heavily over-
[8], both of which study the creep behaviour of overcon-
consolidated London Clay under a narrow yet relatively
solidated clays, it can be said that the incremental viscous
unexplored range of stress conditions. The current study
strain vector rotates towards the direction of the stress path
aims to investigate more closely the stress space between
until drained failure where shear strains completely domi-
constant σ3 drained compression and constant σ1 drained
nate. Similar to the conclusion presented by Freitas et al.
compression as a detailed study of the time-dependent be-
[16], it was found that significant rotation of the viscous
haviour of London Clay along constant σ3 drained com-
strain increment towards the vertical did not occur until
pression and constant σ1 drained compression have al-
the stress state exceeded approximately q/p > 0·6M.
ready been explored by Lovenbury [20].
Generally, the drained shearing behaviour of London
4.2 Strain development with time
Clay was typical of a heavily overconsolidated soil and
was found to be consistent with reported results [21]. While a number of researchers have shown that the vis-
From an isotropic state well below the yield stress, the cous behaviour of a clay is essentially governed by the rel-
shearing behaviour of London Clay along each defined ative position of the stress state to the limit state surface
stress paths was found to be generally elastic with mini- [e.g. 8, 14], recent studies have revealed a more complex
mal volumetric strains until the stress state exceeded the strain-rate relationship with time than was suggested in ei-
critical state stress ratio after which the overconsolidated ther Equations (2) or (3) [e.g. 22, 23]. More specifically,

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Fig. 3. Total accumulated volumetric and shear strain with time for creep tests on London Clay

Stages of constant stress during stress-rate defined

loading on London Clay have revealed strain-rate–time be-
haviour that is not captured by either Equations (2) or (3).
Additionally, the origin of time required for Equation (2)
was unclear as no primary consolidation occurs during
a drained compression test; the curve fit during constant
stress was therefore inadequately predicted by the sec-
ondary consolidation approach. Rather than the typical
power decay function predicted by either Equation (3) or
(10), a significant period of constant strain-rate was ob-
served at the start of constant stress state stages. Similar to
the results presented by Kuwano and Jardine [23], creep
tests on London Clay found significant interaction be-
tween the approaching strain-rate and the measured strain-
rate–time decay function. That is, the rate of strain-rate
decay (represented by parameter m), was significantly af-
fected by the measured strain-rate as a result of the sam-
ple’s tendency to deform. It was found that as the stress
state approached the limit state surface, increased sam-
ple deformation resulted in a higher slope of m. This re-
Fig. 4. Ratio of incremental creep strain components for London sult contradicts the conclusion presented by Tavenas et al.
Clay in p − q stress space [10] where m was found to decrease with increasing stress
level.
This discrepancy is, however, resolved by examining
the different modes of shearing. Whereas stress states
were achieved by applying incremental loads by Tave-
recent findings have indicated that (a) Equation (2) often nas et al. [10] and [8], stress states in this investiga-
inaccurately captures viscous deformations as an origin of tion were achieved using computer controlled stress-rate
time must be defined, and (b) the creep parameter m in defined loading in this investigation. The difference in
Equation (3) does not appear to be a material constant and achieving the required stress state is believed to affect sig-
varies with stress level and interacts with the primary con- nificantly the approaching strain-rate and therefore the ob-
solidation phenomenon, as discussed earlier. served creep rate behaviour. As a result of the difference,

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it is suggested that the creep parameter m is also a function [11] F. Tatsuoka, T. Uchimura, K. Hayano,
of testing technique and should be considered carefully be- H. Di Benedetto, J. Koseki, M. Siddiquee, Time-
fore accepting the parameter as a characteristic property. dependent deformation characteristics of stiff
The observed strain-rate behaviour can also be under- geomaterials in engineering practice, in Proceed-
stood in terms of the ’isotache concept’ as the creep strain- ings of 2nd International Conference on Pre-failure
rate is a function of the approaching strain rate, such as Deform. Charact. of Geomat (2001), Vol. 2, pp.
given by Equations (4) or (5). 1161–1262
[12] G. Mesri, T. Stark, C. Chen, Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering-ASCE 120, 764 (1994)
5 Conclusion
[13] G. Mesri, A. Castro, Journal of Geotechnical Engi-
The laboratory testing programme carried out on four neering 113, 230 (1987)
undisturbed samples of heavily overconsolidated London [14] A. Singh, J.K. Mitchell, Journal of the Soil Mechan-
Clay gave insight into the time-dependent behaviour of ics and Foundations Division 94, 21 (1968)
clays in stress space. The main conclusions of this study [15] L. Šuklje, The analysis of the consolidation process
may be summarised as follows. by the isotaches method, in Proceedings of the 4th In-
• The incremental viscous strain component was found to ternational Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foun-
be a function of the stress state in triaxial stress space. dation Engineering, London (1957), Vol. 1, pp. 200–
206
• Along defined compression stress paths, the viscous
strain vector was found to rotate counter clock-wise to- [16] T.B. Freitas, D. Potts, L. Zdravkovic, Géotechnique
wards the vertical (critical state). 62, 643 (2012)
[17] C. King, The stratigraphy of the London Clay and
• No significant rotation of the viscous strain vector associated deposits (Backhuys, 1981)
was noted until the stress state exceeded approximately
[18] K.A. Abdalla, W.W. Sim, Effect of Time on the Evo-
q/p > 0·6M.
lution of Soil Behaviour: New Advanced Triaxial
• Both the Singh and Mitchell [14] strain-rate decay and Creep Cell Experiments, in Geotechnics for Sustain-
the dissipation of energy functions were found to over- able Infrastructure Development (2016)
estimate the strain-rate–time behaviour observed for [19] T. Le, Ph.D. thesis, University of Sydney (2018)
stress-rate defined loading on London Clay. [20] H.T. Lovenbury, Ph.D. thesis, Imperial College of
• Significant time delay was found at the onset of constant Scienceand Technology (1969)
stress before strain-rate decreased as described in either [21] A. Gasparre, Ph.D. thesis, Imperial College London
of the strain-rate–time functions. (2005)
• The secondary consolidation approach did not ade- [22] G. Imai, Y. Tanaka, H. Saegusa, Soils and Founda-
quately describe the time-dependent behaviour due to tions 43, 173 (2003)
the absence of primary consolidation. [23] R. Kuwano, R.J. Jardine, Canadian Geotechnical
Journal 39, 1061 (2002)
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