MODULE 3

` CHAPTER-1
` QUANTUM MECHANICS
`` (3marks questions)

1) State and explain uncertainty principle ..Write its

mathematical form for the following pairs of
variables(1) position and momentum(2)energy and
time(3)angular position and angular momentum .

Ans: The product of uncertainties in determining two canonically

conjugate quantities like position and momentum can never be
smaller than ħ/2.
OR
According to uncertainty principle it is impossible to determine both
momentum and position(canonically conjugate quantities) of a
microscopic moving particle simultaneously.
Δx Δp ≥ ħ/2 (position and momentum)
ΔE Δt ≥ ħ/2(energy and time)
ΔJ Δθ ≥ ħ/2(angular position and angular momentum )

2) What are the conditions to be satisfied by a wave function

a) A wave function must be finite and it should vanish at infinity
b)Wave function must be single valued
c)Wave function and its derivatives should be continuous.
`d)Wave function must be square integral. ∫Ψ*Ψdτ=1 (a finite value)

3) What are DE Broglie waves or matter waves

Ans : Waves associated with a moving matter or particle in motion are
called matter waves.
Properties: 1)Matter waves are neither electromagnetic nor acoustic
waves

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2)It exhibit diffraction
3) It does not require any material medium for propagation
4)Super position of matter wave gives wave packet, which obeys Schrodinger
equation.
5) Its wavelength is given by λ=h/p,
(where h- Planck’s constant,p- momentum of the particle.)

4) Derivation of de Broglie wavelength

Ans :For photon,
energy E= h υ (wave nature by Planck’s equation) and also using Einsteinenergy
equationE= mc2(particle nature)
Then h υ = mc2(dual nature)
h υ = mc*c
mc = h υ/c
Momentum,p= h (υ/c) =h/λ (where p=mc, momentum of photon and υ/c =1/λ)
then deBroglie wavelength of matter wave is given by
λ =h/p (where h-Planck’s constant)

4) Explain the phenomenon of Quantum mechanical TunnelingAns

:The non-zero probability for transmission of particles through a barrier
with an insufficient energy to cross the barrier is known as quantum
mechanical tunneling. This ispossible because the matter wave associated
with the particle can pass through the barrier. It plays an important role
in many electrical devices such as tunnel diode, zenordiode ,,cooper pair
penetration across Josephson junction etc.
16𝐸(𝑉−𝐸) -2αd
Transmission probability for tunneling ,T = e
𝑉2
2m(V−E)
(where α=√ )
ħ2

2
5) Explain probability density.

Ans : The quantity with which quantum mechanics is concerned is wave

function Ψ.In general Ψ is a complex valued function and it has no physical
meaning. But the quantity ΨΨ* dxdydz gives the probability of finding
the particle in a small volume dxdydz .(where Ψ* is the complex conjugate
of Ψ)
Or

P(x ,x+dx) = ΨΨ*dx gives the probability for finding the particle in a small distance
dx

6) What is the probability interpretation of wave function?

a. ANS : The quantity whose variation goes on to make matter waves is

called wave function., denoted by Ψ (x,t).It is in general a complex
valued function and itself has no physical meaning If Ψ(x,t) is the
complex wavefunction of a given particle, moving in one dimension
along the x-axis, then according to Max born, the probability of finding
the particle between x and x+dx is given by

P(x,x+dx) = ΨΨ*dx, where Ψ* is the complex conjugate of Ψ which is

normalized.

OR The quantity ΨΨ∗ dxdydzgives probability of finding the particle

in a small volume ,dV = dxdydz(about the point x,y,z))

7) What are operators.Write expression for any two operators.

Ans : In quantum mechanics observable quantities are represented by
operators.

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An operator is said to be linear if A(C1Ψ1+C2Ψ2)= C1AΨ1+C2AΨ2
∂
Energy operator E = i ℏ
∂t
∂
Momentum operator p = -i ℏ
∂x

8) With example explain eigen value equation.

Ans : An equation of the form AΨ = aΨ is called Eigen value equation ,
where A- operator, Ψ-eigen function (operand), a- eigen value(output of a
measurement).

Eg : Schrodinger equation ,HΨ=EΨ.

9) What is a wave packet?

ANS :Waves associated with a moving matter or particle in motion are
called matter waves. It means that a particle can be represented by a
wave confined to a small region of space in the vicinity of the particle,
(so that the wave like phenomena are confined in the neighborhood of
that particle.) A plane wave cannot be used to represent it since it extend
to infinity.Hence to represent a matter wave we use a wave which have
large amplitude where probability of finding the particle is
high(neighborhood of that particle) and its amplitude vanishes where
there is least chance of finding the particle.

This wave packet is made by superimposing large number of waves having

slightly different velocity and wavelength ,so that they interfere
constructively at the vicinity of particle and interfere destructively
elsewhere. The packet as a whole moves with a velocity called group
velocity and individual waves in it moves with a velocity called phase
velocity. The group velocity is same as the particle velocity.

10) How do you account for the natural line broadening on the basis of
Heisenberg's Uncertainty principle?

ANS : The uncertainty relation can be stated for the frequency and
energy of a radiation emitted by an excited atom. Let ∆E be the
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 uncertainty in energy. The average time gap between the excitation of
an atom and the consequent photon emission be ∆t.
Then Energy Time uncertainty relation is given by ∆E*∆t ≥ h/4π
Substituting ∆E=h*∆υ(photon energy), we get ∆υ*∆t ≥ 1/4π.
,where ∆υ represent the uncertainty in determining frequency υ or
accuracy in determining the frequency of emitted radiation. Due to this
uncertainty in determining frequency, the emitted spectral line is not
sharp but have some broadening in frequency (frequency spread.).This
is called natural line broadening. So we can say that no spectral line
will be emitted at a single frequency.

11) Write the normalization condition of _a wave function and its

significance.
Or A well behaved wave function is normalized ,why?
ANS: The quantity whose variation goes on to make matter waves is called
wave function., denoted by Ψ (r,t).It is in general a complex valued function.
Also it is the suitable solution of Schrodinger equation. It represent the
complete state of a system.
Normalization condition for a wave function is given by
∞
∫–∞ 𝛹𝛹 ∗ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 1 (where 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 is the volume element)
Significance : It means that if a particle exists in a given region of
space(volume) ,then total probability of finding the particle in that region is
one(100%). (here –∞ to +∞ means this region is the entire universe) or If there
is a particle it must exist somewhere in the universe.

12)What are operators ?

ANS :In quantum mechanics every dynamical quantities like energy, momentum etc
is represented by their corresponding operators. These operators form eigen value
equation with wavefunctionand eigen values of this eigen value equation represent
the possible result of the measurement on the system.

An operator can be considered as a mathematical assignment to do something on

something which definitely gives something. The something on which the operator
acts on, is called operand.
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Linear operator: Mathematical theory of quantum mechanics relies on the theory of
linear operators.An operator ‘A’ is said to be linear if satisfies the following
condition

A(C1ψ1 +C2ψ2) = C1 (Aψ1)+ C2(Aψ2)

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑋 𝑑𝑋 2
Eg : is a linear operator, (3X +4X2) = 3( )|+4( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

But log is not a linear operator ,log(X-Y) ≠ log(X)-log(Y)

13)Write the expression for various operator used in quantum mechanics

∂
a)Energy operator is given by E= i ℏ ,when it act on wave function ψ,
∂t
∂𝜓
Eψ = i ℏ
∂t

∂ ∂ ∂
b)Momentum operator is given by px= -i ℏ , py= -i ℏ , pz= -i ℏ
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂ ∂ ∂
3-D,momentum operator is given by p = -i ℏ(i +j + k ) =-i ℏ∇
∂x ∂y ∂z

Ie p= -i ℏ∇, when it act on wave function ψ , pψ=-i ℏ∇ψ

∂ ∂ ∂
(where differential operator∇ = i +j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
Similarly3-d operator corresponding to p2 = -ℏ2 ( 2
+ 2
+ ) =− ℏ2∇2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 2
ie p2 =− ℏ2∇2 , when it act on wave function ψ , p2 ψ =− ℏ2∇2 ψ

c) Hamiltonian operator(total energy operator) is given by

ℏ2 ℏ2
H=− ∇2 +V, when it act on wave function ψ, Hψ = (− ∇2ψ +Vψ)
2𝑚 2𝑚
ℏ2
Where − ∇2represent operator for kinetic energy and V represent operator for
2𝑚
potential energy

d) Kinetic energy operator

𝒑𝟐 ℏ2
K.E = =− ∇2
𝟐𝒎 2𝑚

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 e) Position operator
x= xop , y= yop, z= zop

f) Potential energy operator

V = Vop,operator for potential energy is represented by V itself (scalar
functon)

14) Obtain the expression for energy and momentum operator.

ANS :Energy operator: Plane progressive wave propagating in positive x

direction in terms of energy and momentum is given by ψ(x,t) = Aei/ℏ (px-Et)

Differentiating the above eqn with respect to t gives

∂𝜓 𝐸𝜓
= −𝑖
∂t ℏ
∂ψ ∂ψ
Eψ = i ℏ ,where the quantity, i ℏ represent the operator for energy
∂t ∂t

Momentum operator

Plane progressive wave propagating in positive x direction in terms of energy

and momentum is given by ψ= Aei/ℏ (px-Et)

∂𝜓 𝑝Ѱ
Differentiating the above eqn with respect to x gives =𝑖
∂x ℏ
∂Ѱ
pψ= -i ℏ ,
∂x
∂
where the quantity -i ℏ represent the operator for momentum
∂x

14) Obtain the expression for De-Broglie wavelength of an electron.

ANS :An electron accelerated from rest through a voltage V has a kinetic
energy
2𝑒𝑉
K.E = ½(mv2) = eV or velocity v = √
𝑚

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 h ℎ
We have De Broglie wavelength equation ,λ = =
mv 2𝑒𝑉
𝑚√
𝑚
ℎ
Or λ= (where h- Planck’s constant,m-mass of electron,e-charge of
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉
electron applied voltage)

15) Explain dual nature of matter

ANS: According to de-Broglie a particle in motion have wave nature in
addition to particle nature ,this concept is called dual nature of matter.A
particle is localized in space but a wave is extended in space.
Factors that led de-Broglie to the formalization of dual nature of matter:

1)Nature loves symmetry.: Matter and radiation are the fundamental entities
of nature. So he concluded that since radiation has dual nature (wave
nature by –interference, diffraction etc and particle nature by photoelectric
effect) ,matter should also exhibit dual nature.
2)Bohr theory: According to Bohr’s theoryangular momentum of electron
mvr= nℏ. .
In physics integer appear in wave phenomena interference, diffraction etc
Therefore, he suggests that electron also has dual nature due to the presence
of n(integer) in the expression.
3)Close parallelism between optics(principle of least time) and mechanics
(principle of least action) for waves and particles

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 QUANTUM MECHANICS

Quantum mechanics is a branch of physics which deals with the dynamics of

microscopic particles or elementary particles like electron ,proton etc

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1) Formulate Schrodinger’s time dependent equation starting froma plane

wave equation by using de Broglie formula and Einstein’srelation for
photon energy.

TIME DEPENDENT SCHRODINGER WAVE EQUATION

Schrodinger wave equation is the fundamental expression of Quantum

mechanics.Aparticle in motion is associated with a matterwave represented by a
wavefunction that contain all the information about the motion.Aplane progressive
wave that propagate along positive x axis is given by ψ = Ae (ikx-iωt)

𝐸 𝑝
Using equation of photon energy E=ℏω or ω = and momentum P=ℏk or k= in
ℏ ℏ
above equation

ψ = Aei/ℏ (px-Et)-------(1)Differentiating the eqn(1) twice with respect to x

∂2 Ψ 𝑝2
gives =− Ψ
∂𝑥 2 ℏ2

∂2 Ψ
ie, 𝑝2 Ψ = -ℏ2 ------(2)
∂𝑥 2

Differentiating the eqn(1) with respect to t gives

∂Ψ 𝐸
= −𝑖 Ψ
∂t ℏ

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 ∂Ψ
EΨ =iℏ --------(3)
∂t
𝑝2
Total energy of a particle ,E= K.E +P.E = +V(x,t) multiplying right side of
2𝑚
each term with ψ

𝑝2 Ψ
+V(x,t) Ψ = E Ψ -----(4 )
2𝑚

substituting (2 and (3) in above equation

ℏ2 ∂2 Ψ(x,t) ∂Ψ(x,t)
− +V(x,t)ψ(x,t) = i ℏ ,
2𝑚 ∂𝑥 2 ∂t
The above equation represent theTime Dependent Schrodinger Wave Equation

In 3-D the above equation

ℏ2 ∂Ψ(r,t)
− ∇2 Ψ(r, t) +V(r,t) Ψ(r, t) = i ℏ -------(5)
2𝑚 ∂t
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
Where Laplacian operator ∇2 = 2 + 2 +
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 2

Eqn (5 ) can also be written as

ℏ𝟐 ∂Ψ(𝑟,𝑡)
[− ∇2 +V(r,t)] ψ(r,t) = i ℏ ----(6)
𝟐𝒎 ∂t
Where the quantity insquare bracket is called Hamiltonian operator, given by
ℏ2 ∂
H=− ∇2 +V and E= i ℏ operator for energy
2𝑚 ∂t

Then Schrodinger equation can also be written as H Ψ =E Ψ

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 2) Formulate Schrodinger’s time independent equation using
Schrodinger’s time dependent equation ?
TIME INDEPENDENT SCHRODINGER WAVE EQUATION

Solution of Time dependent Schrodinger wave equation are functions of

position(x) and time (t).If potential energy is independent of time we get,Time
independent Schrodinger wave equation. The wave function ψ(x,t) in this case
can be represent by product of two functions u(x) and w(t)(where u(x) –function of
position(x) only and w(t) - function of time(t) only)

Ψ(x,t)= u(x)w(t)) =uw. ------(1)

𝜕Ψ 𝜕w
Differentiating eqn(1) once with respect to t gives =u -----(2)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Differentiating eqn(1) twice with respect to x gives

∂2 Ψ ∂2 u
=w ----(3)
∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑥 2

Substituting the equations (1),(2),(3) in time dependent Schrodinger wave

ℏ2 ∂2 Ψ ∂Ψ
equation − +V(x,t) Ψ = i ℏ ,, and considering a time
2𝑚 ∂𝑥 2 ∂t
independent potential V(x)

We get

ℏ2 ∂2 u 𝜕w
− w +V(x)uw =i ℏu
2𝑚 ∂𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡
Dividing throughout by uw

ℏ 2 ∂2 u i ℏ 𝜕w
− +V(x) =
2𝑚𝑢 ∂𝑥 2 𝑤 𝜕𝑡

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Since LHS is a function of x only (space coordinates) and RHS is a function of
time,t only ,therefore we can equate each side to a constant ,let it be E

ie

ℏ 2 ∂2 u i ℏ 𝜕w
− +V(x) = =E
2𝑚𝑢 ∂𝑥 2 𝑤 𝜕𝑡

It can easily be prove that the constant E has the dimension of energy

ℏ 2 ∂2 u
− +V(x) =E
2𝑚𝑢 ∂𝑥 2

∂2 u 2m(E − V(x))u
+ =0
∂𝑥 2 ħ2

As it is customary to write wavefunction interms of 𝜓 the above equation can be

written as
∂2 𝜓 2m(E − V(x))𝜓
+ =0
∂𝑥 2 ħ2

This is the 1-D Schrodinger time independent wave equation

2m(E−V(r))𝜓(r,t)
In 3 -d the above equation can be written as ∇2 𝜓 (r,t) + =0
ħ2

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 3) SolveSchrodinger’s equation for a particle in a one dimensional infinite
square well potential (Particle in a box)and obtain the equation for
energy values and normalizedwave function of the particle.

PARTICLE IN A ONE DIMENSIONAL INFINITE SQUARE WELL

POTENTIAL (PARTICLE IN A BOX)

Consider the motion of a particle of mass m, confined to move between two walls
of infinite height potential well having width L (at x=0and x=L)..The potential
energy of the particle inside the box is zero since there is no force is acting on the
particle or as there is no interaction between particle and the box. Hence we use
time independent Schrodinger equation to obtain possible energy values and wave
function of the particle inside the box.

Schrodinger time independent wave equation is given by

∂2 Ѱ 2m(E−V)
+ Ψ= 0
∂𝑥 2 ħ2

Since the potential energy ,V = 0 for particle inside the box

∂2 Ѱ 2m(E)
+ Ψ= 0
∂𝑥 2 ħ2
2mE
Let k2 = -------(2)
ħ2
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∂2 Ѱ
+ 𝑘2Ψ= 0---------(3)
∂𝑥 2

general solution of eqn(3):

ψ(x)=Asin(kx)+Bcos(kx)------(3A)

where A, B, and k are constants.

According to our boundary conditions, the probability of finding the particle at x=0
or x=L is zero. So by continuity condition ψ =0 at x<0 and ψ =0 at x>L,this is only
possible if ψ =0 at x=0 and ψ =0 at x=L .
When x=0 ,equation (3A) becomes B=0(as sin(0)=0 and cos(0)=1); therefore,
:

ψ(x)=Asin(kx) -----(4)

Also by continuity condition .ψ=0 at x=L

Asin(kx) = 0,this is possible only when kL= nπ, or

k=nπ/L-------(5),where n- integer(1,2…..)
nπx
Hence ψ(x)=Asin( ) (obtained by substituting eqn(5) in (4))
𝐿

Squaring eqn (5) and using eqn (2) we can write energy corresponding to nth state,
is given by

(nπħ)2
En=
2𝑚𝐿2

(πħ)2
When we put n=1 in the above equation we get, E1= ground state energy,
2𝑚𝐿2
(πħ)2
and when we put n=2 , E2 =4 =4 E1,first excited state energy.
2𝑚𝐿2

The normalized wave function is obtained by .

𝐿 ∗
∫0 Ψ Ψ 𝑑𝑥 =1

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 𝐿 2
∫0 Ψ dx=1

𝐿 2 2 nπx
∫0 A sin (
𝐿
)𝑑𝑥 =1

𝐿 2 1−cos2 (nπx )
∫0 A (
2
𝐿
dx=1

L
A2 =1
2

2
Which gives A = √ , hence the normalized wave functions given by
𝐿
2 nπx
𝛹𝑛 = √ sin( )
𝐿 𝐿

When we put n=1 in above equation we get ground state wave function given
2 πx
by 𝛹1 = √ sin( ) and n=2 gives first excited state wave function given by
𝐿 𝐿
2 πx
𝛹2 = √ sin(2 )
𝐿 𝐿

The probability for finding the particle between x and x+dx is given by

2 nπx 2 nπx
P(x ,x+dx) = ΨΨ*dx = √ sin( )√ sin( )dx
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

The probability for finding the particle in an interval x1 and x2

𝑥2 𝑥2 2 nπx 2 nπx
Ψ Ψ dx =∫ √ sin(
∗
P(x1, x2) = ∫ )√ sin( )dx
𝑥1 𝑥1 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

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 Wave function(Ψ) Probability density (ψψ*dx or‫׀‬Ψ‫׀‬2 dx)

for different states of the particle in different states

(Ψ1,Ψ2 ,Ψ3etc)

4) State and explain uncertainty principle ..Write its mathematical form

for the following pairs of variables(1) position and
momentum(2)energy and time(3)angular position and angular
momentum.
b) Explain the absence of electrons inside nucleus on the basics of
`````uncertainty principle.

c) How do you account for the natural line broadening on the basis of
``````Heisenberg's Uncertainty principle

Ans: a)The product of uncertainties in determining two canonically

conjugate quantities like position and momentum can never be
smaller than ħ/2.
OR
According to uncertainty principle it is impossible to determine both
momentum and position(canonically conjugate quantities) of a
microscopic moving particle simultaneously.

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 Δx Δp ≥ ħ/2 (position and momentum)
ΔE Δt ≥ ħ/2(energy and time)
ΔJ Δθ ≥ ħ/2(angular position and angular momentum )
b)According to uncertainty principle it is impossible to accurately
determine both momentum and position of a microscopic moving particle
simultaneously.
ħ
Δx Δp ≥ (position and momentum).If an electron is present inside the
2
nucleus then the uncertainty in position will be of the order of its diameter, ie

Δ x = 5x10-15. , then according to uncertainty principle uncertainty in momentum

ħ (1.05∗10−34 )
is given by Δp≥ ≥ ≥1.05x10-20Kgm/s.
2Δ𝑥 2∗5∗10−15
The energy of electron corresponding to this momentum is
, ΔE= Δp * c=(1.05x10-20 )x 3x108 J

(1.05𝑥10−20 ∗3∗108 )
OR ΔE = = 20MeV.
1.6x10−19

Therefore if an electron exists inside a nucleus it must have an energy of

20MeV. But measured energy of an electron emitted in a of β- decay
experiment is of the order of only a few MeV. Therefore we can conclude
that electron cannot exist inside a nucleus.

c)The uncertainty relation can be stated for the frequency and energy
of a radiation emitted by an excited atom. Let ∆E be the uncertainty in
energy. The average time gap between the excitation of an atom and
the consequent photon emission be ∆t.
Then Energy Time uncertainty relation is given by
ℎ
∆E*∆t≥
4𝜋
Substituting ∆E=h*∆υ(photon energy), in above equation,
1
we get, ∆υ*∆t ≥ ., where ∆υ represent the uncertainty in determining
4𝜋
frequency( ∆υ) or accuracy in determining the frequency of emitted
radiation. Due to this uncertainty in determining frequency, the emitted

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 spectral line is not sharp but have some broadening in
frequency(frequency spread.).This is called natural line broadening. So
we can say that no spectral line will be emitted at a single frequency.

For example ,if ,∆t =10-8s,then uncertainty in frequency of the emitted radiation,
1 1
is ∆υ ≥ ≥
4𝜋∆t 4∗π∗10−8

ie∆υ ≥ 8MHz

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