INTRODUCTION

Human conscious experience often drifts from ongoing events in the

external world to one's own thoughts and inner representations. This
phenomenon, variably referred to as daydreaming or mind-wandering, is a
common cognitive process that represents up to 50% of an individual's
reflective activity (Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010; Singer, 1966a; Singer,
1966b). Daydreaming, which involves a shift of attention away from
external stimuli to internal reflections, has been studied extensively, with
its origins traced back to Jerome Singer (Singer, 1975), whose work laid
the foundation for understanding this critical mental function. Over recent
decades, various terminologies have emerged, including mind-wandering,
self-generated thought, and spontaneous thought, all of which describe
the cognitive shift from external events to more unconstrained mental
imagery and reflection (Baird et al., 2012; Christoff et al., 2016; Fox et al.,
2018; Smallwood & Schooler, 2015).

A core characteristic of daydreaming is its independence from immediate

perceptual stimuli (Antrobus et al., 1966; Teasdale et al., 1995), meaning
the content of daydreams often bears little relation to the activity being
performed at the time (Smallwood & Schooler, 2015). For the purposes of
this paper, daydreaming is used as an umbrella term to describe a range
of off-task thoughts, which can vary from relatively realistic scenarios
(e.g., planning holidays, recalling past events) to more fantastical ones
(e.g., immersive fantasy worlds with invented characters).

While daydreaming can serve adaptive functions such as fostering

creative thinking, helping individuals find meaning in personal
experiences, or facilitating future planning (Stawarczyk et al., 2012),
excessive or repetitive daydreaming can have negative implications.
When daydreaming becomes recurrent and consumes significant amounts
of time, it may be associated with negative emotional states such as
depression (Marchetti et al., 2016; Poerio et al., 2013; Webb et al., 2021).
Some researchers have examined cognitive control as an essential factor
distinguishing normative daydreaming from more dysfunctional forms
(Seli et al., 2013, 2015). Studies suggest that individuals with poor
executive functioning, who struggle to regulate their thoughts, are more
likely to experience unintentional daydreaming, which interferes with their
ability to focus on tasks and accomplish goals (Kane et al., 2007; McVay &
Kane, 2009).

In extreme cases, daydreaming can become intrusive and uncontrollable,

leading to a phenomenon known as "maladaptive daydreaming," as
described by Somer (2002). This form of daydreaming is marked by highly
unrealistic content, elevated frequency, and difficulty controlling the
episodes, often leading to a disruption of real-life interactions and goals
(Bigelsen et al., 2016). Additionally, maladaptive daydreaming may be
accompanied by kinesthetic activity, where the individual physically
engages in repetitive movements while daydreaming (Bigelsen &
Schupak, 2011). The content of daydreams is particularly significant, as it
can have varying effects on well-being. Positive daydreams, such as those
reflecting on personal problems or engaging in internal dialogues with
significant others, are often associated with coping strategies and can
have positive outcomes (Baird et al., 2012; Poerio et al., 2015).
Conversely, repetitive negative thoughts, or "rumination," are detrimental
to mental health, particularly in individuals with depression and anxiety
(Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000; Watkins, 2008). Thus, frequency, intentionality,
and content are crucial factors in determining the functional meaning and
impact of daydreaming.

Adolescence is a particularly critical period for studying daydreaming

because this phase is characterized by an increase in daydreaming
frequency and intensity compared to childhood, followed by a gradual
decline into adulthood (Giambra, 1979, 2000). Adolescence is also a
period of heightened vulnerability to mental health issues, as it is the
peak age for the onset of many psychiatric disorders (Giedd et al., 2008).
Studies have identified factors such as childhood trauma and social
anxiety as contributors to dysfunctional daydreaming (Somer et al.,
2016a; Somer & Herscu, 2017), with certain personality traits, such as
obsessive-compulsive tendencies, also playing a role (Soffer-Dudek &
Somer, 2018). However, limited research has focused on daydreaming
during adolescence, especially concerning whether higher daydreaming
frequency correlates with specific psychopathological conditions.

Given these considerations, the present study aims to investigate

daydreaming in a large sample of non-referred adolescents. The goal is to
gain insights into the prevalence and psychological implications of
daydreaming in this critical developmental stage, which may provide
valuable information for understanding the role of daydreaming in
adolescent mental health.

The Youth Self-Report (YSR) scale, a widely used self-report measure for
adolescents aged 11–18, will be utilized in this study to assess social
functioning, behavioral problems, and DSM-IV-oriented symptoms
(Achenbach, 1991). The YSR consists of two primary sections: the Social
Competence section and the Problem Checklist. The latter includes
several subscales that assess various aspects of adolescent behavior,
including internalizing behaviors (e.g., anxiety/depression,
withdrawn/depression), externalizing behaviors (e.g., rule-breaking
behavior, aggression), and neither internalizing nor externalizing problems
(e.g., social problems, thought problems, attention problems). The YSR
also includes DSM-oriented scales assessing affective problems, anxiety
problems, somatic problems, ADHD, oppositional defiant problems, and
conduct problems.

Clinical cut-off scores on the YSR are based on T-scores, with values of 65–
69 indicating borderline issues and T-scores of 70 or higher indicating
clinical concerns. This tool will help in examining the potential associations
between daydreaming frequency and various behavioral and
psychological issues in adolescents, offering a deeper understanding of
how daydreaming may be linked to mental health during this
developmental stage.

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Introduction

Daydreaming, often perceived as a benign mental escape, has been

increasingly recognized as a phenomenon with both potential benefits and
significant drawbacks. While moderate daydreaming can foster creativity
and innovation, excessive and uncontrollable fantasizing, termed
maladaptive daydreaming (MD), poses unique challenges. First identified
by Somer (2002), maladaptive daydreaming involves intense, compulsive
immersion in vivid, elaborate fantasies at the expense of real-world
functioning. These narratives often place the individual as a central heroic
figure, providing a means of escape from adverse circumstances or unmet
emotional needs. However, this behavior can escalate into a maladaptive
coping mechanism, fostering social isolation, emotional distress, and
significant disruptions in daily life (Bigelsen & Schupak, 2011; Somer et
al., 2017).
Recent studies underscore the clinical relevance of maladaptive
daydreaming, with prevalence estimates indicating 3-26% of adolescents
and young adults are affected worldwide (Soffer-Dudek et al., 2023;
Vassou et al., 2022). This developmental period is marked by significant
socio-emotional changes, rendering youth particularly vulnerable to
maladaptive behaviors. The phenomenon is often associated with various
psychopathologies, including anxiety, depression, and loneliness, further
emphasizing the need for systematic exploration and intervention (Soffer-
Dudek et al., 2022).

Negative Maladaptive Daydreaming

A particularly concerning subtype of MD is negative maladaptive

daydreaming, characterized by distressing themes such as violence,
suffering, or morbid fascinations (Gilmour et al., 2021). These ego-
dystonic fantasies may paradoxically serve as a means to regulate
distress or explore fears within a safe imaginal space. However, this
coping mechanism often exacerbates psychological distress, including
symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), dissociation, and
attentional control deficits (Gilmour et al., 2022; Pieters et al., 2018).
Negative maladaptive daydreaming, estimated to affect 14-33% of those
with MD, highlights the multifaceted and detrimental impact of this
condition.

Emotional Neglect as a Contributing Factor

One critical factor linked to the development and persistence of

maladaptive daydreaming is emotional neglect—a form of childhood
trauma characterized by the failure of caregivers to meet a child’s
emotional and psychological needs. Emotional neglect disrupts secure
attachment formation and adversely impacts emotional regulation, self-
concept, and resilience, leading to vulnerabilities in socio-emotional
functioning (Brassard & Donovan, 2006; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2019).
Globally prevalent yet often underreported, emotional neglect increases
the risk of various psychopathologies, including depression, anxiety, and
trauma disorders (Finkelhor & Browne, 1985; Brahmi et al., 2022).
Theoretical frameworks suggest that maladaptive daydreaming and
emotional neglect may intersect through shared mechanisms such as
unmet attachment needs, emotional dysregulation, and attentional control
deficits (Schupak & Rosenthal, 2009; Soffer-Dudek, 2019). Maladaptive
daydreaming, often seen as a coping strategy, allows individuals to
escape the emotional void left by neglectful environments. However, this
escape can become maladaptive, reinforcing patterns of avoidance and
psychological distress over time.

Integration of Cognitive and Clinical Perspectives

Understanding maladaptive daydreaming requires an interdisciplinary

approach, integrating insights from cognitive psychology and clinical
psychology. Cognitive psychology examines the underlying processes of
perception, attention, memory, and problem-solving that contribute to
maladaptive behaviors (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2016). Attentional
impairments, for instance, are closely associated with deficits in working
memory and emotional regulation, which are central to the experience of
MD (Friedman & Miyake, 2017; Petersen & Posner, 2012).

Clinical psychology, on the other hand, explores the impact of

psychological adversities, including emotional neglect, on mental health
outcomes. Emotional neglect has been linked to maladaptive coping
strategies, including MD, by creating a foundation of unmet psychological
needs and disrupted emotional processing (APA, 2013; Kazdin, 2017).
Examining the interplay between these factors provides a comprehensive
understanding of MD’s etiology and its broader implications.

Prevalence and Study Rationale

This study aims to address the limited research on the prevalence of

maladaptive daydreaming and its negative subtype, particularly among
adolescents and young adults. Additionally, it seeks to explore the
relationship between MD and emotional neglect to elucidate how early
adverse experiences contribute to this emerging psychopathology. By
investigating these connections, the study aims to inform targeted
prevention and intervention strategies that address underlying
developmental psychopathologies and promote psychological well-being.
Research Significance

The significance of this research lies in its potential to bridge critical gaps
in the literature. While prior studies have highlighted the prevalence and
psychological impact of MD, few have examined its association with
emotional neglect in a comprehensive manner. By focusing on
adolescents and young adults—a population undergoing pivotal
developmental changes—this study provides valuable insights into the
socio-emotional factors influencing MD. The findings can guide the
development of evidence-based interventions tailored to the unique needs
of individuals affected by MD and emotional neglect.

Study Objectives

The specific objectives of this study are:

1. To determine the prevalence of maladaptive daydreaming and negative

maladaptive daydreaming among adolescents and young adults.

2. To examine the association between emotional neglect and maladaptive

daydreaming tendencies.

3. To identify emotional neglect as a potential predictor of maladaptive

daydreaming behaviors.

4. To contribute to the growing body of research on MD by integrating

cognitive and clinical psychology perspectives.
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