Unit 11 Oscillators

UNIT 11
OSCILLATORS
Oscillators are used for generating
sine waves. LC circuits are used for
high frequency generation as you will
learn in this unit.

Structure
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industry-chimney-2411932/

11.1 Introduction 11.4 RC Oscillators

Expected Learning Outcomes Phase-Shift Oscillator
11.2 Positive Feedback and Oscillations Wien Bridge Oscillator
Oscillations in Tuned Circuits 11.5 Summary
Positive Feedback Amplifier as an Oscillator 11.6 Terminal Questions
11.3 LC Oscillators 11.7 Solutions and Answers
Tuned-Collector Oscillator
Hartley Oscillator
Colpitts Oscillator

STUDY GUIDE
In the last unit you learnt about the amplifiers required for increasing the power (or voltage / current) of
a signal. You also learnt about the concept of negative feedback, and how it provides stability to the
amplifier performance. In this unit, you will learn about the use of transistors for generating ac signals of
desired frequency. Such circuits are called the Oscillators. For this you should brush up your
knowledge about RC, LC and LCR resonant circuits you worked with in the second semester courses
BPHCT-133 entitled Electricity and Magnetism and BPHCL-134 entitled Electricity and Magnetism:
Laboratory.
You will also require the knowledge of transistor biasing (mostly in CE configuration) discussed in the
earlier units of this course.
You should try to work out the SAQs, TQs and design examples given in this unit on your own in order
to get complete knowledge of the topic.

“External interference, which can never be entirely eliminated

R.V.L. Hartley
in practice, always reduces the effectiveness of the system.”

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Block 3 Analog Circuits
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Generation of high frequencies is essential in all communication systems. For
example, in radio and television broadcasting, the transmitter radiates the
signal using a carrier of very high frequency say from 550 kHz to 22 MHz in
radio broadcasting and from 47 MHz to few GHz in TV broadcasting. In radio
and TV receivers too there is an oscillator circuit which generates very high
frequencies. Even mobile phones require oscillator circuits. The oscillators are
usually transistor amplifier circuits with positive feedback. In the last unit you
learnt about the concept of feedback.

If the portion of the output that is fed back is in phase with respect to the input,
then the feedback is termed as positive feedback. With positive feedback a
circuit can be made to generate an output with no external input. In this unit
we will use positive feedback in building oscillators.

In Sec. 11.2 we will discuss about the positive feedback and the principle
governing the oscillations. You will be able to establish the criteria for
sustained oscillations in a circuit called Barkhausen Criteria.

Based on the principle used for generation of oscillations, the oscillators are
classified as tuned circuit (LC) oscillators and RC oscillators. In Sec. 11.3 you
will learn about two important LC oscillators viz. Hartley oscillator and Colpitts
oscillator.

In Sec. 11.4 we will discuss about the RC oscillators, namely, Wien bridge
oscillator and phase shift oscillator.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 workout the feedback gain in case of positive feedback;

 state the conditions under which a feedback amplifier works as an oscillator;

 state the classification of oscillators;

 draw the circuit and explain the working, state the frequency relation and design
the LC oscillators (Hartley and Colpitt’s oscillators);

 explain the working of phase shift oscillator and design its feedback R-C
network; and

 explain the working and calculate the frequency of a Wien bridge oscillator.

Now, we begin with understanding the role of positive feedback in sustaining

oscillations in an oscillator circuit.

11.2 POSITIVE FEEDBACK AND OSCILLATIONS

We had discussed the concept of feedback in the last unit. You also know the
effect of negative feedback on the amplifier performance in form of reduced
38
gain and increased bandwidth.
Unit 11 Oscillators

Now, when the feedback voltage is in phase with the input signal, then it adds
to the input signal. In this case  is positive and feedback is termed as
positive or regenerative feedback. You can observe that when  is positive,
the gain with feedback can be written from Eq. (10.14) as

A
Af  (11.1)
1  A

Since A is divided by a number smaller than unity, Af  A. So positive

feedback increases the gain of an amplifier. This in turn reduces the
bandwidth (BW) because you know that the product (Gain  BW) is constant.

In Eq. (11.1) if A = 1, then Af  . In other words you have an amplifier

which gives an output without an input! Such a circuit is called as an
oscillator. You should not be under the impression that you are getting an
output power without any input power. The circuit draws the power from the dc
supply connected to the transistor, and converts it into ac power. So we can
define an oscillator as that circuit which converts dc power into ac power.
Fig. 11.1 illustrates the difference between an oscillator and an amplifier.

Fig. 11.1: Comparison between an amplifier and an oscillator.

For a circuit to work as an oscillator certain conditions have to be satisfied.

They are as follows:

1. The feedback should be positive.

2. The product A should be unity.

A = 1 (11.2)
This condition is known as Barkhausen Criteria of oscillations.

3. The circuit must amplify and the amplification should be sufficient to

overcome the losses in the circuit.
The third condition is to be satisfied in order to sustain oscillations (see
Fig. 11.2a) otherwise you will get the damped oscillations as shown in
Fig. 11.2b.
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Block 3 Analog Circuits

Fig. 11.2: a) Sustained oscillations; b) damped oscillations.

Oscillators are mainly divided into two types, namely, sinusoidal and
relaxation oscillators. Sinusoidal oscillators produce continuously varying
signals like sine waves with single frequency. Whereas relaxation oscillators
produce non-sinusoidal signals like square waves, triangular waves etc. In this
unit we will study about a few sinusoidal oscillators. Depending upon how
oscillations are produced, sinusoidal oscillators are of the following type:

i) Tuned circuit (LC) oscillators

ii) RC oscillators

These two classes require different conditions to be satisfied by the feedback

circuits. Let us discuss these in detail now.

11.2.1 Oscillations in Tuned Circuits

An inductor and a capacitor connected in parallel form a tuned or tank circuit.
In Fig. 11.3a, energy is introduced into this circuit by connecting the capacitor

Fig. 11.3: Damped oscillation in an LC circuit.

40
Unit 11 Oscillators
to a dc voltage source, that is with switch S in position 1. The negative
terminal of the battery supplies electrons to the lower plate of the capacitor.
Because of the accumulation of electrons, the capacitor gets charged and
there is a voltage across it. We say that energy is stored in the capacitor in the
form of electric potential energy. When the switch S is thrown to position 2 as
shown in Fig. 11.3b, current starts flowing in the circuit comprising the
capacitor and inductor. The capacitor now starts discharging through the
inductor. Since the inductor has the property of opposing any change in
current, the current builds up slowly. Maximum current flows in the circuit
when the capacitor is fully discharged. At this instant, the potential energy of
the system is zero. But the electron motion being greatest (maximum current),
the magnetic field energy around the coil is maximum.

Once the capacitor is fully discharged, the magnetic field begins to collapse.
The back emf in the inductor keeps the current flowing in the same direction.
The capacitor starts charging, but with opposite polarity this time, as shown in
Fig. 11.3c. As the charge builds up across the capacitor, the current
decreases and the magnetic field decreases. When the magnetic field energy
drops to zero, the capacitor charges to the value it had in condition (a) but with
opposite polarity. Once again all the energy is in the form of potential energy.
The capacitor now begins to discharge again. This time current flows in the
opposite direction. Fig. 11.3d shows the capacitor fully discharged, and also
shows maximum current flowing in the circuit. Again, all the energy is in the
magnetic field. The interchange or “oscillation” of energy between L and C is
repeated again and again. This situation is similar to an oscillating pendulum,
in which the energy keeps on interchanging between potential energy and
kinetic energy.

In a practical pendulum, because of the friction at the pivot and the air
resistance, some energy is lost during each swing. The amplitude of each
cycle goes on decreasing and eventually the pendulum comes to rest, though
it may take a long time. The oscillations of the pendulum are said to be
damped.

An ideal LC circuit is expected to perform the oscillations forever, however, a

practical LC circuit deviates from the ideal one. The inductor coil will have
some resistance, and the dielectric material of the capacitor will have some
finite resistance, and will have some leakage. Because of these factors, some
energy loss takes place during each cycle of the oscillation. As a result of this
loss, the amplitude of oscillation decreases continuously and ultimately the
oscillations die down just like in case of practical pendulum. Thus, we find that
a tank circuit by itself is capable of producing oscillations, but they are
damped as shown in Fig. 11.3e.

Frequency of Oscillations in an LC Circuit

In LC circuit, the constants of the system are the inductance and capacitance
values. The frequency of oscillation is the same as the resonant frequency of
the tank circuit. It is given by
1
f0  (11.3)
2 LC
41
Block 3 Analog Circuits
Sustained Oscillations
The oscillations of a pendulum can be maintained at a constant level, if we
supply additional energy to it from time to time, to overcome the effect of
frictional losses.
The oscillations of an LC circuit can also be maintained at a constant level in a
similar way. For this, we have to supply a pulse of energy at the right time in
each cycle. The resulting “undamped oscillations” are called sustained
oscillations, as shown in Fig. 11.2a. Such sustained oscillations (or continuous
waves) are generated by the electronic oscillator circuits.
There are many varieties of LC-oscillator circuits. All of them have following
two features in common:
i) They must contain an active device (transistor) that works as an amplifier
to overcome the losses.
ii) There must be positive feedback in the amplifier.
11.2.2 Positive Feedback Amplifier as an Oscillator
We discussed that an oscillator generates ac output signal without any input
ac signal. A part of the output is fed back to the input; and this feedback signal
is the only input to the internal amplifier.
To understand how an oscillator produces an output signal without an external
input signal, let us consider Fig. 11.4a. The voltage source v drives the input
terminals YZ of the internal amplifier (with voltage gain A). The amplified
signal Av drives the feedback network is to produce feedback voltage Av.
This voltage returns to the point X. If the phase shift due to the amplifier and
feedback network is correct, the signal at point X will be exactly in phase with
the signal driving the input terminals YZ of the internal amplifier.

Fig. 11.4: Proper positive feedback in an amplifier makes it an oscillator.

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Unit 11 Oscillators
Let us assume that we connect points X and Y and remove voltage source v.
The feedback signal now drives the input terminals YZ of the amplifier (see
Fig. 11.4b). If A is less than unity, Av is less than v, and the output signal
will die out as shown in Fig. 11.4c. This happens because enough voltage is
not returned to the input of the amplifier. On the other hand, if A is greater
than unity, Av is greater than v, and the output voltage builds up as shown in
Fig. 11.4d. Such oscillations are called growing oscillations. Finally, if A
equals unity, no change occurs in the output and we get an output with
constant amplitude as shown in Fig. 11.4e.
You must be wondering that how do we get the initial voltage v, which is
required to start the oscillations, if no external source is connected. In
practice, this starting voltage required to initiate the oscillations is actually
generated within the circuit itself by the components like resistors used in it.
Every resistor has some free electrons in it. Due to the room temperature,
these electrons gain some energy to move around randomly in the resistor.
This causes generation of a noise voltage across the resistor. This noise can
contain many frequencies due to its random nature. So a resistor can be
considered as a source of voltage generated due to thermal noise.
When we turn the power to the circuit on, the only signal existing in the circuit
is this noise generated voltage. At the output of the amplifier, this noise
voltage appears as an amplified voltage containing many frequencies. This
voltage is fed to the input of the amplifier via the feedback network and this
starts the oscillations. At this stage A product is little more them unity. Due to
frequency selective nature of the feedback network, only single frequency
oscillations sustain in the oscillator and eventually the Barkhausen Criteria
(A = 1) condition is satisfied at this frequency.
You may now like to attempt an SAQ.

SAQ 1 – Barkhausen criteria

For an oscillator circuit if  factor is 5% of the output voltage, what should be
the gain of the amplifier in order to obtain sustained oscillations?

Now we will discuss about some tuned circuit (LC) oscillators.

11.3 LC OSCILLATORS
LC oscillators or resonant-circuit oscillators are widely used for generating
high frequencies. With practical values of inductors and capacitors, it is
possible to produce frequencies as high as 500 MHz. The oscillators used in
rf (radio frequency) generators, radio and TV receivers etc. are LC oscillators.
Such an oscillator has an amplifier, an LC resonant circuit and a feedback
arrangement. There is a large variety of LC-oscillator circuits. Here, we shall
discuss only a few important ones.
11.3.1 Tuned-Collector Oscillator
Fig. 11.5 shows a basic LC-oscillator circuit. It is called tuned-collector
oscillator, because the tuned (LC) circuit is connected to the collector. We use
a transformer here. The primary of the transformer and the capacitor form the
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Block 3 Analog Circuits
tuned circuit (or tank circuit) which decides the frequency of oscillation. The
secondary winding is connected to the base. You are aware that the voltage in
primary and secondary winding of the transformer can have 0 or 180 phase
difference depending upon the direction of windings of the primary and
secondary coils. On the transformer symbol, the points of equal phase are
indicated by the dots near the ends of the two windings. In present case,
shown in Fig. 11.5, the primary and secondary voltages are out of phase
i.e. have 180 phase difference. Since a phase difference of 180 is provided
by the CE transistor amplifier, and an additional 180 by the transformer, the
type of feedback is positive. The transistor amplifier provides sufficient gain for
oscillator action to take place.

Fig. 11.5: Tuned-collector oscillator.

Resistors R1 R2 and RE provide dc bias to the transistor. The capacitors
CE and C2 bypass resistors RE and R2 , respectively for ac signal. It is for
this reason, the resistors RE and R2 have no effect on the ac operation of
the circuit. The dc bias voltage set by the potential divider R1 and R2 is
connected to the base through the low-resistance secondary winding of the
transformer. This secondary of the transformer provides ac feedback voltage
which is 180 out of phase than the output. This voltage appears across the
base-emitter junction, since the junction point of R1 and R2 is at ac ground
(due to bypass capacitor C2 ) .
The moment we switch on the supply, the current starts building up through
the primary winding of the transformer connected to the collector. This induces
a varying voltage in the secondary of the transformer. An amplified voltage
again appears in the tank circuit, which responds most to its resonant
frequency. Because of the sufficient gain provided by the transistor, and the
proper amount of feedback in the correct phase, the oscillations grow till a
certain voltage level is reached. Thus, sustained oscillations are obtained at
the resonant frequency
1
f0  (11.4)
2 LC

44 Now you may like to attempt an SAQ.

Unit 11 Oscillators

SAQ 2 – Tuned collector oscillator

What will be the effect on voltage fed back at the base, if capacitor C2 is not
connected in the circuit shown in Fig. 11.5?

11.3.2 Hartley Oscillator

The Hartley oscillator is one of the simplest types of tuned oscillator circuits. In
this circuit only one coil is used, which is tapped such that a portion L1 of the
coil is in the collector circuit, while L2 is in the base circuit with the tapped
point connected to the ground. The amplified energy in the collector section is
fed back to the base by means of inductive coupling and amount of coupling
will depend upon the number of turns in L1 and L2 . Fig. 11.6 shows a Hartley
oscillator circuit.

Fig. 11.6: Hartley oscillator.

An RFC (radio frequency choke) permits an easy flow of dc current. At the

same time, it offers very high impedance to high frequency currents. In other
words, an RFC ideally looks like a dc short and an ac open. Hence the high
frequency signal at the collector does not reach the dc power supply and
disturb the dc biasing of the circuit. The presence of the coupling capacitor Cc
in the output circuit of the Hartley oscillator does not permit the dc currents to
go to the tank circuit. The radio-frequency energy developed across the RFC
is capacitively coupled to the tank circuit through the capacitor Cc .

In the tank circuit, the inductors L1 and L2 are in series; so effective

inductance

L  L1  L2 (11.5)

Hence, the resonance frequency can be expressed as

1
f  (11.6)
2 (L1  L2 ) C
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Block 3 Analog Circuits
11.3.3 Colpitts Oscillator

The Colpitts oscillator shown in Fig. 11.7 is a widely used circuit in commercial
signal generators above 1 MHz. The oscillator is similar to the Hartley
oscillator given in Fig. 11.6 The only difference is that the Colpitts oscillator
uses a split-tank capacitor instead of a split-tank inductor. The RFC has the
same function as in the Hartley oscillator. The voltage developed across the
capacitor C2 provides the regenerative feedback required for the sustained
oscillations to the base circuit.

Fig. 11.7: Colpitts oscillator using a transistor.

The values of L, C1 and C2 determine the frequency of oscillation. The

frequency of oscillation is given by

1
f  (11.7)
2 LC

where

C1C2
C (11.8)
C1  C2

since C1 and C2 are in series.

You may now like to attempt an SAQ.

SAQ 3 – LC oscillators
Considering the condition for starting the oscillations is A > 1, what should
be the condition on the value of gain A in terms of values of capacitors C1
and C2 in a Colpitts oscillator?

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Unit 11 Oscillators

11.4 RC OSCILLATORS
Till now we have discussed only those oscillators which use an LC-tuned
circuit. These tuned circuit oscillators are good for generating high
frequencies. But for low frequencies (say, audio frequencies), the LC circuit
becomes impracticable (due to extremely high values of L and C). In such
cases, RC oscillators are more suitable. There are many types of RC
oscillators, but the following two are the most important:

i) Phase-shift oscillator

ii) Wien bridge oscillator

Before discussing the particular RC oscillators let us understand the working

principle of these oscillators.

Basic Principles of RC Oscillators

We know that a single stage of an CE amplifier not only amplifies the input
signal but also shifts its phase by 180. If we take a part of the output and
directly feed it back to the input, a negative feedback takes place. The net
output voltage then decreases. But for producing oscillations we must have
positive feedback (of sufficient amount). Positive feedback occurs only when
the feedback voltage is in phase with the original input signal. This condition
can be achieved in two ways. We can take a part of the output of a single
stage amplifier (giving a phase shift of 180) and then pass it through a phase-
shift network giving an additional phase shift of 180. Thus a total phase shift
of 180 + 180 = 360 (which is equivalent to a phase shift of 0) occurs, as
the signal passes through the amplifier and the phase-shift network. This is
the principle of phase-shift oscillator.

Another way of getting a phase shift of 360 is to use two stages of amplifiers
each giving a phase shift of 180. A part of this output is fed back to the input
through a feedback network without producing any further phase shift. This is
the principle of Wien bridge oscillator.

11.4.1 Phase-Shift Oscillator

Fig. 11.8 shows a phase-shift oscillator. It consists of amplifier with three

sections of RC sections as feedback network.

The phase of the signal at the input (B) gets reverse at output (C), when it is
amplified by the amplifier. The output of the amplifier goes to a feedback
network. The feedback network consists of three identical RC sections. Each
RC section provides a phase of 60 Thus a total of 60  3 = 180 phase shift
is provided by the feedback network. The output of this network is now in the
same phase as the originally assumed input to the amplifier, as shown in the
figure. If the condition A = 1 is satisfied, oscillations will be maintained.
47
Block 3 Analog Circuits

Fig. 11.8: Phase-shift oscillator.

It may be shown by a straightforward (but a little complicated) analysis that the

frequency at which this RC network provides exactly 180 phase-shift is given
by

1
f  (11.9)
2 RC 6

Hence, this must be the frequency of oscillation.

SAQ 4 – Phase-shift oscillator

A transistor phase-shift oscillator uses three identical RC sections in the
feedback network. The values of the components are R = 100 k and
C = 0.01 F. Calculate the frequency of oscillation.

11.4.2 Wien Bridge Oscillator

The Wien bridge oscillator is a standard circuit for generating low frequencies
in the range of 10 Hz to about 1 MHz. It is used in most of the commercial
audio generators. Basically, this oscillator consists of two stages of RC-
coupled amplifier and a feedback network. The block diagram of Fig. 11.9
explains the principle of working of this oscillator.
Here, the blocks A1 and A2 represent two amplifier stages with each
providing 180 phase shift. The output of the second stage goes to the
feedback network. The voltage across the parallel combination C2 R2 is fed to
the input of the first stage. The net phase shift through the two amplifiers is
zero. Therefore, it is evident that for the oscillation to be maintained, the
phase shift through the coupling network must be zero. It can be shown that
this condition occurs at a frequency given by

1
f  (11.10)
2 R1C1R2C2
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Unit 11 Oscillators

Fig. 11.9: Block diagram of a basic Wien bridge oscillator.

To have a gain we add some amount of negative feedback. The addition of
negative feedback modifies the circuit in Fig. 11.9 to that shown in
Fig. 11.10a.

Here we are giving the

positive and negative
feedbacks to two
separate inputs of an
amplifier. You will
learn about such
amplifiers in Unit 13,
where we discuss the
operational amplifiers.

Fig. 11.10: Wien bridge oscillator with negative feedback; b) same circuit
redrawn to depict the “bridge” in the circuit. 49
 Block 3 Analog Circuits
The same circuit is redrawn in Fig. 11.10b. The two amplifier blocks in
Fig. 11.10a representing the two stages of the amplifier are replaced by a
single block in Fig. 11.10b. You may now see why this circuit is called a bridge
oscillator. In this circuit, the resistors R3 and R 4 provide the desired negative
feedback.

We can have a continuous variation of frequency in the oscillator by varying

the two capacitors C1 and C2 simultaneously. These capacitors are variable
air-gang capacitors. We can change the frequency range of the oscillator by
switching into the circuit with different values of resistors R1 and R2 .

SAQ 5 – Wien bridge oscillator

The RC network of a Wien bridge oscillator consists of resistors and

capacitors of values R1  R2  220 k and C1  C2  250 pF. Calculate the
frequency of oscillations.

11.5 SUMMARY

Concept Description

Positive  If the feedback signal is in phase with the applied signal and aids it, positive
feedback or regenerative feedback takes place.

Gain with  Gain increases with positive feedback, which may lead to oscillations. The
positive gain is given by
feedback
A
Af 
1  A

Oscillator  An oscillator acts as energy converter which changes direct current energy
into alternating current energy.

Components of  Essential parts of an oscillator are (i) the frequency determining network
oscillator circuit (ii) source of dc energy and (iii) a feedback circuit to provide positive
feedback.

LC oscillators  Hartley oscillator uses a tapped coil in the feedback circuit.

 Colpitt’s oscillator uses a tapped capacitance network in the feedback circuit.
It has better frequency stability than Hartley oscillator.

RC oscillators  Phase-shift oscillator has three RC sections to provide 180 phase shift in
feedback voltage.
 A Wien bridge oscillator is an RC oscillator whose frequency of oscillation can
be varied over a wide range.

11.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by loop gain?
2. A Wien bridge oscillators uses 10 k resistors and 4.70 nF capacitors in
50 its bridge circuit. What is the frequency of oscillation?
Unit 11 Oscillators
3. In Hartley oscillator the input and output inductors are 0.1 mH each and
capacitor is 0.1 nF. Calculate the frequency of this oscillator.

11.7 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions
1.  = 5% = 0.05
By Barkhausen criteria,
A = 1 for sustained oscillations
1 1
 A   20.
 0.05

2. If capacitor C2 is not connected across resistor R2 , the complete

feedback voltage induced in the secondary of the transformer would not
go the input of the transistor because some of this voltage will drop across
R2 .

3. To start the oscillations, initial condition is A > 1. Hence

1
A

In the circuit of Colpitts oscillator (Fig. 11.7), the output voltage appears
across C1 , whereas the feedback voltage across C2 . Since, same current
is flowing through these capacitors in the tank circuit made up of C1 and
C2 , we can write

vf i XC2 XC2
  
v out i XC1 XC1

1 (2 fC2 ) C1
 
1 (2 fC1) C2
In order to start the oscillations, we need
C2
A
C1
4. The frequency of oscillation of a phase-shift oscillator is given as
1
f 
2 RC 6

Here, R  100 k  10 5 ; C  0.01 F  10 8 F.

Therefore,
1
f   64.97 Hz
2  3.141  10  108  2.452
5

5. For a Wien bridge oscillator, the frequency of oscillation is given as

1 1
f0  
2 R1R2C1C2 2RC

where R1  R2  R and C1  C2  C.
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Block 3 Analog Circuits
Here, R  220 k  2.2  105 , C  250 pF  2.5  10 10 F.

Therefore,

1
f0 
2  3.141  2.2  105  2.5  10 10

 2893.7 Hz

 2.89 kHz.

Terminal Questions
1. The product A is known as loop gain. The input signal is multiplied by A
times in passing through the amplifier and  times in the feedback network
before it arrives at the input. Hence the name loop gain.
1
2. f  ; R  10 k  10  10 3 
2 RC

C  4.7 nF  4700 pF.

1
f 
2  3.142  10  10 3  4700  10 12

 3386 Hz
3. For Hartley oscillator
1
f 
2 (L1  L2 ) C

1

2 (0.1  0.1)  10 3  0.1  10 9

1 107
   1.125 MHz.
2 0.2  0.1 10 12 2 2

52