MEKDELA AMBA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCE

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCE

Principles and Practices of Irrigation (Plsc461)

SET BY: Arebu H.

November, 2022

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 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Definitions for Irrigation and Drainage

Irrigation can be defined as an artificial application of water to soil for the purpose of supplying
the moisture essential in the plant root-zone to prevent stress that may cause reduced yield and/or
poor quality of harvest of crops.
There are two important questions which come to mind:
1. What to do if there is too little rain water?
If there is too little rain, water must be supplied from other source: irrigation is needed.
Irrigation may be supplementary irrigation or total /full irrigation based on rainfall
availability.
2. What to do if there is too much rain water?
• If there is too much rain, the soil will be full of water and there will not be enough
air. Excess water must be removed. The removal of excess water-either from the
ground surface or from root zone-is drainage.
There are five questions on irrigation
1. How often to apply? The frequency of application
2. Where to apply? Applied to root zone of the crops
3. When to apply? At right time
4. How much to apply? In required amount
5. For what? For optimum crop yield

Irrigation is defined as artificial application of water to the root zone of the crop at right time and
in right quantity for optimum growth of agricultural crops so as to get mores per unit of water used.

Drainage is the removal of excess surface and subsurface water from the land, including the removal
of soluble salts from the soil, to enhance crop growth.

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Scope of irrigation science
The scope of irrigation is not limited to the application of water to the soil. It deals with all aspects
and problems extending from the watershed to the agricultural farms. The scope of irrigation
science can be divided into divided into two heads:

Engineering aspects
Agricultural aspects
I. Engineering aspects
a) Storage, diversion and lifting of water
b) Conveyance of water to the agricultural fields
c) Application of water to agricultural fields
d) Drainage and reliving water logging
e) Development of water power

In this aspect irrigation is defined as the engineering of controlling and harnessing the various
natural sources of water, by the construction of dams and reservoirs, canals and head works and
finally distributing the water to the agricultural fields. Irrigation engineering includes the study and
design of works in connection with river control, drainage of water logged areas and operation of
hydroelectric power.

II. Agricultural aspects

The agricultural aspect deals with through study of the following points:
a. Proper depths of water necessary in single application of water for various crops
b. Distribution of uniformly and periodically
c. Capacities of different soils for irrigation water and the flow of water in the soils
d. Reclamation of waste and alkaline lands.

In general, this phase of irrigation deals with the use of water economically for the maximum crop
production.

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 1.2. Early History of Irrigation Development
The earliest archeological evidence of irrigation in farming dates to about 6000 B.C in the Middle
East’s Jordan Valley. It is widely believed that irrigation was being practice in Egypt at about the
same time, and the earliest pictorial representation of irrigation is from Egypt around 3100 B.C.

1.3. The Need for Irrigation

❖ Variability in rainfall

Normal rainfall is marked by its wide fluctuations in different parts as also variation from season
to season and year to year in its quantity, incidence and duration.

❖ Unequal distribution of rainfall

In Ethiopia 80% of the annual rainfall is received from June to September. In other season the
rainfall amount and distribution are highly vary.

❖ To meet crop requirement and soil needs

Different crops require different quantities of water supply throughout their growing period
making it necessary for irrigation. E.g., sugarcane and rice need more water than wheat and other
crops.

❖ To maximize production

To get high yields and maximum production from land, and to facilitate double and treble
cropping is a must.

❖ To get efficient use of utilizable flow

The rivers are largely dry during the most months of the year making it necessary for the
provision of irrigation.

❖ To supplement supply even in good rainfall areas

In good rainfall areas irrigation is required mostly as a supplemental need to protect their single
crop agriculture against occasional drought.

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 2. SOURCE OF IRRIGATION WATER

Water sources are sources of water that are potentially useful. Uses of water include agricultural,
industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. The water needed to supply an
irrigation scheme is taken from a water source. Based up on the availability of water common
sources of water for irrigation are

2.1 . Surface water (stored in lakes, streams, and ponds)

2.2 . Groundwater (extracted from springs or by using wells)
2.3 . Harvested water

2.1. Surface water

It is the water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland. Surface water is naturally replenished by
precipitation and naturally lost through discharge to oceans, evaporation, evapo-transpiration and
groundwater recharge.

Rivers

Rivers are used all over the world as sources of irrigation water. The most typical quality defining
a river is that it flows. The flow of river fluctuates over time. The flows of some rivers fluctuate
greatly over relatively short periods of time; these are mainly small local rivers which respond
quickly to rainfall in their catchment area. A catchment area is the area from which a particular
river or lake receives both surface flow and drainage water originating from precipitation. Other
rivers show little fluctuation or vary only over a long period of time. These are mainly rivers with
a large catchment area, where the rains are spread over a greater area and for a longer period of
time.

Reservoirs and lakes

Lakes are natural depressions of the land which are filled up with water. Fresh water lakes have a
natural outlet through which the lake discharges superfluous water. Lakes are supplied with water
by rainfall that falls directly on the surface of the lake, by water run-off from the adjacent land and
small streams, or by groundwater that seeps through the soil to the lowest point which is the lake.

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Lakes lose water via evaporation from the lake's surface, via the lake's natural outlet (overflow), or
through percolation from the bottom of the lake to the groundwater.

A reservoir is an artificial lake. It can be formed by building a dam across a valley, by excavating
the land or by surrounding a piece of land with dykes. The water is stored in the reservoir and can
be used for irrigation. Huge reservoirs are built by damming major rivers, which can supply water
to large irrigation areas measuring thousands of hectares.

a. Groundwater

The term ground water or sub surface water refers to the water that occurs below the surface of the
earth. The main source of ground water is infiltration. The infiltrated water after meeting the soil
moisture deficiency percolates deeply and becomes ground water. Groundwater is an important
source of irrigation water, especially for small-scale irrigation projects. Because groundwater is
available below ground level, it must be lifted, or pumped before it can be used.

Groundwater flows, in most cases, slowly to the lower parts. Where the aquifer meets the surface,
the groundwater flows out of the soil into, for instance, a river or a spring. Groundwater may be
found close to the surface or at profound depths.

Shallow groundwater

When the groundwater lies within a few meters of the surface, exploitation is possible with shallow
wells which are mostly dug by hand. These wells normally have a diameter of 1 meter or more and
are dug below the groundwater table. Water is pumped from these wells, often using human or
animal power but, increasingly, with small diesel-powered pumps. The amount of water that can
be abstracted from shallow wells is limited, and, as a result, the areas which are irrigated from these
water sources will also be limited.

Deep groundwater

When the groundwater level is very deep, constructing a hand-dug well becomes impossible. Deep
wells must be drilled into the ground. Generally, submersible pumps are installed below the
groundwater table to lift water to the surface. They may be driven by an electric motor or a diesel-

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powered engine on the surface with a long vertical shaft, or by a submerged electric motor inside a
waterproof casing.

b. Harvested water

Water harvesting is defined as the “collection of runoffs for its productive use. Runoff may be
harvested from roofs and ground surfaces, as well as from intermittent or ephemeral watercourses.
Productive uses include provision of domestic and stock water, concentration of runoff for crops,
fodder and tree production and, less frequently, water supply for fish and duck ponds. Water
harvesting techniques which harvest runoff from roofs or ground surfaces fall under the term
rainwater harvesting, while all systems which collect discharges from watercourses are grouped
under the term floodwater harvesting. The techniques utilized for collecting, storing and using rain
and flood waters are very diverse.

3. WATER RESOURCE AND IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN ETHIOPIA

3.1. Water Resource Potential of Ethiopia

3.1.1. Surface Water Resource

Irrigation in Ethiopia is considered as a basic strategy to alleviate poverty and hence food security.
It is useful to transform the rain-fed agricultural system which depends on rainfall into the
combined rain-fed and irrigation agricultural system. This is believed to be the most prominent way
of sustainable development in the country. However, the development of irrigation practices in
Ethiopia has to be investigated so as to seriously know the history of irrigation emergence and its
subsequent developments.

Irrigation water applications to crop fields are of various types. The most commonly used and most
ancient type is surface irrigation methods through the usage of gravity forces. This was used
especially across river side and it doesn’t depend on mechanized equipments.

3.1.2. Ground Water Resource

Nowadays, modernized irrigation systems are mostly used which works based on the pressurized
energy system. The sprinkler and drip irrigation systems are of this type of water application
systems.

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 3.2. Irrigation Development in Ethiopia

Modern irrigation was started in the early 1950’s by the bilateral agreement between the
government of Ethiopia and the Dutch company jointly known as HVA-Ethiopia sugar cane
plantation. In the 1960s irrigated agriculture was expanded in all parts of the Awash Valley and in
the Lower Rift Valley

During the Derg era, all private farms were nationalized, there by ending the highly motivated but
embryonic private sector. The government pursued the development of medium and large scale
irrigation schemes as State Farms, initiating a number of schemes dispersed in many parts of the
country that ranged from Amibara Irrigation Project in the Middle Awash to Alwero Irrigation
project in Gambella and Gode-West Irrigation near Gode town.

While the development of small scale irrigation scheme continued under Regional Water, Mines
and Energy Bureaus, the development of medium and large scale irrigation has virtually ceased
since the mid-1990s until recently. This due to the withdrawal of federal government from running
state development enterprises such as irrigated state farms, following the adoption of market based
economic policy.

According to Awulachew et al., (2010), Ethiopia has vast cultivable land (30 to 70 M ha), but only
15M ha of land is under cultivation, with current irrigation schemes covering about 640000 ha.
Total potential irrigable land is 5.3 million ha. This includes 3.7 M ha from gravity-fed surface
water and an additional 1.1 and 0.5 M ha from groundwater and rainwater harvesting, respectively.

According to MoA, (2011a) pressurized sprinkler irrigation system was once practiced in Fincha
State Farm, Eastern Amhara, Southern Tigray and on some private farms in the Rift Valley. The
rift valley is a place where modern irrigation in Ethiopia starts especially in the Awash River Basin
at which adoption of pump-irrigation commences.

Surface irrigation methods predominantly furrow irrigation and basin irrigation methods were
practiced for cotton and wheat productions and for commercial fruits such as bananas respectively.
Meanwhile, similar reports explained that irrigated agriculture was started in Ethiopia in the upper
Awash Valley with the objective of producing industrial crops as sugarcane, cotton and

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horticultural crops on a large-scale basis, explained in a remarkable emergence of irrigation
development and establishment of agro-industrial centers. This was due to taking an advantage of
the construction of Koka dam aimed as a reservoir irrigation water supply, flood control and
hydropower generation.

According to the Ministry of Agriculture, In Ethiopia, there were modern water storage and water
management systems for irrigation purposes. This includes water diversion schemes, water storage
dams, micro irrigation systems, rainwater harvesting and shallow ground water harvesting
techniques. These systems make use of different water drawing irrigation technologies for lifting,
conveying and applying irrigation water for irrigation uses. Night water storage facilities, Treadle
pumps for lifting water, smallholder drip systems and micro- sprinklers for irrigation application
are used among others.

Problems in Irrigation Development

i. Lack of mapping data
ii. Lack of Hydrologic Data
iii. Lack of resources
iv. Inadequate research undertakings in the area
v. Operation and Maintenance
vi. Lack of Finance

3.3. Irrigation Potential of Ethiopia

3.3.1. Irrigation Schemes in Ethiopia
Irrigation scheme: means the area where crops are grown under irrigation through any method
including flood recession; gravity or pump fed canal systems supplying either surface or
groundwater; water harvesting and pressurised systems such as drip and sprinkler.

Some research noted that irrigation development is a key for sustainable and reliable agricultural
development which leads to overall development in Ethiopia. Irrigated agriculture is being
practiced under smallholders, medium and large-scale farming.

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In Ethiopia, due to lack of water storage infrastructure and large spatial and temporal variations in
rainfall, there is not enough water for most farmers to produce more than one crop per year. Hence,
Ethiopia is increasingly investing in irrigation sector in order to exploit the agricultural production
potential of the country.
a. To achieve food self-sufficiency at national level
b. To generate foreign currency from export earnings
c. Satisfy the raw material demand of local industries
According to Ministry of Water Resources of Ethiopia (MoWR, 2002), irrigation development in
Ethiopia is classified based on the size of the command area, in three types:
1. Small-scale irrigation systems (<200 ha)
2. Medium-scale irrigation systems (200-3,000 ha)
3. Large-scale irrigation systems (>3,000 ha)
This classification system is the most common in Ethiopia. Accordingly, 46% of proposed
irrigation developments are in the small-scale irrigation category.

Broadly, irrigation schemes in Ethiopia can be of any of the following four types:

➢ traditional small-scale schemes of up to 100 ha in area, built and operated by farmers in

local communities

➢ modern communal schemes of up to 200 ha, built by Government agencies with farmer
participation

➢ modern private schemes of up to 2,000 ha, owned and operated by private investors
individually, in partnership, or as corporations

➢ public schemes of over 3,000 ha, owned and operated by public enterprises as state farms

The total area equipped for irrigation in Ethiopia in the Nile Basin is about 91,000 ha. All except
one scheme lie in the Blue Nile sub-basin. Lying in relatively high rainfall area, irrigation of these
areas is supplemental where the rainfall is expected not to meet the crop water requirements. Nearly
half (46%) of the irrigation area depends on the flow of the Blue Nile without a storage facility that
would regulate the highly seasonal flows of the river. As a result, the schemes face shortage of
water during the dry season. With the exception of the Fincha irrigation scheme, which uses

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sprinkler system, all irrigation in Ethiopia in the Nile Basin relies on surface – gravity method for
water conveyance and application.

Both irrigated and rain fed agriculture are important in the Ethiopian economy but virtually all food
crops are rain fed with irrigation accounting for only about 3%. Export crops such as coffee, oilseed
and pulses are mostly rain fed but industrial crops such as sugar cane, cotton and fruit are irrigated.
Other irrigated crops include vegetables, fruit trees, maize, wheat, potatoes, sweet potatoes and
bananas. Sugarcane is mainly cultivated as part of the Fincha sugar estate that also includes the
Amerti-Neshe scheme. Overall, pulses make most of the crop cultivated in the irrigated systems.

There is a marked value added in irrigated agriculture. The total estimated annual water use for
irrigation in Ethiopia is estimated at 1.5 BCM. Growing population pressure in the highland areas
of rain fed agriculture on a rapidly declining natural resource base has secured irrigated agriculture
a prominent position on the country’s development agenda.

Example: Cropped area

Scheme Name District (Level 3) Area (ha) Equipped Water Source Type

Koga Merawi 7000 Dam

Neshe Abay Chomen 7200 Dam
Fincha Sugar Abay Chomen/Guduru 7600 Dam
Lake Tana Several 15000 Lake
Tis Abbay Bahir Dar Zuria 21500 River
Us/Abbay@Kessie Several 21500 River
Abobo Abobo 10515.4 Dam

3.3.2. Challenges and opportunities of irrigation in Ethiopia

According to the MoWIE (2013) and MoA (2011a), the main challenges and opportunities for the
development of irrigation in Ethiopia is listed hereunder. These narrations are provided for
explanations of small scale irrigation schemes. More on this issue can be found at MoA (2011a).

Challenges
These challenges can be explained as technical constraints and knowledge gaps as
1. Inadequate awareness of irrigation water management as in irrigation scheduling
techniques, water saving irrigation technologies, water measurement techniques,
operation and maintenance of irrigation facilities,

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 2. Inadequate knowledge on improved and diversified irrigation agronomic practices,
3. Shortage of basic technical knowledge on irrigation pumps, drip irrigation system,
sprinkler irrigations, surface and spate irrigation methods
4. Inadequate baseline data and information on the development of water resources,
5. Lack of experience in design, construction and supervision of quality irrigation projects,
6. Low productivity of existing irrigation schemes,
7. Inadequate community involvement and consultation in scheme planning, construction
and implementation of irrigation development,
8. Poor economic background of users for irrigation infrastructure development, to access
irrigation technologies and agricultural inputs, where the price increment is not
affordable to farmers.
Opportunities
The basic opportunistic considerations regarding irrigation developments in Ethiopia are
Emphasis and priorities are given to irrigation in the growth and transformation plan of the
country
Indigenous knowledge and introduction of promising household water harvesting and
micro- irrigation technologies
Government’s strong political commitment and encouragement to private sector and public
enterprises involvement in irrigation development
Abundant water resources, climate and land suitability
Availability of inexpensive labor
Availability of suitable lands for irrigation developments especially at arid areas of the
country.
3.3.3. Water Management, Policies and Legislation Related to Water in Agriculture

National Policy and Priority

Irrigation development or implementation of irrigation projects largely depends on the
national/governmental policy and priority issues. The government may promote irrigation
development to increase and stabilize food production in the region. Despite a proposed irrigation
development project being not economical (in terms of estimated net return and cost, and economic
rates of return), the government can establish such a project considering regional/national food

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security, local employment opportunity, opportunity of establishment of local industry, and long-
term savings in foreign currency.

Socio-Cultural Aspects

The implementation of irrigation projects will bring changes in land use pattern and intensity, land
and labor productivity, household resource requirements, and tenure issues, which require
management and institutional consideration. These socioeconomic and institutional factors affect
irrigation development.

Institutional Infrastructure

New construction or rehabilitation of existing irrigation systems requires operation and

maintenance, and financing and cost recovery. An institutional framework and infrastructure are
necessary for analyzing policy decisions with respect to project section, design and construction,
operation and maintenance, cost recovery, and administration.

The Water Resources Management Proclamation was enacted 197/2000 within the exclusive
mandate of the federal government in accordance with Article 55(1) of the Constitution. The
Proclamation applies “to water resources management on the water resources that exist in
Ethiopia’’. Water resource management is defined as ‘activities that include water resources
development; utilization, conservation, protection and control’.

The Proclamation brings together objectives, principles and legal instruments of the national policy
on water resource management. Ethiopia’s existing legal and policy framework for water resources
management enshrines the basic principles of integrated water resources management. Integrated
water resources management is also one of the pillars of Ethiopia’s Water Resources Policy.
Integrated water resources management envisages the preparation and implementation of
Integrated Basin Master Plan Studies.

The purpose of Water Resources Management Proclamation is ‘to ensure that the water resources
of the country are protected and utilized for the highest social and economic benefits of the people
of Ethiopia, to follow up and supervise that they are duly conserved, ensure that harmful effects of

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water are prevented, and that the management of water resources is carried out properly’ (Art 3).
The Proclamation also lists some fundamental legal principles that provide a coherent structure for
the system.

The Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy has the mandate of designing appropriate policy and
legal framework for the development and administration of water resources (Art 23). Powers and
Duties of the Executive Organs Proclamation empowers the Ministry to ‘design policies and legal
frameworks for the development of water resources and irrigation’.

In 2007, Ethiopia (in similar fashion like the Brazilian water resources management model) was
divided into 12 hydrographic basins to facilitate the administration of water resources. The basins
are Abbay Basin; Aisha Basin; Awash Basin; Baro-Akobo Basin; Danakil Basin; Genale-Dawa
Basin; Mereb Basin; Ogaden Basin; Omo-Ghibe Basin; Tekeze Basin; Rift Vally Lakes Basin and
Webi-Shebele Basin. Each of the basin regions is composed of sub-basins that share similar natural,
social and economic characteristics. Basin is defined as ‘a geographical area, described by the
watershed limits of a water system including surface and underground water flowing into a common
terminus’. According to the Proclamation, the Basins Development Authority shall ‘give advice
and technical support to the Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy on dispute resolution in
relation to the allocation and use of water resources in basins’.

There are limited provisions in the FDRE Constitution and other laws on the legal framework
related to water governance in Ethiopia. The power to legislate and administer water is vested on
the federal government and limited legislative and administrative jurisdiction is left for the regional
states.

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4. BASIC SOIL-WATER RELATIONS

Soil plant water relation relates to physical properties of the soil and plants that affects the
movement, retention and use of water. Root zone (depth of soil penetrated by roots) of a soil
provides the storage reservoir which needs to be periodically recharged. Soil serves as a store house
of water. Irrigation water and practically the whole of rain water become available to plants through
the soil. Irrigation water and rain water after due infiltration in to the soil get stored in macro- and
micro-pores of the soil. The water stored in soil pores constitutes the soil water.

Water in soil medium is involved in many processes and soil characteristics influence those greatly.
The soil functions as a reservoir for water to meet the evapotranspiration demands of plants. It
contains and supplies water, oxygen, nutrients and mechanical support for plant growth. The soil
determines how irrigation water should be managed. The amount of water the soil can hold for
plant use is determined by its physical and chemical properties. This amount determines the
length of time that a plant can be sustained adequately between irrigation and/or rainfall events, the
frequency of irrigation and the amount and rate to be applied.

Along with plant evapotranspiration, it also determines the irrigation system capacity needed for
desired crop yield. These relations must be considered in designing and operation the system. The
amount of water in the soil can hold in available form for plant use is determined by its physical
properties. It determines both the frequency of irrigation and capacity of irrigation system
needed to ensure continuous crop growth. An understanding of the relationship between soils and
water is thus essential to make the most profitable use of water in crop production.

The timing and amounts of rainfall during the season, the soil's ability to hold water and the
crop's water requirements are all factors that influence the need for irrigation. Under irrigation,
soil and water compatibility is very important. If they are not compatible, the applied irrigation
water could have an adverse effect on the chemical and physical properties of the soil. Determining
the suitability of land for irrigation requires a thorough evaluation of the soil properties, the
topography of the land in the field and the quality of water to be used for irrigation. A basic
understanding of soil/water/plant interactions will help irrigators efficiently manage their crops,
soils irrigation systems and water supplies.

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Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the sub-processes linked to field irrigation system
4.1. Physical Properties of Soil
Soil as a system
Soil system is a dynamic ecosystem that has inputs, outputs, storage and flows. The quality of
soil influences the primary productivity of an area. The soil system may be illustrated by a soil
profile that has layered structure (horizon).

Storage: include organic matter, organisms, nutrients, minerals, air and water.
Flow: transfers of material with in the soil include biological mixing, leaching (minerals
dissolved in water moved through the soil), decomposition weathering and nutrient
cycling
Inputs of OM-include leaf litter and inorganic matter from parent material, precipitation
and energy
Output: uptake of nutrient and water by the plant soil erosion.

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Soil is a three phase system consisting of solid, liquid and gases. The minerals and organic
matters in soil together constitute the solid phase, while water forms the liquid phase and the soil
air, the gaseous phase. Mineral matters comprise the largest fraction of soil and exist in the form
of particles of different sizes and shapes encompassing the void space called soil pore space.
Organic matters made up of plant and animal remains at various stages of decay remain interspersed
in soil minerals. Amount and geometry of soil pores depend on relative proportion of different sizes
and shapes of soil particles, their distribution and arrangement.

The pore space remains filled with air and water in varying proportions, which are mainly
manipulated by the amount of water present in the soil. The soil air is totally expelled from soil
when water is present in excess amount as in water logged soil, while water in liquid form may be
absent in dry sands of deserts. Volume of these soil components vary widely and a typical silt-
loam soil contains about 50% soil solids including organic matter, 30% water and 20% air. Besides
living organisms such as fungi, bacteria, algae protozoa, insects and small burrowing animals are
present in the soil. Soil serves as a medium for plant growth. Soil components when exist in proper
amounts offer a favorable condition for plant growth. Living organisms in soil also influence the
crop growth to a considerable extent.

4.1.1 Soil Classification

The most commonly used classification is proposed by the United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA):

4.1.2 Soil physical properties influencing irrigation:

Infiltration capacity of soil

Water holding capacity of soil
Soil texture
Soil structure

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 Capillary conductivity
Soil profile conditions
Depth to water table etc.

Soil Texture
The relative proportion of sand, silt and clay determines the soil texture. Texture can be determined
from grain-size distribution using textural classification chart. Example: Classify a soil sample
that is 30% clay, 15% silt, and 55% sand.
First locate 30% on the clay axis, and draw a line horizontally from left to right.
Next, locate 15% on the silt axis, and draw a line going down diagonally to the left.
Finally, locate 55% on the sand axis, and draw a line going up diagonally to the left.
The intersection is in a region called Sandy Clay Loam.
See figure below. (Truthfully, you only need to make two lines.).
The geometry of voids created in the soil matrix is dependent on the textural classification of soil.
The soil texture, therefore, influences considerably the other phases (water and air) contained in
the spaces of soil matrix. Sandy soils are loose and non-cohesive and have a low water holding
capacity. Such soils form relatively simple capillary systems, which ensure good drainage and
aeration. The clay particles are usually aggregated together into complex granules. Because of
their plate-like shape, clay particles have a much greater surface area than cubes or spheres of
similar volume. Their extensive surface enables clay particles to hold more water and minerals than
sandy soils.

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Figure 4. USDA Textural Triangle

Soil Structure

The arrangement of individual soil particles with respect to each other is called soil structure. The
size of aggregates is a valuable criterion of soil structure. Sand-sized aggregates are more favorable
for plant growth than very small and very large ones. For instance, a soil made up exclusively of
silt-size aggregates cannot be drained by gravity, since the pores are too small. Large pores induce
aeration and infiltration, medium-sized pores facilitate capillary conductivity, and small pores
induce greater water holding capacity. Rounded edges of the aggregates result in better pore
distribution than angular ones. Regarding the size of aggregates, sand-size and gravel-size are
preferred. A massive compact soil restricts aeration and root spread. For optimum crop growth, soil
structure should be such that the infiltration capacity is large, the percolation capacity is medium
and aeration is sufficient, without being excessive.

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4.2. Infiltration and Soil Water Processes
4.2.1. The Processes of infiltration

Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. It is the entry of
water in to the soil surface. It is also the movement of water from precipitation into the soil layer.
Infiltration varies both spatially and temporally due to a number of environmental factors. After a
rain, infiltration can create a condition where the soil is completely full of water. This condition is,
however, only short-lived as a portion of this water quickly drains (gravitational water) via the force
exerted on the water by gravity. Infiltration constitutes the sole source of water to sustain the
growth of vegetation. Infiltration capacity is the maximum amount of rainwater that can enter a
soil at any given time.

4.2.2. Factors affecting infiltration

✓ Precipitation: high intensity, duration, and amount of precipitation; will lead to

greater infiltration.
✓ Soil characteristics: the soil characteristics influence capillary forces and
adsorption. The rate of infiltration on the soil surface is largely dependent on the
porosity and permeability of the soil profile.
✓ Soil moisture content: soil becomes saturated whenever it reaches its infiltration
capacity.
✓ Organic materials in soils: organic matter provides a good food source for soil
microbes and increases microbial activity. As the microbes breakdown organic
matter, the pore spaces between the soil particles are increased, and thus the
infiltration rate.
✓ Land cover: vegetative cover can either increase or decrease infiltration.
✓ Slope: infiltration is faster in areas with flat land surfaces compared to steeply-
sloped surface where the water will runoff quickly.
✓ Evapotranspiration rate: different crops have varying stomata, sizes, internal
resistance to water transport.

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 4.3. Soil Water Conditions

Water is the most dynamic constituent of soil. It may occur as solid, liquid and vapour, but the
liquid form is most commonly found. In cold climates, soil may exist as ice. In unsaturated soils,
water occurs in vapour form in the soil air. While the solid or liquid form of water may constitute
as much as 30% or more of the soil weight, the vapour form comprises only a negligible part.

Soil is porous, particulate and to certain extent a colloidal medium. Soil solids called soil matrix,
contain minerals and organic particles of varied sizes with pore spaces in between. The amount and
size of pores range widely varying with the size of particles, their distribution and arrangement and
compactness of soil.

When only a small amount of water is present in soil, it exists between crystal lattices and on the
external surface of soil particles as a very thin film. With addition of more water slowly, the thin
film grows in thickness around the soil solid and water slowly occupies the rings and wedges at the
points of contact of adjacent soil particles. The soil air present in pore spaces is slowly driven out
making space for water to occupy. A Soil is fully saturated when all the pore spaces are filled with
water excepting some entrapped air occupying some small space. When addition of further amount
of water is stopped, the water in macro-pores slowly drains out under gravity and air occupies the
space. When the drainage of water from macro-pores under gravity ceases, the soil reaches the
stage of field capacity.

The soil water plays a very important role in many soil processes besides being principal source of
water for plants. It serves as a solvent, leaching agent, plasticizing agent and as a medium for
various chemical reactions. Water in solution contains many dissolved salts and is termed as soil
solution. The concentration of soil solution in the root zone is very dynamic as constant changes
occur in the water content due to rain, irrigation, evaporation and absorption by plants and in the
salt content owing to fertilizer application, leaching and upward movement of salts from below the
soil profile and plant uptake.

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4.4. Soil Moisture Conditions
4.4.1. Soil moisture content
The soil moisture content indicates the amount of water present in the soil. It is commonly
expressed as the amount of water (in mm of water depth) present in a depth of one meter of soil.
Water content is used in a wide range of scientific and technical areas and is expressed as a ratio,
which can range from 0 (completely dry) to the value of the materials’ porosity at saturation.
Moisture may be present as adsorbed moisture at internal surfaces and as capillary condensed water
in small pores.
The amount of moisture or soil water is important to know because:
 Soil water serves as a solvent and carrier of food nutrients for plant growth.
 The yield of a crop is more often determined by the amount of water available rather than
deficiency of other food nutrients
 Soil water acts as a nutrient itself
 Soil regulates soil temperature
 Soil forming processes and weathering depend on water
 Microorganisms require water for their metabolic activities
 Soil water helps in chemical and biological activities of soil
 It is a principal constituent of the growing plant
 Water essential for photosynthesis
The fact that soils hold water (moisture) is due to their colloidal properties and aggregation
qualities. The water is held on the surface of colloids and other particles and in the pores. The forces
responsible for retention of water in the soil after the drainage has stopped are due to surface tension
and surface attraction and are called surface moisture tension.

4.4.2. Soil water classification

1. Gravitational water: Water moves freely in response to gravity. The volume of water that
could easily drain off is termed as the gravitational water. This water is not available for
plants use as it drains off rapidly from the root zone.
2. Capillary water: the water content retained in the soil after the gravitational water has
drained off from the soil is known as the capillary water. This water is held in the soil by

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 surface tension. Plant roots gradually absorb the capillary water and thus constitute the
principle source of water for plant growth. Water held by surface tension in the pore spaces.
3. Hygroscopic water: Water held tightly to the surface of the grains or soil particles by
adsorption (adhesion). It is water that it is not available to the plants. the water that an oven
dry sample of soil absorbs when exposed to moist air is termed as hygroscopic water. It is
held as a very thin film over the surface of the soil particles and is under tremendous
negative (gauge) pressure. This water is not available to plants.

4.4.3. Soil moisture constants

For a particular soil, certain soil water proportions are defined which dictate whether the water is
available or not for plant growth. These are called the soil water constants, which are described
below.

A, Saturation capacity (S):

➢ It is the total water content of the soil when all the pores of the soil are filled with water.
➢ It is also termed as the maximum water holding capacity of the soil.
➢ At saturation capacity, the soil moisture tension is almost equal to zero.
B, Field Capacity (FC):
It is the water content of the soil when gravitational water has been removed.
It is the water retained by an initially saturated soil against the force of gravity.
Hence, as the gravitational water gets drained off from the soil, it is said to reach the field
capacity.
At field capacity, the macro-pores of the soil are drained off, but water is retained in the
micro pores
It represents the upper limit of available soil water range.

C, Permanent Wilting Point (PWP):

Plant roots are able to extract water from a soil matrix, which is saturated up to field capacity.
However, as the water extraction proceeds, the moisture content diminishes and the negative
pressure increases.
At one point, the plant cannot extract any further water and thus wilts.

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 Two stages of wilting points are recognized and they are:

1. Temporary wilting point: this denotes the soil water content at which the plant wilts at day
time, but recovers during night or when water is added to the soil.

2. Ultimate wilting point/Permanent Wilting Point (PWP)/: at such, soil water content, the
plant wilts and fails to regain life even after addition of water to soil.
It must be noted that the above water contents are expressed as percentage of water held in the soil
pores, compared to a fully saturated soil. It is the moisture content at which plants permanently
wilt. Wilting depends on the rate of water use, depth of root zone and water holding capacity of
soil. It is the lower end of available moisture range. Water content corresponding to soil-moisture
tension of 15 atm.
D, Oven dry soil
▪ Oven dry soil is used to describe the soil water status when a soil sample is dried at 105 0c in
a hot air over until sample loses no more water.
▪ The equilibrium tension of soil water at this stage is 10,000 atmospheres.
▪ All estimations of soil water content are based on the oven dry weight of the soil and the soil
at this stage is considered to contain zero amount of water.
Available Water (AW)
The difference of water content of the soil between field capacity and permanent wilting
point
It represents the moisture which can be stored in the soil for subsequent use by plants.
Water held in the soil between field capacity and permanent wilting point
The moisture near the wilting point is not readily available to the plant.
The portion of the available moisture which is most easily extracted by plants is termed
as readily available water/moisture.
Readily Available Water (RAW): This is the level to which the available water in the soil can be
used up without causing stress in the crop. For most crops, 50 to 60% available water is
taken as readily available.
➢ Irrigation water should be supplied as soon as the moisture falls up to optimum level. The
optimum level represents the maximum deficiency up to which the soil moisture may be

24 | B y : A r e b u H .
 allowed without any fall in crop yields. The amount of irrigation should be just enough to
bring the moisture content up to its field capacity making allowance for application losses.

4.5. Energy State of Soil-Water

The total energy state of soil water is defined by its equivalent potential energy, as determined by
the various forces acting on the water per unit quantity. In general, flow rates of water in soils
are too small to consider kinetic energy.
What are the three main forms of soil water energy?

 Gravitational or free water: This water moves in response to gravity, or isn't held in the soil.

25 | B y : A r e b u H .
 Capillary water: This water moves around in films, generally from field capacity until air dry.
 Hygroscopic water: This water is held the most tightly, find it between air and oven dry.

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 5 IRRIGATION METHODS

WATER APPLICATION METHODS

Water application methods can be classified based on different themes:

• Based on energy/pressure required
• Based on placement of irrigation water
• Based on wetted area by irrigation
Classification system – A
Based on energy/pressure requirement, irrigation methods can be grouped as gravity irrigation
and pressurized irrigation.
Again, gravity irrigation may be subdivided based on mode of application as
Border irrigation,
Basin irrigation and
Furrow irrigation.
Pressure irrigation system may be subdivided based on mode of application as
Drip irrigation and
Sprinkler irrigation.
The definition of different types of irrigation systems are outlined below:
Gravity irrigation: Irrigation in which the water is not pumped but flowed and distributed to the
crop field by gravity.
Pressurized irrigation: Irrigation system in which water is pumped and flowed to the crop field
by pressure.
Surface irrigation: A form of irrigation where the soil surface is used as a conduit.
Subsurface irrigation or sub-irrigation: Applying irrigation water below the ground surface
either by raising the water table within or near the root zone or by using a buried perforated
or porous pipe system that discharges directly into the root zone is termed subsurface
irrigation.
Border irrigation: is defined as the application of water to an area typically down slope and
surrounded by two border ridges or dikes to the ends of the strip.
Basin irrigation: is defined as the application of water to an area typically leveled to zero slope
and surrounded by dikes or check banks to prevent runoff.

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Furrow irrigation: A partial surface flooding method of irrigation in which water is applied in
furrows (narrow channels dug between the rows of crops) or “rows of sufficient capacity”
to contain the designed irrigation system, instead of distributing water throughout the whole
field.
Sprinkler irrigation: A system in which water is applied by means of nozzle or perforated pipe
that operates under pressure in the form of a spray pattern.
Drip irrigation: An irrigation system in which water is applied directly to the root zone of plants.
Flood irrigation: A system in which the entire soil surface of the field is covered by ponded water.
5.1. Surface Irrigation Methods

5.1.1. Basin irrigation

5.1.2. Basin Irrigation

In this method, water is applied to leveled surface units (basins) which have complete perimeter
dikes to prevent runoff and to allow infiltration after cutoff (Fig. 2). The best performance is
obtained when advance time is minimized by using large non-erosive discharges, and the basin
surface is precision leveled. This method is the most commonly practiced worldwide, both for rice
and other field crops, including orchard tree crops. Basins may be of different types: rectangular,
ring, and contour. Basin size is limited by available water stream size, topography, soil factors, and
degree of leveling required.

Figure 1 Schematic layout of a basin irrigation system

Basin irrigation is suited to irrigate close growing crops (e.g., paddy). Paddy (rice) is always grown
in basins. Those crops that cannot stand a very wet soil for more than 12–24 hrs. should not be
grown in basins (e.g., potatoes, beet and carrots, etc.). Basin lengths should be limited to 100 meter
(m) on very coarse textured soils, but may reach 400 m on other soils. Flat lands, with a slope of
0.1% or less, are best suited for basin irrigation: little land leveling will be required. Basin irrigation

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is generally the most expensive surface irrigation configuration to develop and maintain but often
the least expensive to operate and manage.

Advantage and Disadvantage

Advantages
One of the major advantages of the basin method is its utility in irrigating fields
with irregular shapes and small fields
Best suited for lands/crops where leaching is required to wash out salts from the
root zone
Water application and distribution efficiencies are generally high
Limitations
It requires accurate land leveling to achieve high application efficiency
Comparatively high labor intensive
Impedes surface drainage
Not suitable for crops which are sensitive to water logging
Border ridges interfere with the free movement of farm machineries
Higher amount of water is required compared to sprinkler or drip irrigation.
5.1.2. Furrow irrigation

A furrow is a small, evenly spaced, shallow channel installed down or across the slope of the field
to be irrigated parallel to row direction (Fig. 3). In this method, water is applied to furrows using
small discharges to favor water infiltration while advancing down the field. Furrow irrigation can
thus be defined as a partial surface flooding method of irrigation (normally used with clean-tilled
crops), where water is applied in furrows or rows of sufficient capacity to obtain the designed
irrigation system.

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 Figure 2: Schematic of furrow irrigation system. Furrow irrigation is best used for irrigating
widely spaced row crops such as potato, maize, vegetables, and trees.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
Developed gradually as labor or economics allows
Developed at a relatively low cost after necessary land-forming activities are
accomplished
Erosion is minimal
Adaptable to a wide range of land slopes
Limitations
Not suitable for high permeable soil where vertical infiltration is much higher
than the lateral entry
Higher amount of water is required, compared to sprinkler or drip irrigation
Furrows should be closely arranged
5.1.3. Border irrigation

Border irrigation is a modern method of surface irrigation. Border irrigation uses land formed into
strips, bounded by ridges or borders (Fig.1). Borders are generally prepared with zero side slope
and a small but uniform longitudinal slope not exceeding 1%. The borders are divided by levees
running down the slope at uniform spacing. The lower end of the border is opened to a drainage
ditch or closed with a levee to create ponding on the end of the border. Levees are pulled across the
end on steeper borders.
In this method, water is applied at the upper end of the border strip, and advances down the strip.
Irrigation takes place by allowing the flow to advance and infiltrate along the border. Border

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irrigation is best adapted to grain and forage crops where there are large areas of flat topography
and water supplies are large.

Figure 3. Schematic of border irrigation system

Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
Easy to construct and maintain
Operational system is simple and easy
High irrigation efficiencies are possible if properly designed, but rarely obtained
in practice due to difficulty of balancing the advance and recession phases of
water application
Natural drainage is facilitated through downward slope
Comparatively less labor is required
Limitations
Requires flat and smooth topography
Not suitable for sandy soils
Not suitable for crops which requires ponding water
Higher amount of water is required compared to sprinkler or drip irrigation.
5.2. Pressurized Irrigation Methods

5.2.1. Sprinkler irrigation

In sprinkler irrigation, water is delivered through a pressurized pipe network to sprinklers, nozzles,
or jets which spray the water into the air, to fall to the soil as an artificial “rain” (Fig. 4). Sprinkler
irrigation can be defined as a pressurized system, where water is distributed through a network of
pipe lines to and in the field and applied through selected sprinkler heads or water applicators.

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 The basic components of any sprinkler system are
A water sources
A pump (to pressurize the water)
A pipe network (to distribute the water throughout the field)
Sprinklers (to spray the water over the ground) and
Valves (to control the flow of water)
In addition, flow meters and pressure gauges are sometimes added to monitor system
performance.
The sprinklers, when properly spaced, give a relatively uniform application of water over the
irrigated area. Sprinkler systems are usually (there are some exceptions) designed to apply water at
a lower rate than the soil infiltration rate so that the amount of water infiltrated at any point depends
upon the application rate and time of application but not the soil infiltration rate.

Figure 4: Sprinkler system (a) view of a sprinkler and (b) sprinklers irrigating a field

Sprinkler irrigation systems are normally used under more favorable operational conditions than
surface systems because farmers may control the discharge rates, duration, and frequency.

5.2.1. Types of Sprinkler Systems

Many types of sprinkler devices and sprinkler systems are available. Sprinkler irrigation systems
exist in various shapes, sizes, costs, and capabilities. Descriptions of the more common types are
given below.
Portable (or Hand-Move) Sprinkler System
These systems employ a lateral pipeline with sprinklers installed at regular intervals. The sprinkler
lateral is placed in one location and operated until the desired water application has been made.
Then the lateral line is disassembled and moved to the next position to be irrigated. This type of

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sprinkler system has a low initial cost but a high labor requirement. It can be used on most crops,
though with some, such as corn, the laterals become difficult to move as the crop reaches maturity.

Solid Set and Permanent Systems

Sprinklers irrigate at a fixed position. The pipe laterals for the solid set system are moved into the
field at the beginning of the season and are not removed until the end of the irrigation season. The
solid set system utilizes labor at the beginning and ends of the irrigation season but minimizes labor
needs during the irrigation season.
A permanent system is a solid set system where the main supply lines and the sprinkler laterals are
buried (Fig. 5) and left in place permanently (this is usually done with PVC plastic pipe).

Side Roll System

The side roll sprinkler system is best suited for rectangular fields. The lateral line is mounted on
wheels, with the pipe forming the axle (Fig. 6). The wheel height is selected so that the axle clears
the crop as it is moved. A drive unit (usually an air-cooled gasoline-powered engine located near
the center of the lateral) is used to move the system from one irrigation position to another by
rolling the wheels.

Figure 5: Permanent system sprinkler Figure 6: Side roll sprinkler system

Traveling Gun System

This system utilizes a high-volume, high-pressure sprinkler (called “gun”) mounted on a trailer,
with water being supplied through a flexible hose or from an open ditch along which the trailer
passes (Fig. 7). The gun may be operated in a stationary position for the desired time and then

33 | B y : A r e b u H .
moved to the next location. However, the most common use is as a continuous move system, where
the gun sprinkles as it moves. These systems can be used on most crops, though due to the large
droplets and high application rates produced, they are best suited to coarse soils having high intake
rates and to crops providing good ground cover.

Center Pivot and Linear Move Systems

The center pivot system consists of a single sprinkler lateral supported by a series of towers. The
towers are self-propelled so that the lateral rotates around a pivot point in the center of the irrigated
area (Fig.8). The time for the system to revolve through one complete circle can range from a half
a day to many days. The longer the lateral, the faster the end of the lateral travels and the larger the
area irrigated by the end section. Thus, the water application rate must increase with distance from
the pivot to deliver an even application amount. Since the center pivot irrigates a circle, it leaves
the corners of the field unirrigated (unless additions of special equipment are made to the system).
Center pivots are capable of irrigating most field crops but have on occasion been used on tree and
vine crops. Linear move systems are similar to center pivot systems in construction, except that
neither end of the lateral pipeline is fixed. The whole line moves down the field in a direction
perpendicular to the lateral.

Figure 7: traveling gun type sprinkler Figure 8: Centre pivot sprinkler system

Sprinklers adapt to a range of soil and topographic conditions. Light sandy soils are well suited to
sprinkler irrigation systems. Nearly all crops can be irrigated with some type of sprinkler system,
though the characteristics of the crop, especially the height, must be considered in system selection.
Sprinklers are sometimes used to germinate seed and establish ground cover for crops like lettuce,
alfalfa, and sod.

34 | B y : A r e b u H .
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages of sprinkler systems include the following:
Readily automatable,
Facilitates to chemigation and fertigation,
Reduced labor requirements needed for irrigation.
Disadvantage of sprinkler irrigation is that
Many crops (citrus, for example) are sensitive to foliar damage when sprinkled with saline
waters.
Initially high installation cost and high maintenance cost thereafter (when needed).

5.2.3. Choosing a Sprinkler Type

When choosing a sprinkler type for irrigation, there are several considerations:
Adaptability to crop, terrain, and field shape
Labor availability and requirements
Economics
Automation facility
Ability of the system to meet crop needs

5.2.2. Drip irrigation

Drip irrigation is sometimes called trickle irrigation and water is applied directly to the root zone
of plants by means of applicators (orifices, emitters, porous tubing, perforated pipe, etc.) operated
under low pressure with the applicators being placed either on or below the surface of the ground
(Fig. 9). Water loss is minimized through these measures, as there is very little splash owing to the
low pressure and short distance to the ground. Of the irrigation systems available, drip is the most
ideally suited to high-value crops such as the vegetables and fruits. Properly managed systems
enable the production of maximum yields with a minimum quantity of water. These advantages
often help justify the high costs and management requirements. A typical drip irrigation system is
shown in Fig. 2.9. There are many types of drip products on the market designed to meet the
demands for just about any application.

35 | B y : A r e b u H .
 Figure 9: Drip irrigation system

Drip irrigation is most suited to high-density orchards, tree crops, and high-value horticultural
crops. Drip systems allow accurate amounts of water to be supplied regularly to a small area of the
root zone. Such a system can be used to restrict the vegetative growth of the trees, an important
part of management in high density planting. Drip irrigation is more suited to areas where cooler
climates and higher rainfall reduce the need for high volumes of water application.

Drip irrigation is not designed for applying water to large root systems. To obtain adequate water
distribution and application rates, two to three dripper lines per row of trees are required. As only
a small area of the total field is wetted, drip irrigation is especially suited for situations where the
water supply is limited. Drip tubing is used frequently to supply water under plastic mulches.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of drip irrigation are as follows:
Highly efficient system
Saves water
Limited water sources can be used
Correct volume of water can be applied in the root zone

36 | B y : A r e b u H .
 The system can be automated and well adapted to chemigation and fertigation
Reduces nutrient leaching, labor requirement, and operating cost
Other field operations such as harvesting and spraying can be done while irrigating
Each plant of the field receives nearly the same amount of water
Lower pressures are required to operate systems resulting in a reduction in energy for
pumping
The disadvantages/limitations of the drip system are as follows:
High initial cost
Technical skill is required to maintain and operate the system
The closer the spacing, the higher the system cost per hectare
Damage to drip tape may occur
Cannot wet the soil volume quickly (to recover from moisture deficit) as other systems
Facilitates shallow root zone
Needs clean water
5.3. Irrigation Efficiencies

In canal/ field irrigation techniques, the efficiency of irrigation depends on the size of the field,
canal lining, technical and managerial facilities for water control, etc.

Water use efficiency (WUE) = Production / Crop water consumption or

yield of the crop / volume of water used, expressed in Kg/ha.cm or q/ha.cm

Water consumption = Effective rainfall + irrigation water + valid soil moisture

Water use efficiency classified into two these are crop and field water use efficiency.
*Crop Water Use Efficiency: is the ratio of the crop yield (Y) to the amount of water
Y
consumptively used by the crop. Ew =
CU
*Field Water Use Efficiency: is the ratio of the crop yield (y) to the total water requirement of
Y
crops including Cu losses and other needs. Et =
WR

Conveyance efficiency (Ec) = ratio between water received at inlet to a block of fields and that
Wf
released at the project headwork/weirs. Ec = x 100
Wd
Where: Wf = water delivered to the field channel
Wd = Stream size release from the headwork to irrigate the land

37 | B y : A r e b u H .
Water application efficiency (Ea) = ratio between water directly available to the crop and that
received at the field inlet, expressed in percent.
Ws
The expression for Ea. can be given as follows: Ea = x100
Wp
Where: Ws = water stored in the root zone minus application loss
Wp = water delivered to the plot

Water storage efficiency (Es): is the ratio of the amount of water actually stored in the subject
area to volume of readily available moisture.
Ws
Es = *100
Wn
Where: Ws = water stored in the root zone minus application loss
Wn = net water absorbed by crops (volume of readily available moisture)

Water Distribution Efficiency (Ed): This shows how uniformly water is applied to the field along
the irrigation run. In sandy soils there is generally over irrigation at upper reaches of the run when
as in clayey soils, there is over- irrigation at the lower reaches of the run.

 y
Ed = 1−  x100 Where Ed = water distribution efficiency
 d
d = average depth of water penetration.
y = average deviation from d.

Field canal efficiency (Eb) = ratio between water received at the field inlet and that received at the
Wp
block of fields. Eb = *100
Wf
Where: Wp = water delivered to the plot at the head of furrows and strips
Wf = water delivered to the field channel

Project efficiency (Ep) = ratio between water directly available to the crop and that released at
head works. It indicates the overall efficiency of the systems from the head work to the final use
by plants for Cu.
Ep = Ea.Eb.Ec

Example: - A stream size of 150 lit /sec was released from the diversion headwork to irrigate a
land of area 1.8 hectares. The stream size when measured at the delivery to the field channels is
120lit/sec. The stream continued for 8 hours. The effective root zone depth is 1.80m. The
application losses in the field are estimated to be 440m3. The depth of water penetration was 1.80m
and 1.20m at the head and tail of the run respectively. The available water holding capacity of the
soil is 21cm/m and irrigation was done at 60% depletion of Am. Find Ec, Eb, Ea, Es and Ed. The
stream size delivered to the plot was 100 lit/sec.

38 | B y : A r e b u H .
Solution

Wf 120 lit / sec

Ec = x 100 = x 100 = 80%
Wd 150 lit / sec
Wp 100 lit / sec
Eb = x 100 = x 100 = 83.3%
Wf 120 lit / sec
100 x 60 x 60 x8
= 2880m3
Water delivered to the plot = 1000

Water stored in the root zone =2880m3 – Application losses

= 2880m3 - 440m3 = 2440m3

Ws 2440m3
Ea = x100 = x100 = 84.7%
Wp 2880m3
Total A.M = 21cm/m x 1.80m = 37.80 cm
60
x 37.80 cm = 22.68 cm
RAM = 100

3
22.68
x1.8 x10 = 4082.4m
4
In volume, RAM = 100

Ws 2440m3
Es = x 100 = = 59.8%  60%
Wn 4082.4m3
1.8 + 1.20
Average water penetration d = = 1.50m
2
Numerical deviation at upper end =1.80 –1.50=0.30m
At lower end = 1.50 – 1.20 =0.30m

2 x 0.30
Average numerical deviation = = 0.30m
2
 y  0.30 
Ed 100 x 1 −  = 100 x 1−  = 80%
 d  1.50 

5.4. Subsurface Irrigation

Applying irrigation water below the ground surface either by raising the water table within or near
the root zone or by using a buried perforated or porous pipe system that discharges directly into the
root zone is termed subsurface irrigation. Subsurface irrigation involves the application of irrigation
water beneath the soil surface. It is usually carried out by burying the medium used to convey the

39 | B y : A r e b u H .
water at some depth below the soil surface. Some media used to convey water for subsurface
irrigation include pots, pitchers, porous clay pipes, perforated pipes and plastic drip lines with
emitters.

Subsurface irrigation of disinfected effluent puts the effluent directly in the root zone to optimize
hydraulic and nutrient take-up. It minimizes the risk of human contact and reduces surface runoff
during extended wet weather. Subsurface irrigation allows better amenity and easier maintenance
of an effluent irrigation area. There have been significant developments in subsurface drip
technology for effluent irrigation in the domestic market. Subsurface irrigation involves pressure-
dosing of a polyethylene pipe fitted with turbulent flow or pressure compensating drip emitters.
Proprietary systems may have built-in protection against root intrusion and biofilm development.
Pressure compensation / regulation ensure even distribution of effluent and low application rates
across a variety of gradients and elevations.

5.5. Selection of Irrigation Method

Decision must be made regarding the type of irrigation method before an irrigation system is
installed in a field. To choose an appropriate irrigation method, one must know the advantages and
disadvantages of the various methods. He or she must know which method suits the local conditions
best. Unfortunately, in many cases there is no single best solution, as all methods have their relative
advantages and disadvantages. Trials of the various methods under the prevailing local conditions
provide the best basis for a sound choice of irrigation method.

5.5.1. Factors affecting selection of an irrigation method

Factors determining irrigation method are some in technical nature, some economic, and others
involve a close scrutiny of the operation and crop to be irrigated. In selecting an irrigation method,
the following factors should be considered:

Soil type
Field shape/geometry and topography
Climate – evaporation rates, wind, and rainfall
Water availability and its price
Water quality

40 | B y : A r e b u H .
 The particular crop to be grown – physical requirements, crop layout, and water use
characteristics
Required depth and frequency of irrigation application
Labor requirements and its availability
Energy requirement
Economic factor – cost–benefit ratio, initial investment
Compatibility with existing farm equipment’s
Attainable irrigation efficiency of the proposed system
Relative advantages and disadvantages of the available systems
Type/level of technology at the locality
Cultural factor/previous experience with irrigation
Automation capacity
Fertigation capability
Environmental conditions – impact and regulations
Farm machinery and equipment requirements

5.5.2. Selection Procedure

To choose an irrigation method, the farmer must know the advantages and disadvantages of the
various methods. He or she must know which method suits the local conditions best.
Unfortunately, in many cases, there is no single best solution: all methods have their advantages
and disadvantages. Testing of the various methods under the prevailing local conditions
provides the best basis for a sound choice of irrigation method. Based on the local soil, climate,
crop and water availability, and the suitability and limiting criteria of the methods (described
in earlier sections, and also summarized in Table 1), the irrigation engineer will prescribe the
appropriate method for the particular area.

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Table 4. Comparison of irrigation system in relation to site and situation factors

6. CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS

6.1. Definition of Terms

Crop water requirement is defined as the total quantity of water required by a crop irrespective
of its source in a given period of time for its normal growth and development under field
conditions at a given place. It means that it is the total quantity of water required to mature an
adequately irrigated crop to meet the losses due to evapo-transpiration (ET), plus the losses
during the application of irrigation water (unavoidable losses) and the additional quantity of
water required for special operations such as land preparation, transplanting, leaching of salts
below the crop root zone, frost control etc. It is expressed in depth per unit time.

Crop water requirement is the quantity of water needed for normal growth and yield and may be

42 | B y : A r e b u H .
supplied by precipitation or by irrigation or by both. Water is mainly needed to meet the
demands of evaporation (E) and transpiration (T) and metabolic needs of the plants, and all
together known as consumptive use (CU).

CU= E+ T+ Water needed for metabolic purposes

Water used in the metabolic activities of plant is negligible and is often less than 1% of the
quantity of water passing through the plant. Evapo-transpiration (ET) is, therefore, considered as
equal to consumptive use. Different losses like percolation, seepage and runoff etc., occur during
the transport and application of irrigation water. Water is need for special operations such as land
preparation, transplantation, leaching etc. Water requirement of a crop (CWR), therefore,
includes ET, application losses and water needs for special purposes.

CWR= ET + Application losses +Water for special purposes

In other words, crop water requirement is total water demand for growing a crop. Crop water
requirement is a demand whereas the supply consists of the contribution from irrigation water,
effective rainfall (ER) and soil profile contribution including that from shallow water table.
Crop water demand can also be expressed in term of supply as:

CWR = IR + ER +ΔS +GWC

Where:
CWR = Total depth of water required during the life of crop irrespective of source
CU = Consumptive use (total water required for all plant processes)
ER = Effective rainfall received during crop life
ΔS = Profile water use i.e., difference in soil moisture in the crop root zone at the beginning and
end of the crop
GWC= Groundwater contribution, if any
IR = Irrigation

6.1.1 Classification of consumptive use of water by crops

Consumptive use (CU) may be classified as:

1. Daily consumptive use: The amount of water consumptively used during 24 hrs. period is called
daily consumptive use.

43 | B y : A r e b u H .
2. Seasonal consumptive use: The amount of water consumptively used by a crop during the
entire growing season or crop period is called seasonal consumptive use. It is expressed as
surface depth of water in cm/hectare or hectare-cm.
3. Peak period consumptive use: The average daily consumptive use during a few days (usually
6 to 10 days) of highest consumptive use in a season is called the peak period consumptive use.
The peak use period usually occurs when the vegetation is abundant, temperature is high and
crops are in the flowering stage. This is the design rate used in planning an irrigation system.
In an irrigation project design, the peak period consumptive use rates for various crops is
considered.

6.1.2 Potential evapotranspiration

PET also called reference crop evapotranspiration and it is the rate of evapotranspiration
from an extensive surface 8 to 15 cm tall, green grass cover of uniform height, actively
growing, completely shading the ground and not short of water.
Reference Crop ET: is the potential ET for a specific crop (usually either grass or alfalfa)
and set of surrounding conditions.
Under normal field conditions, the potential evapotranspiration does not occur and thus
suitable crop coefficients are used to change ETo to actual evapotranspiration of the crops.
Actual evapotranspiration refers to the rate of evapotranspiration by particular crop in a
given period under prevailing soil water and atmospheric conditions.
Climatic parameters are the only factors affecting ETo and it can be computed from weather

data.

44 | B y : A r e b u H .
The FAO Penman-Monteith method is recommended as the sole method for determining ETo.
The method has been selected because it closely approximates grass ETo at the location
evaluated, is physically based, and explicitly incorporates both physiological and aerodynamic
parameters.
4.2 Components of Crop Water Requirement
Crop water requirement is the water required by the plants for its survival, growth, development
and to produce the economic parts. This requirement is applied either
Naturally by precipitation
Artificial by irrigation
Or both
Hence, the crop water requirement components include
a. Evaporation (E)
b. Transpiration (T)
c. Amount of water used by plants for its metabolism (WP) and these three cannot be
separated easily. Hence, the ET loss is taken as crop water use or crop water consumptive
use.
d. Other application losses (WL) such as:
Conveyance Loss
Percolation Loss
Runoff Loss
e. The water required for special purpose (WSP) like; puddling operation, ploughing
operation, land preparation, leaching requirement, for the purpose of weeding, for dissolving
fertilizer and chemical.
Hence, the crop water requirements is symbolically represented as

CWR= T+E+WP+WL+WSP

6.2. Factors Affecting Crop Water Use

The crop water requirement varies from place to place, from crop to crop and depend agro ecological
variation and crop characters. Weather and crop influence in determining water requirement for crop.
6.2.1. Climatic factors
A. Temperature: as the temperature increases, the saturation vapor pressure also increases and
results in increase of evaporation and thus consumptive use of water.
B. Wind Speed: the more the speed of wind, the more will be the rate of evaporation; because the
saturated film of air containing the water will be removed easily.
C. Humidity: The more the air humidity, the less will be the rate of consumptive use of water. This
is because water vapor moves from the point of high moisture content to the point of
low moisture content. So if the humidity is high water vapor cannot be removed easily.

D. Sunshine hours: The longer the duration of the sunshine hour the larger will be the total amount
of energy received from the sun. This increases the rate of evaporation and thus the rate

45 | B y : A r e b u H .
 of consumptive use of crops.
6. 2.2. Crop type

Different crops use different amount of water during its growing period. Crop factors influencing
crop water requirement include the following:

Type of crop: The influence of the crop type on the crop water need is important in two ways.
❖ The crop type has an influence on the daily water needs of a fully grown crop; i.e., the peak
daily water needs of a fully developed maize crop will need more water per day than a fully
developed crop of onions.
❖ The crop type has an influence on the duration of the total growing season of the crop.
There are short duration crops, e.g., peas, with duration of the total growing season of 90-
100 days and longer duration crops, e.g., melons, with duration of the total growing season
of 120-160 days.
Cultivar/species/variety: Due to difference in growth pattern, different crops or even
different cultivar of the same crop show different evapotranspiration demand. A wheat
variety with maturity period of 150 days will use more water than 120 days’ variety.
Growing stage: younger plants require less water than the mature one.
Duration: Length of crop duration has a direct effect on total water requirement.
Crop growing season: Crop planting time or the season has an impact on crop water demand
due to differential energy pattern for evapotranspiration. Some crops are grown both in
winter and summer/spring. Summer season crop will surely need more water than that of
winter.
Leaf area & leaf type: leaf area (evaporative surface) and stomata closure behavior
influence on ET. Under similar environmental condition, a plant having little leaf area and
root system would require much less water than a plant having higher leaf area and dense
root system. In addition, crop population may influence ET demand decrease in population
will result in less ET. Other factors determining total crop water requirement are growing
season (winter or spring) and length of growing period (short or long duration crop cultivar).
Stomatal behavior
Root length and Root density and etc.
Table: The water requirement of different crops

46 | B y : A r e b u H .
 6.3. Determination of Crop Water Needs

6.3.1. Pan evaporimeter

An atmometer or evaporimeter is a scientific instrument used for measuring the rate of water
evaporation from a wet surface to the atmosphere. Atmometers are mainly used by farmers and
growers to measure evapotranspiration (ET) rates of crops at any field location. An atmometer
consists of a porous, ceramic plate connected to a water reservoir by a glass or plastic tube. The
device stands around 1.5–2 ft (0.46–0.61 m) tall with a diameter of 3–4 in (76–102 mm). Water is
drawn from the water reservoir through the tube to wet the plate. As the water on the plate
evaporates, more water is drawn from the reservoir to re-wet the plate.

6.3.2. CROPWAT Software

CROPWAT is a decision support tool developed by the Land and Water Development Division of
FAO. CROPWAT 8.0 for Windows is a computer program for the calculation of crop water
requirements and irrigation requirements based on soil, climate and crop data. In addition, the
program allows the development of irrigation schedules for different management conditions and
the calculation of scheme water supply for varying crop patterns. CROPWAT 8.0 can also be used

47 | B y : A r e b u H .
to evaluate farmers’ irrigation practices and to estimate crop performance under both rainfed and
irrigated conditions.

For the calculation of crop water requirements (CWR), CROPWAT needs data on
evapotranspiration (ETo). CROPWAT allows the user to either enter measured ETo values, or to
input data on temperature, humidity, wind speed and sunshine, which allows CROPWAT to
calculate ETo using the Penman-Monteith formula. All calculation procedures used in CROPWAT
8.0 are based on the two FAO publications of the Irrigation and Drainage Series, namely, No. 56
"Crop Evapotranspiration - Guidelines for computing crop water requirements” and No. 33
titled "Yield response to water".

The crop water need (ET crop) is defined as the depth (or amount) of water needed to meet the
water loss through evapotranspiration. In other words, it is the amount of water needed by the various
crops to grow optimally. The crop water need always refers to a crop grown under optimal
conditions, i.e. a uniform crop, actively growing, completely shading the ground, free of diseases,
and favourable soil conditions (including fertility and water). The crop thus reaches its full
production potential under the given environment.

6.3.3. Empirical formula

Influence of Crop Type on Crop Water Needs (Kc)

The relationship between the reference grass crop and the crop actually grown is given by the crop
factor, Kc, as shown in the following formula:

ETo × Kc = ET crop
ET crop = crop evapotranspiration or crop water need (mm/day)
Kc = crop factor
ETo = reference evapotranspiration (mm/day)
Both ET crop and ETo are expressed in the same unit: usually in mm/day (as an average for a period
of one month) or in mm/month.
The crop factor, Kc, mainly depends on:

48 | B y : A r e b u H .
 • The type of crop
• The growth stage of the crop
• The climate
Kc and the type of crop
Fully developed maize, with its large leaf area will be able to transpire, and thus use, more water
than the reference grass crop: Kc, maize is higher than 1.
Cucumber, also fully developed, will use less water than the reference grass crop: Kc, cucumber
is less than 1.
Kc and the growth stage of the crop.
 A certain crop will use more water once it is fully developed, compared to a crop which has
just recently been planted.
Kc and the climate
 The climate influences the duration of the total growing period and the various growth stages.
 In a cool climate a certain crop will grow slower than in a warm climate.
 Thus, to determine the crop factor Kc, it is necessary, for each crop, to know the total length
of the growing season and the lengths of the various growth stages.
The determination of the Kc values for the various growth stages of the crops involves several
steps:
• Step 1 - Determination of the total growing period of each crop
• Step 2 - Determination of the various growth stages of each crop
• Step 3 - Determination of the Kc values for each crop for each of the growth stages

Determination of the Total Growing Period

The total growing period (in days) is the period from sowing or transplanting to the last day of the
harvest.
It is mainly dependent on:
• The type of crop and the variety
• The climate
• The planting date
As the growing period heavily depends on local circumstances (e.g., local crop varieties) it is always
best to obtain these data locally. In general, it can be assumed that the growing period for a certain

49 | B y : A r e b u H .
crop is longer when the climate is cool and shorter when the climate is warm.

Table 1. Indicative Values of the Total Growing Period

Determination of the Growth Stages

Once the total growing period is known, the duration (in days) of the various growth stages has to
be determined. The total growing period is divided into four growth stages: Initial, Crop
development, Mid-season and Late season. See Figure 1. The length of each of these stages depends
on the climate, latitude, elevation and planting date. Local observations are best for determining
the growth stage of the crop and which Kc values to use.

50 | B y : A r e b u H .
1. The initial stage: this is the period from sowing or transplanting until the crop covers about 10%
of the ground.
2. The crop development stage: this period starts at the end of the initial stage and lasts until the full
ground cover has been reached (ground cover 70-80%); it does not necessarily mean that the crop
is at its maximum height.
3. The mid - season stage: this period starts at the end of the crop development stage and lasts until
maturity; it includes flowering and grain-setting.
4. The late season stage: this period starts at the end of the mid-season stage and lasts until the last
day of the harvest; it includes ripening.

Determination of Crop Factors

Per crop, four crop factors have to be determined: one crop factor for each of the four growth stages.
In fact, the Kc is also dependent on the climate and, in particular, on the relative humidity and the
wind speed. The values indicated above should be reduced by 0.05 if the relative humidity is high
(RH > 80%) and the wind speed is low (u < 2 m/sec), e.g., Kc = 1.15 becomes Kc = 1.10. The
values should be increased by 0.05 if the relative humidity is low (RH < 50%) and the wind speed
is high (u > 5 m/sec), e.g., Kc = 1.05 becomes Kc = 1.10. Crop water requirement can be calculated
from the climate and crop data. Crop water requirement for a given crop, i, for the whole growing
season:

51 | B y : A r e b u H .
Where,
• CWR is the crop water requirement for the growing period, in mm,
• ETi is the crop evapotranspiration for the growing period, in mm,
• t is the time interval in days,
• m is the days to physiological maturity from sowing or transplanting (total effective crop
growth period), in numbers,
• ETot is the reference crop evapotranspiration of the location concern for the day t, in mm,
and Kct is the crop coefficient for the time t day.

Note: Actually, the crops do not need water up to the harvest date. Physiological maturity is the
status of maturity after which the weight of the grains does not change/increase. Normally it reaches
a week (7 days) ahead of traditional harvest time in cereals, and 3–5 days in pulses and oilseeds.
Crop water requirement for a particular growth stage (or period) of the crop can be calculated using
the Kc for that growth stage (or period).

52 | B y : A r e b u H .
Table.2. FAO Mean Crop Coefficients, Kc, for Subhumid Climates

EXAMPLE. Tomato crops

Given data:
1.

2. Estimating the Kc factor for each of the 4 growth stages

 Kc initial stage = 0.45 March 5 days Kc = 0.45

 Kc crop development stage = 0.75 25 days Kc = 0.75

 Kc mid season stage = 1.15 February Kc Feb = 0.45

 Kc late season stage = 0.8

 —
53 | B y : A r e b u H .
 Step 3: Calculating the crop water need on a monthly basis

ETcrop = ETo × Kc (mm/day)

February: ET crop = 5.0 × 0.45 = 2.3 mm/day
March: ET crop = 5.8 × 0.70 = 4.1 mm/day

April: ET crop = 6.3 × 0.95 = 6.0 mm/day

May: ET crop = 6.8 × 1.15 = 7.8 mm/day

June: ET crop = 7.1 × 0.85 = 6.0 mm/day

Step 4: Calculate the monthly and seasonal crop water needs.

Note: all months are assumed to have

30 days
February ET crop = 30 × 2.3 = 69 mm/month

March ET crop = 30 × 4.1 = 123 mm/month

April ET crop = 30 × 6.0 = 180 mm/month

May ET crop = 30 × 7.8 = 234 mm/month

June ET crop = 30 × 6.0 = 180 mm/month

• The crop water need for the whole growing season of tomatoes is 786
mm

54 | B y : A r e b u H .
6.4. Effective Precipitation

Effective rainfall is that portion of the rainfall that contributes to the evapotranspiration
requirements of a crop. Thus, that portion of rainfall that is not lost from the farm, either as surface
runoff or as deep percolation to subsurface drainage, may be considered effective. Since effective
rainfall is determined by rainfall intensity, soil infiltration characteristics, soil moisture deficit,
surface storage, and evaporative conditions, it is difficult to estimate precisely.

6.5. Irrigation Scheduling

6.5.1. Irrigation water need

Irrigation requirement of a crop refers to the amount of water needed to be applied as irrigation to
supplement the water received through rainfall and soil profile contribution to meet the water needs
of crops for optimum growth and yield.

Irrigation requirements (IR) also defined as the water that must be supplied through the irrigation
system to ensure that the crop receives its full crop water requirements. If irrigation is the sole
source of water supply for the plant, the irrigation requirement will always be greater than the crop
water requirement to allow for inefficiencies in the irrigation system. If the crop receives some of
its water from other sources (rainfall, water stored in the ground, underground seepage, etc.), then
the irrigation requirement can be considerably less than the crop water requirement.

The irrigation requirement (IR) is one of the principal parameters for the planning, design and
operation of irrigation and water resources systems. Detailed knowledge of the IR quantity and its
temporal and spatial variability is essential for assessing the adequacy of water resources, for
evaluating the need of storage reservoirs and for the determining the capacity of irrigation systems.
It is a parameter of prime importance in formulating the policy for optimal allocation of water
resources as well as in decision-making in the day-to-day operation and management of irrigation
systems.

Incorrect estimation of the IR may lead to serious failures in the system performance and to the
waste of valuable water resources. It may result in inadequate control of the soil moisture regime
in the root zone; it may cause water logging, salinity or leaching of nutrients from the soil. It may
lead to the inappropriate capacities of the irrigation network or of storage reservoirs, to low water

55 | B y : A r e b u H .
use efficiency and to a reduction in the irrigated area. Overestimating IR at peak demand may also
result in increased development costs.

The primary objective of irrigation is to provide plants with sufficient water to obtain optimum
yields and a high quality harvested product. The required timing and amount of applied water is
determined by the prevailing climatic conditions, the crop and its stage of growth, soil properties
(such as water holding capacity), and the extent of root development. Water within the crop root
zone is the source of water for crop evapotranspiration. Thus, it is important to consider the field
water balance to determine the irrigation water requirements.
• Irrigation requirements are usually estimated with the assumption that the crop(s) will be
kept at or near optimum growth conditions.
• The crop evapotranspiration (ETc) can be estimated by multiplying a reference crop
evapotranspiration (ETo) by corresponding crop coefficients (Kc).
• The relationship between crop ET and the reference crop evapotranspiration is affected by
climatic conditions, soil profile moisture, soil surface moisture, crop variety, canopy, stage
of growth, and other factors.

Plant roots require moisture and oxygen to live. All crops have critical growth periods when even
small moisture stress can significantly impact crop yields and quality. Critical water needs periods
vary crop by crop. Soil moisture during the critical water periods should be maintained at sufficient
levels to ensure the plant does not stress from lack of water.

IR= CWR-(ER+S)
Irrigation water requirement may be classified into two:
1. Net irrigation requirement
2. Gross Irrigation Requirement

Net irrigation requirement (NIR)

The net irrigation requirement (NIR) is the amount of irrigation water just required to bring the soil
moisture content in the root zone depth of the crops to field capacity. The water that must be
supplied through the irrigation system to ensure the crop receives enough water for its normal crop
production (irrigation consumptive water use plus flooding of paddy fields plus salt leaching). The
56 | B y : A r e b u H .
net irrigation water requirement (IRn) does not include losses that are occurring during conveyance,
distribution and field application, as opposed to gross irrigation water requirement.

The net irrigation requirement is derived from the field balance equation:

Where:
IRn = Net irrigation requirement (mm)
ETc = Crop evapotranspiration (mm)
Pe = Effective dependable rainfall (mm)
Ge = Groundwater contribution from water table (mm)
Wb = Water stored in the soil at the beginning of each period (mm)
LRmm = Leaching requirement (mm)

Crop evapotranspiration
The crop evapotranspiration (ETc) is the crop water requirement (CWR) for a given cropping pattern
during a certain time period.

Dependable rainfall
Crop water requirements can be partially or fully covered by rainfall. However, while the rainfall
contribution may be substantial in some years, in other years it may be limited.

Effective rainfall
It is that portion of the rainfall that contributes to the evapotranspiration requirements of a crop.
Thus, that portion of rainfall that is not lost from the farm, either as surface runoff or as deep
percolation to subsurface drainage, may be considered effective. Since effective rainfall is
determined by rainfall intensity, soil infiltration characteristics, soil moisture deficit, surface
storage, and evaporative conditions, it is difficult to estimate precisely.

Groundwater contribution

The rate of upward capillary movement from the ground water depends on the depth of water table
below the root zone, soil moisture content and gradient, soil texture, structure and capillary
properties, and on evaporative conditions. Generally, in coarse textured soils, rapid movement can
occur over short distances with large moisture gradients. Water can move greater distances in fine
textured soils, but movement is slower.

Water stored in the soil

Some water (Wb) could be left in the soil from the previous irrigation, which can be used for the
next crop. This amount can be deducted when determining the seasonal irrigation requirements.
However, it is important to note that water stored in the root zone is not 100% effective due to losses
through evaporation and deep percolation. The effectiveness ranges from 40-90%. For planning
purposes, the contribution of water stored in the soil is considered negligible in such schemes.

\
57 | B y : A r e b u H .
Leaching requirements (LR)

The salinity in the root zone is directly related to the water quality, irrigation methods and practices,
soil conditions and rainfall. A high salt content in the root zone is normally controlled by leaching.
An excess amount of water is applied during the irrigation, where necessary, for the purposes of
leaching. This excess amount of water for leaching purposes is called the Leaching Requirement
(LR).
Gross Irrigation Water Requirement (GIR)

During delivery of water in the crop field, some losses occur such as inefficiencies in conveyance
system, evaporation and wind drift (especially for sprinkler irrigation). Besides, surface runoff and
percolation below root zone may occur from the field plot. For these reasons, the water that should
be pumped to supply the crop water requirement should be higher than the actual (net) crop water
requirement. The above losses can be minimized through proper management practices, but cannot
be eliminated completely.

Hence, the gross irrigation requirement (GIR) is the total of net irrigation requirement and other
losses such as conveyance, distribution, and application. The gross irrigation requirements
account for losses of water incurred during conveyance and application to the field. This is expressed
in terms of efficiencies when calculating project gross irrigation requirements from net irrigation
requirements, as shown below:

NIR
GIR =
OverallIrrigationEfficiency
𝑁𝐼𝑅
𝐺𝐼𝑅 =
𝐸𝑐 ∗ 𝐸𝑎

Where Ec is the field conveyance efficiency, Ea is the field application efficiency. Primary factors
affecting conveyance losses are management aspects that cause fluctuations or require adjustments
in the supply, as well as physical factors such as seepage losses through canal banks and canal
outlets.

Primary factors affecting or resulting in low application efficiencies are improper irrigation system
design, construction and maintenance, as well as inadequate farmer knowledge of crop water
requirements and irrigation scheduling criteria, irrigation system evaluation and monitoring
criteria, and delivery system behavior. Many times, the delivery of water to the farm may be
untimely, in improper amounts, and with excessive variation in the available discharge. These
factors, which are beyond the farmer's control, may make efficient irrigation impossibility. The
factors which influence crop water demand (ET demand), also influence the irrigation water
demand.

6.5.2. Determination of irrigation scheduling

58 | B y : A r e b u H .
Once the crop water and irrigation requirements have been calculated, the next step is the preparation
of field irrigation schedules. Irrigation scheduling is the schedule in which water is applied to the
field. Three parameters have to be considered in preparing an irrigation schedule:

The daily crop water requirements

The soil, particularly its total available moisture or water-holding capacity
The effective root zone depth

Plant response to irrigation is influenced by the physical condition, fertility and biological status of
the soil. Soil condition, texture, structure, depth, organic matter, bulk density, salinity, sodicity,
acidity, drainage, topography, fertility and chemical characteristics all affect the extent to which a
plant root system penetrates into and uses available moisture and nutrients in the soil. Many of these
factors influence the water movement in the soil, the water holding capacity of the soil and the ability
of the plants to use the water. The irrigation system used should match all or most of these
conditions.
Soils to be irrigated must also have adequate surface and subsurface drainage, especially in the case
of surface irrigation. Internal drainage within the crop root zone can either be natural or from an
installed subsurface drainage system.

The problem of irrigation consists of when to irrigate, and how much to irrigate. Efficient water
use depends on timely application of water at right amount at right time with right way or method.
Irrigation scheduling means when to irrigate and how much water to apply in crop field. In other
words, irrigation scheduling is the decision of when and how much water to be applied in a crop
field.

The objectives of irrigation scheduling are

To maximize yield
To maximize irrigation effectiveness/efficiency, and
To maximize crop quality by applying the exact amount of water needed by the crop (or to
replenish the soil moisture to the desired level).

6.5.2.1. Plant observation method

The visual signs of plants are used as an index for scheduling irritations. These include colour of
plants, curling and rolling of leaves, wilting of leaves, change in leaf angle etc. Plant water stress in
maize and beans crop is reflected through rolling of leaves in case of maize and change in angle of
leaves in case of bean. Successful interpretation of crop stress requires keen observation and
experience. Secondly sometimes symptoms may be misleading and by the time they appear it may
be too late to irrigate.

6.5.2.2. Estimation method

In this section, a table is provided to estimate the irrigation schedule for the major field crops during
the period of peak water demand; the schedules are given for three different soil types and three
different climates. The table is based on calculated crop water needs and an estimated root depth for

59 | B y : A r e b u H .
each of the crops under consideration. The table assumes that with the irrigation method used the
maximum possible net application depth is 70 mm.

With respect to soil types, a distinction has been made between sand, loam, and clay, which have,
respectively, a low, a medium and a high available water content. With respect to climate, a
distinction is made between three different climates.

Shallow In a sandy soil or a shallow soil (with a hard pan or impermeable layer close to the
and/or sandy soil surface), little water can be stored; irrigation will thus have to take place
soil frequently but little water is given per application.

Loamy soil In a loamy soil more water can be stored than in a sandy or shallow soil. Irrigation
water is applied less frequently and more water is given per application.

Clayey soil In a clayey soil even more water can be stored than in a medium soil. Irrigation
water is applied even less frequently and again more water is given per
application.

Climate 1 Represents a situation where the reference crop evapotranspiration ETo = 4 - 5

mm/day.

Climate 2 Represents an ETo = 6 - 7 mm/day.

Climate 3 Represents an ETo = 8 - 9 mm/day.

An overview indicating in which climatic zones these ETo values can be found is given below:

Reference Crop Evapotranspiration (mm/day)

Mean daily temperature

Climatic zone
Low (less than 15°C) Medium (15-25ºC) High (more than 25ºC)

Desert/arid 4-6 7-8 9 - 10

Semi-arid 4-5 6-7 8-9

Sub-humid 3-4 5-6 7-8

Humid 1-2 3-4 5-6

60 | B y : A r e b u H .
It is important to note that the irrigation schedules given in Table 3 are based on the crop water
needs in the peak period. It is further assumed Chat little or no rainfall occurs during the growing
season. Some examples on the use of Table 3 are given below.

Figure 12. Sorghum

Examples

1. Estimate the irrigation schedule for groundnuts grown on a deep, clayey soil, in a hoc and dry
climate.

Firstly, the climatic class has to be identified: climate 3 (ETo = 8-9 mm/day) represents a hot
climate. Table 3 shows that for climate 3 the interval for groundnuts grown on a clayey soil is 6
days and the net irrigation depth is 50 mm. This means that every 6 days the groundnuts should
receive a net irrigation application of 50 mm.

2. Estimate the irrigation schedule for spinach grown on a loamy soil, in an area with an average
temperature of 12º C during the growing season.

The average temperature is low: climate 1 (ETo = 4-5 mm/day). Table 3 shows, with climate 1, for
spinach, grown on a loamy soil an interval of 4 days and a net irrigation depth of 20 mm.

3. Estimate the irrigation schedule of sorghum grown on a sandy soil, in an area with a
temperature range of 15-25º C during the growing season (Figure 12).

The average temperature is medium: climate 2 (ETo = 6-7 mm/day). Table 3 shows, with climate 2
for sorghum grown on a sandy soil, an irrigation interval of 6 days and a net irrigation depth of 40
mm.

6.5.2.3. Simple calculation method

The simple calculation method to determine the irrigation schedule is based on the estimated depth
(in mm) of the irrigation applications, and the calculated irrigation water need of the crop over the
growing season.

Unlike the estimation method, the simple calculation method is based on calculated irrigation water
needs. Thus, the influence of the climate, i.e., temperature and rainfall, is more accurately taken into
account. The result of the simple calculation method will therefore be more accurate than the result
of the estimation method.

The simple calculation method to determine the irrigation schedule involves the following steps that
are explained in detail below:

61 | B y : A r e b u H .
Step 1: Estimate the net and gross irrigation depth (d) in mm.

Step 2: Calculate the irrigation water need (IN) in mm, over the total growing season.

Step 3: Calculate the number of irrigation applications over the total growing season.

Step 4: Calculate the irrigation interval in days.

The scheduling of irrigation can be field irrigation scheduling and field irrigation supply schedules.
Field irrigation Scheduling is done at field level. The two scheduling parameters of field irrigation
scheduling are
1. The depth of irrigation and
2. Interval of irrigation.

Depth of irrigation (d)

This is the depth of irrigation water that is to be applied at one irrigation. It is the depth of water that
can be retained in the crop root zone between the field capacity and the given depletion of the
available moisture content. All the water retained in the soil between field capacity and permanent
wilting points not readily available to crops. The readily available moisture is only some percentage
of the total available moisture. Thus, depth of irrigation is the readily available portion of the soil
moisture. It is the depth of irrigation water required to replenish the soil moisture to field capacity.

d= net depth of water to be applied or net irrigation in cm

As = Apparent specific gravity of soil
D = Effective root zone depth in m
FC = water content of soil at F.C (% w/w)
PWP = Water content of soil at PWP (% w/w)
P = depletion factor
Because of application losses such as deep percolation and runoff losses, the total depth of water to
be applied will be greater than the net depth of water.
Gross depth of application

62 | B y : A r e b u H .
Where, Ea = Field application efficiency and other parameters as defined above
Interval of Irrigation (I)
The interval of irrigation is the time gap in days between two successive irrigation applications. It
depends on the type of the crop, soil type and climate conditions. Thus, interval of irrigation depends
on the consumptive use rate of the crop and the amount of readily available moisture (RAM) in the
crop root zone. The consumptive use rate of the crop varies from crop to crop. The RAM moisture
also varies from soil to soil depending on soil water constants.
The interval (frequency) of irrigation is given by:

I (day ) =
d
ETcrop( peak )
Or

Where, Fc = field capacity in %

PWP = Permanent wilting point in %
As = apparent specific gravity of soil
D = depth of crop root zone, cm
P = depletion factor
ETcrop (peak) = the peak rate of crop evapotranspiration in m/day.

Field Irrigation Supply Schedules

This is the schedule of water supply to individual fields or command area. It is a schedule of the
total volume of water to be applied to the soil during irrigation. It depends on crop and soil
characteristics. It is expressed as:

Where q= Stream size (application rate) lit/sec

63 | B y : A r e b u H .
 t = Application time in sec
Ea = Application efficiency
As = Apparent specific gravity
D = Effective root zone depth, m
P = Depletion factor
A = Area of the command (field) in ha
From the above equation, if either of the application time or the stream size fixed, one of them can
be determined. In the above equation q.t indicates the total volume of water applied to the field
during irrigation at the head of the field. But the total volume of water diverted at the headwork will
obviously be greater than this value, because there is loss of water during conveyance and
distribution canals.
Total volume of water diverted at the headwork
The total volume of water to be diverted is given by:

( )
q * t m3 =
10
Ep
* As * D * (FC − PWP) * P * A

Where q = flow rate at the head work, lit/sec.

Ep = project efficiency

Example 2. A crop has in effective root zone of 120 cm (1.20 m) prior to irrigation, soil samples
were taken from different depths to determine the moisture status of the soil.

Depth of root zone (m) Weight soil sample (gm) Weight of oven dry soil (g)

0 – 0.30 m 98.80 94.60

0.30 – 0.60 m 96.60 92.10

0.60 – 0.90 m 95.00 90.60

0.90 – 1.20 m 94.00 89.40

The water holding capacity of the soil at field capacity is 19.60 cm/meter. The apparent specific
gravity of the soil is 1.60. Determine, the moisture content in the root zone at different depths total
depth of water available in the root zone at different depths, total depth of water available in the
root zone and the soil moisture deficit.

64 | B y : A r e b u H .
Solution:
For depth from 0 − 0.30 m
Mass of water = 98.80 gm − 94.60 gm = 4.20 gm

4.20 gm
Moisture content, W = * 100 = 4.44 %
94.60 gm
In depth of water, d = As. D. p =1.6*0.3*0.0444 = 0.0213m = 2.13cm

For depth 0.3-0.6m

Mass of water=96.60-92.10=4.50gm.
W=4.50/92.10 *100= 4.88%
In depth, d = As. D.P = 1.60 * 0.30* 0.0488 = 0.0234 = 2.34 cm

For depth 0.60 − 0.90 m

Mass of water = 95.00 − 90.60 = 4.40 gm

4.40
W = * 100 = 4.86 %
90.60

 In depth of water, d = As.D. P = 1.60 x 0.30* 0.0486 = 0.0233 = 2.33 cm

For depth 0.90 − 1.20 m

Mass of water = 94.00 gm − 89.40 gm = 4.60 gm

4.60
W = * 100 = 5.14 %
89.40

In depth, d = As. D.P = 1.60 x 0.30 * 0.0514 = 0.0247 m = 2.47 cm

The total depth of water in the root zone is the total of all the water retained at different depths.
 Total depth = 2.13 cm + 2.34 cm + 2.33 cm + 2.47 cm = 9.27 cm
Water retained at field capacity = 19.60 cm/m
Water in the root zone = 19.60 * 1.20 m = 23.52 cm
The soil moisture deficit prior to irrigation is therefore,
FC – depth of water during sampling
= 23.52 cm – 9.27 cm = 14.25 cm

65 | B y : A r e b u H .
This deficit is the amount of water which should be added to the soil to bring the soil moisture
content to field capacity. Thus, it represents the depth of irrigation. Assuming that the peak rate of
consumptive use during the stage of the plant is 8mm/day
depth 142.50 mm
Interval, i= = = 17.8 = 17 days =
peak cu 8 mm / day
The next watering will be done after 17 days. The interval should not be made 18 days, because the
plant may suffer shortage of water for one day.
Difference between Crop Water Requirement and Irrigation Water Requirement

Crop Water Requirement Irrigation Water Requirement

It is a function of weather and crop It involves additional factors other than the
weather and crop
Normally it is less than the irrigation Normally it is higher than the crop water
water requirement Requirement
It is not a function of soil and It depends on soil type and irrigation method
irrigation method
It does not depend on rainfall (but on Irrigation water requirement decreases if there
temperature and humidity) is any rainfall
It is not a function of depth to water table It decreases with the contribution of upward
or saturated layer flow from the water-table or saturated layer

6.5.2.4. Soil moisture measurement method

(a) Appearance and feel method

Using the soil auger, soil samples throughout the root zone are collected. By looking and feeling the
sample, soil moisture deficiency is determined using guideline. Not precise and it requires
experience and judgment. Simple, quick and it requires no equipment except soil auger. In many
applications, greater accuracy is not needed, nor is it justified economically.

(b) Gravimetric method

This method is used for primary measurement. It involves weighting a sample of moist soil, drying
to a constant weight at a temperature of 105 to 110oC, and re-weighting. Usually, 24 hours are
required for drying. Most accurate and direct method. Destructive, labor intensive and time
consuming; several samples are required to obtain a satisfactory representative indication of
moisture content.

66 | B y : A r e b u H .
(c) Electro-resistance blocks

The porous blocks (gypsum) are calibrated against a range of moisture. The blocks containing
desired electrical elements are placed in the field of at required depth. As the moisture content of
the blocks changes, the electrical resistance also changes. The gypsum blocks are soluble and
deteriorate in one to three seasons of use. Normally there is considerable variation between blocks
and considerable changes occur in the calibration during the season

(d) Tensiometer

A porous ceramic cup filled with water is attached to a vacuum gauge or mercury manometer. A
hole is bored or dug to a desired depth; a handful of loose soil is placed into the hole, and the cup
pushed firmly into the soil. The water inside the cup comes into hydraulic contact through the pores
in the cup. When initially placed in the soil, water contained in the tensiometer is generally at
atmospheric pressure. Soil water, being generally at sub-atmospheric pressure, exercises a suction
which draws out a certain amount of water within the tensiometer, thus causing a drop in its
hydrostatic pressure. This pressure is indicated by the manometer or vacuum gauge.

Tensiometer is effective up to a tension of 0.8 bar. At this pressure air enters the closed system
through the pores of the cup and makes the unit inoperative. Tensiometer readings are useful in
deciding when to irrigate, but they do not indicate how much water should be applied. A special
moisture-characteristic curve for the particular soil is needed to convert moisture tension
measurements into available moisture percentage. Tensiometers are less well suited to use in fine-
textured soils in which only a small part of the available moisture is held at a tension of less than 1
atmosphere. Since the unit operates satisfactorily only up to tensions of 0.8 atmosphere, they are
most useful in sandy soil, where this represents a major portion of the available water. Because of
its narrow range of application, the tensiometer is used for moist and resistance blocks for dryer soil
conditions. Sometimes a combination of tensiometer and resistance blocks is used.

(e) Neutron method

A hole is dug with an auger, and a metal tube is driven into the hole to retain the soil. The neutron
source and counting device are lowered to the desired depth. Fast neutrons emitted from the source
and slowed down by water in the surrounding soil. The resulting slow neutrons which reach the

67 | B y : A r e b u H .
counting tube are recorded. Fast neutrons are not registered by the counter. The greater the water
content of the soil, the greater is the number of slow neutrons reaching the counting tube. There
exists a good correlation between moisture content and the number of slowed down neutron reaching
the counter.

7. IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY AND MANAGEMENT

7.1. Classification of Irrigation Water Quality

Irrigation water quality refers to the characteristics of a water supply that will influence its
suitability for a specific use, i.e. how well the quality meets the needs of the user. Several
classifications of irrigation water have been proposed on the basis of their chemical characteristics
and their effects on crop growth. Amongst these the classification proposed by the United State
Soil Salinity Laboratory (USSSL) staff is widely used because it includes both factors of salinity
and sodium hazard. In view of this and also with a view to include soil texture and salt tolerance
behavior of the crops, the USSSL staff scheme was modified and the higher range of salt
concentration has been extended up to 20,250 micro mhos/cm by adding one more salinity group
and keeping the same geometric relationships. In 1972 the conference of water quality rating at the
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal proposed a water quality rating giving emphasis on
salinity and soil texture along with some specific situations.

7.2. Suitability of Irrigation Water

The suitability of irrigation water is mainly depends on the amounts and type of salts present in
water. The main soluble constituents are calcium, magnesium, sodium as cations and chloride,
sulphate, biocarbonate as anions. The other ions are present in minute quantities are boron, selenium,
molybdenum and fluorine which are harmful to animals fed on plants grown with excess
concentration of these ions.

The suitability of irrigation water (SI) will be determined by following factors.

(a) Quality of irrigation water: Amount, nature and proportion of various cations and anions
present in the water.

68 | B y : A r e b u H .
(b) Nature of the soil to be irrigated: Texture, structure, drainage, permeability, depth of water
table, chemical composition of the soil, pH, and CaCO3 content will determine the effect of irrigation
water on the soil.

(c) Nature of the crop plants to be grown: water, which may not be suitable for very sensitive
crop, may be excellent for tolerant crops.

(d) Climatic conditions: High temperature and less humidity will require a greater number of
irrigations.

There are four basic criteria for evaluating water quality for irrigation purposes:

➢ Total content of soluble salts (salinity hazard)

➢ Relative proportion of sodium (Na+) to calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+)
ions – sodium adsorption ratio (sodium hazard)
➢ Residual sodium carbonates (RSC) – bicarbonate (HCO3-) and carbonate (CO32-) anions
concentration, as it relates to Ca2+ plus Mg2+ ions.
➢ Excessive concentrations of elements that cause an ionic imbalance in plants or plant
toxicity.

The quality of suitable irrigation water is very much influenced by the constituents of the soil which
is to be irrigated. The quality of some water sources is not suitable for irrigating crops. Irrigation
water must be compatible with the crops and soils to which it will be applied. The quality of water
for irrigation purposes is determined by its total dissolved salt content. The two most important
factors for irrigation quality analysis are:
a. The total dissolved solids (TSD) and
b. The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)

a. The total dissolved solids (TSD)

Salinity of water refers to concentration of total soluble salts in water. It is the most important single
criterion of irrigation water quality. The harmful effects increase with increase in total salt
concentration. The concentration of soluble salt in water is indirectly measured by its electrical
conductivity (EC). The electrical conductivity (EC) of a water sample often is used a proxy for TSD.

69 | B y : A r e b u H .
EC can be expressed in many different units, and this often causes confusion. On an irrigation water
test, you might see one of the following units:

Milli mhos per centimeter (mmhos/cm)

Micro mhos per centimeter (µmhos/cm)
Desi-Siemens per meter (dS/m)
Micro-Siemens per centimeter (µS/cm)
Where: 1000 µmhos/cm = 1 mmhos/cm=1dS/m=1000 µS/cm
Table 1: The quality of saline waters has been divided into five classes as per USDA
classification. Salinity classes of irrigation water

Salinity class Micro mhos/cm Milli mhos/cm

C1- Low <250 <0.25
C2-Medium 250-750 0.25-0.75
C3- Medium to high 750-2250 0.75-2.25
C4-High 2250-5000 2.25-5.00
C5-Very high >5000 >5.00

I. C1-Low-salinity water: can be used for irrigation with most crops on most soils with
little likelihood that soil salinity will. Some leaching is required; this occurs under normal
irrigation practices except in soils of slow and very slow permeability.
II. C2-Medium-salinity water: can be used if a moderate amount of leaching occurs. Plants
with moderate with moderate salt tolerance can be grown in most cases without special
practices for salinity control.
III. C3-High-salinity water: cannot be used on soils with moderately slow to slow
permeability. Even with adequate permeability, special management for salinity control
may be required and plants with good salt tolerance should be selected.
IV. C4-very high salinity: is not suitable for irrigation under ordinary condition but may be
used occasionally under very special circumstances. The soils must have rapid
permeability, drainage must be adequate, irrigation water must be applied in excess to
provide considerable leaching, and very salt-tolerant crops should be selected.

Table 2: Type and suitability of irrigation water based on electrical conductivity (EC)

Sr. EC in mmhos/cm at 25oC Use in irrigation

No. and [ Type of water]

70 | B y : A r e b u H .
 1 EC 0 up to 250 Can be used for irrigation for almost all crops and for
[Low Conductivity Water (C1)]
almost all kinds of soils. Very little salinity may develop,
which may require slight leaching, but it is permissible
under normal irrigation practices except in soils of
extremely low permeability’s
2 EC between 250 to 750 Can be used, if a moderate amount of leaching occurs.
[Medium Conductivity Water Normal salt-tolerant plants can be grown without much
(C2)] salinity control.

3 EC between 750 to 2250 Cannot be used on soils with restricted drainage. Special
[High Conductivity Water (C3)] precautions and measures are undertaken for salinity
control and only high-salt tolerant plants can be grown.
4 EC> 2250 Generally, not suitable for irrigation
[Very High Conductivity Water
(C4)]

Adverse effects of saline water include salt accumulation, increase in osmotic potential, and
decreased water availability to plants, poor germination, irregular crop stand, stunted growth with
smaller, thicker and dark green leaves, leaf necrosis and leaf drop, root death, wilting of plants,
nutrient deficiency symptoms and poor crop yields.

b. Sodium Adsorption Ratio

SAR of water indicates the relative proportion of sodium to other cations. The SAR of a water
sample is the proportion of sodium relative to calcium and magnesium. Because it is a ratio, the
SAR has no units.
1. S1-Low-sodium water: Can be used for irrigation on almost all soils with little danger of
the development of harmful levels of exchangeable sodium.
2. S2-Medium–Sodium Water: Will present an appreciable sodium hazard in fine-textured
soils, especially under low leaching conditions. This water may be used on coarse-textured
soils with moderately rapid to very rapid permeability.
3. S3-High-Sodium Water: Will produce harmful levels exchangeable sodium in most soils
and requires special soil management, good drainage, high leaching and high organic matter
additions.
4. S4-very high sodium: Generally, is unsatisfactory for irrigation purposes except at low and
perhaps medium salinity.

71 | B y : A r e b u H .
The harmful effects of sodic water include destruction of soil structure, crust formation, poor
seedling emergence, and reduction in availability of N, Zn and Fe due to increased soil pH. Na
toxicity and toxicity of B and Mo due to their excessive solubility. When the value of SAR lies
between 0 to 10, it is called Low Sodium Water (S1); when between 0 to 18, it is called Medium
Sodium Water (S2); between 18 to 26 it is called High Sodium Water (S3); and when values of SAR
are more than 26, it is called Very High Sodium Water (S4). The suitability of these four kinds of
water for irrigation are discussed in Table 2. The SAR value can be reduced by adding gypsum
(CaSO4) to the water or to the soil.

Table 3: Type and suitability of irrigation water based on SAR value

SL SAR and /Type of water/ Use in irrigation

1 SAR Value between 0 to 10. Can be used for irrigation on almost all soils and for almost
/ Low Sodium Water (S1)/. all crops except those which are highly sensitive to sodium,
such as stone-fruit trees and avocados, etc.
2 SAR Value between 10 to 18. Appreciably hazardous in fine textured soils, which may
/Medium Sodium Water (S2)/. require gypsum, etc; but may be used on course textured or
organic soils with good permeability.
3 SAR value between 18 to 26. May prove harmful on almost all the soils, and do require
/High Sodium Water (S3)/. good drainage, high leaching, gypsum addition etc. for
Proper irrigation.
4 SAR value above 26 Generally, not suitable for irrigation
/Very High Sodium Water (S4)/.

Various impurities in irrigation water

The various types of impurities, which make the water unfit for irrigation, are classified as:
a. Total concentration of soluble salts in water.
b. Proportion of sodium ions to other cations.
c. Sediment concentration in water.
d. Concentration of potentially toxic elements present in water.
e. Bicarbonate concentration as related to concentration of Ca plus Mg
f. Bacterial concentration
The effects of these impurities are discussed below:
1. Sediment concentration of soluble salts
The effect of sediment present in the irrigation water depends upon the type of irrigated land. When
fine sediment from water deposited on sand soils, the fertility is improved. On the other hand, when

72 | B y : A r e b u H .
the sediment has been derived from the eroded areas, it may reduce the fertility or decrease the soil
permeability. Sediment water creates troubles in irrigation canals, as they get silted up and their
maintenance cost is increased. In general, ground water or surface water from reservoirs etc. does
not have sufficient sediment to cause any serious problems in irrigation.
2. Total concentration of soluble salts
Salts of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium, present in the irrigation water may prove
injurious to plants. When present in excessive quantities, they reduce the osmotic activities of the
plants, and may present adequate aeration, causing injuries to plant growth. The injurious effects of
salts on the plant growth depend upon the concentration of salts left in the soil. The effects of salts
on plant growth depend largely upon the total amount of salts present in the soil solution. Total salt
concentration is generally expressed ppm or mg/l of water. The critical salt concentration in the
irrigation water depends upon many factors. However, amounts in excess of 700 ppm are harmful
to some plants and more than 2000 ppm are injurious to all crops.
Total salt concentration in water is expressed as:
a. Parts per million (ppm)
One part per million (ppm) means one part in a million parts. One part of the solute dissolved in
one million parts of water (1 ppm) (1g/ 1,000,000 g of water) or 1 milligram/liter. The result of a
chemical analysis of water are usually reported in parts per million of the various substances present
in the sample. As commonly measured and used, parts per million in numerically equivalent to
milligrams per liter (ppm=mg/l).
b. Milligram per liter of water (mg/l)
Milli equivalent of an ion or compound in one liter of water.
c. Electrical Conductivity (EC)

The salt concentration is generally measured by determining the electrical conductivity (EC) of
water. It is standard method of evaluating total salts present in irrigation water at 25oC. Electrical
conductivity is expressed as the reciprocal of ohm/cm or mhos/cm, milli mhos per cm (mmhos/cm)
or deci-siemens per meter (ds/m). ds/m= milli mhos/cm (10-3 mhos/cm). For convenience in units,
milli mhos/cm (10-3 mhos/cm) or micro mhos/cm (10-6 mhos/cm) are used. Electrical conductivity
(EC) is expressed in micro mhos per centimeters (mhos/cm).

(3) Relative proportion of sodium ions to other cations in irrigation water

73 | B y : A r e b u H .
Most of the soils contain Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions and small quantities of Na+. The percentage of the Na+
is generally less than 5% of the total exchangeable cations. If this percentage increases to about 10%
to more, the aggregation of soil grains breaks down. The soil becomes less permeable and of poorer
tilth. It starts crusting when dry and its pH increases towards that of an alkaline soil. High sodium
soils are, therefore, plastic, sticky when wet, and are prone to form clods, and they crust on drying.
The methods for determining relative proportion of sodium ions to other cations are:
(a) Sodium absorption ratio (SAR)
(b) Exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)
(c) Sodium percentage (SP)
a) Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR):
A ratio for soil extracts and irrigation water used to express the relative activity of sodium ions in
exchange reaction with soil in which the ionic concentration is expressed in milli-equivalents per
litre. SAR is defined as: Where, the concentration of the ions is expressed in equivalent per million
(epm); epm is obtained by dividing the concentration of salt in mg/l or ppm by its combining weight
𝑁𝑎
(i.e. Atomic wt. Valence)]. SAR= 𝐶𝑎+𝑀𝑔
√
2

b) Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP):

It is the degree of saturation of the soil exchange complex with sodium and may be calculated by
the following formula:
𝑁𝑎+
𝑆𝑃 =
(𝑁𝑎+ + 𝐶𝑎++ + 𝑀𝑔++ + 𝐾 + )

Where, ionic exchange is in milli equivalent per 100 gm soil.

Concentration of potentially toxic elements
 A large number of elements such as Boron, Selenium etc. may be toxic to plants.
 Traces of Boron are essential to plant growth, but its concentrations above 0.3 ppm may
prove toxic to certain plants.
c) Sodium Percentage (SP):
The moisture percentage of a saturated soil paste expressed on dry wt. basis. Where, ionic
concentration is in (me/l).

(4) Concentration of potentially toxic elements

74 | B y : A r e b u H .
A large number of elements such as Boron, Selenium etc. may be toxic to plants. Traces of Boron
are essential to plant growth, but its concentrations above 0.3 ppm may prove toxic to certain plants.
The concentration above 0.5 ppm is dangerous to nuts, citrus fruits and deciduous fruits. Cotton,
Cereals and certain truck crops are moderately tolerant to Boron, while Dates, Beets, Asparagus
etc. are quite tolerant. Even for the most tolerant crops, the Boron concentration should not exceed
4 ppm. Boron is generally present in various soaps. The waste water containing soap, etc. should,
therefore, be used with great care in irrigation. Selenium even in low concentration, toxic, and must
be avoided. Boron concentrations of as little as 2 to 4 milligrams per litre may be harmful to crops.
Some crops are more tolerant to boron than others.

(5) Bicarbonate concentration as related to concentration of calcium plus magnesium

High concentration of bi-carbonate ions may result in precipitation of calcium and magnesium bi-
carbonates from the soil-solution, increasing the relative proportion of sodium ions and causing
sodium hazards.
(6) Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC).
RSC indicate the residual carbonates in excess of the lime. RSC = (CO3– + HCO3–) – (Ca2+ Mg2+),
where, ionic concentrations are in (meq/l). Alkali water is water with RSC > 2.5 (meq/l).
(7) Bacterial contamination
Bacterial contamination of irrigation water is not a serious problem, unless the crops irrigated with
highly contaminated water directly eaten, without being cooked. Cash crops like cotton, nursery
stock, etc. which is processed after harvesting, can, and therefore, use contaminated waste waters,
without any trouble.

Common problems that result from using poor quality irrigation water

The application of poor quality water for irrigation can cause soil problems such as salinity, sodicity,
alkalinity, toxicity and water infiltration rate. Proper intention should be given to manage poor
quality water and to reclaim the salt effected soil.

Salinity

Salinity problem related to water quantity occurs if the total quantity of salts in the irrigation water
is high enough for the salts to accumulate in the crop root zone to the extent that yields are affected.
If excessive quantities of soluble salts accumulate in the root zone the crop has difficulty in
extracting enough water from the salty soil solution. This reduced water uptake by the plant usually

75 | B y : A r e b u H .
results in slow or reduced growth. Soil salinity is developed when soil becomes more salty as a result
of water movement in the soil especially due to irrigation.

The accumulation of salts in root zone, limited the availability of water and plant can take up lesser
water which resulted in high plant stress and decreased crop yields. The presence of metals in
irrigation water also has adverse effects on crop production. Also, high concentration of salts can
change the plant nutrients balance in the soil meanwhile some salts are toxic to certain plants. It is
also notable that most of the normal plants tolerate wide range of salt but pasture plants are not
highly salt-tolerant and would finally die out under saline conditions. The physical and chemical
properties of soil are also affected by salinity that leads in soil loss in term of surface soil compaction
and erosion. Salinity also dehydrates the soil bacteria and fungi and reduces soil health.

When salts start accumulating in upper soil profile (root zone) in excess amount, salinity problems
appear. In areas of high salts, the practice of leaching of accumulated salts from the root zone is
necessary to reduce the level of salts. The artificial drainage has some advantages to remove salinity
from soil even with low quality water

Sodicity

The soils containing the large amount of sodium ions are known as sodic soils. In sodic soils the
positively charged sodium ions attached with negatively charged clay particles. The soil swells and
the clay particles disperse when excess in sodium ions is attached to clay particles. When water is
added to the soil has sodium ions, resulted the soil structure to slump and collapse rather than
sticking together. Similarly, in sodic soil the surface of the soil becomes hard and impervious layer
vulnerable to water-logging also reduce aeration which is necessary for biological activity in soil.
All these parameters are the reasons of reduction in crop growth and ultimately the crop production.

Alkalinity

The ability of water to neutralize the added acids is known as alkalinity, the most important factor
determining root media pH. Over the time, the pH is adversely affected by the water having high
alkalinity. Alkalinity can be assessed with the measure level of calcium bicarbonate or calcium
carbonate. Undesirably, acid is injecting into the water to neutralize the level of high level of
bicarbonate or application of ammonium comprising fertilizers. The crops grown in cool areas have
low tolerance against ammonium, so especial attention is required for those crops.

Reduced Hydraulic Conductivity

A low permeability and hydraulic conductivity problem related to water quality occurs when the
rate of water infiltration into and through the soil is reduced by the effects of specific salts in the
water to such extent that the crop is not adequately supplied with water and yield is reduced. The
poor soil permeability causes difficulty like crusting of seedbed, water logging, and attack of disease,
salinity, weeds, oxygen and nutritional problems. Infiltration rate or intake rate of water is very
necessary process to provide water to root zone from the soil surface and reduce salinity through
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leaching. The problems related to infiltration arise when infiltration rate is reduced to some extent
which is not desirable. Due to less infiltration rate, very less water is available to plants roots or
remains on the surface of the soil. Because of this problem, the necessity such as water and nutrients
are unavailable to plants. Beyond this scenario, the water infiltration rate in soil also varies widely
and is affected by soil structure, soil compaction, available organic matter, water quality and
chemical constitute of soil.

Toxicity

A toxicity problem occurs when certain constituents in the water are taken up by the crop and
accumulate in amounts that result in reduced yield. As water take nutrients when missed with water
and on the same time when crop take water containing ionic constituents the toxicity problems
raised. The high concentration of toxic elements can reduce crop growth and resulted in low crop
production. The primary ionic constituents are boron, sodium and chloride. It is not necessary that
the high concentration cause the damage even small quantity respond the same. The water
infiltration and salinity problems can also be due to toxicity. Without transpiration, the plant is
unable to live as this is the basic need of plant. In this transpiration process, the dissolved ions in
water move and accumulated to the leaves. These ions block the stomata in the leaves and reduce
the transpiration process which adversely affects the plant growth. It is also to note that the direct
application of adsorbed toxic ions from overhead sprinkler can create toxicity problems. Toxicity
from both sodium and chloride or from any one is dangers to sensitive crop such as citrus.

Miscellaneous

Various other problems related to irrigation water quality occur with sufficient frequency and should
be specifically noted. These include excessive vegetative growth, lodging and delayed crop maturity
from excessive nitrogen in water supply, white deposits on fruits or leaves due to sprinkler irrigation
with high carbonate water and abnormalities by an unusual pH of the irrigation water.

7.3. Management of Salt Affected Irrigation Water

7.3.1. Leaching requirement & artificial drainage

The leaching requirement may be defined as the fraction of the irrigation water that must be leached
through the root zone to control soil salinity at any specific level. The volume of water connected
with irrigation must incorporate a water sum that channels down the root zone, which is in expansion
to the sum required for normal irrigation.

Excess water may be applied with every irrigation to provide the water needed for leaching.
However, the time interval between leachings does not appear to be critical provided that crop
tolerances are not exceeded. Hence, leaching can be accomplished with each irrigation, every few
irrigations, once yearly, or even longer depending on the severity of the salinity problem and salt
tolerance of the crop. An occasional or annual leaching event where water is ponded on the surface

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is an easy and effective method for controlling soil salinity. In some areas, normal rainfall provides
adequate leaching.

7.3.2. Pre-plant irrigation

Salts often accumulate near the soil surface during fallow periods, particularly when water tables
are high or when off-season rainfall is below normal. Under these conditions, seed germination and
seedling growth can be seriously reduced unless the soil is leached before planting.

7.3.3. Irrigation frequency management

Salt concentrations increase in the soil as water is extracted by the crop. Typically, salt
concentrations are lowest following an irrigation and higher just before the next irrigation.
Increasing irrigation frequency maintains a more constant moisture content in the soil. Thus, more
of the salts are then kept in solution which aids the leaching process. Surge flow irrigation is often
effective at reducing the minimum depth of irrigation that can be applied with furrow irrigation
systems. Thus, a larger number of irrigations are possible using the same amount of water.

7.4. Residue management

The common saying “salt loves bare soils” refers to the fact that exposed soils have higher
evaporation rates than those covered by residues. Residues left on the soil surface reduce
evaporation. Thus, less salts will accumulate and rainfall will be more effective in providing for
leaching.

Management of Poor Quality Water:

Where there is no alternate source of good quality irrigation water in an area, it is inevitable to use
the available water of poor quality. However, the yield potential of such areas can be increased by
adopting proper management practices such as:

1. Application of gypsum: chemical amendments such as gypsum, when added to water will
increase the calcium concentration in the water, thus reducing the sodium to calcium ratio and
SAR, thus improving the infiltration rate.

2. Alternate irrigation strategy: some crops are susceptible to salinity at germination and
establishment stage, but tolerant at later stage. If susceptible stages are ensured with good quality
water, subsequent tolerant stages can be irrigated with poor quality saline water.

3. Fertilizer application: fertilizers, manures and soil amendments include many soluble salts in
high concentrations. If placed too close to the germinating seedling or the growing plant, the
fertilizer may cause or aggravate a salinity or toxicity problem. Therefore, care should be taken

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 in placement as well as timing of fertilization. Application of fertilizers in small doses and
frequently improve uptake and reduce damage to the crop plants.

4. Methods of irrigation: the method of irrigation directly affects both the efficiency of water use
and the way salts accumulate. Poor quality irrigation water is not suitable for use sprinkler
method of irrigation. Crops sprinkled with water having excess quantities of specific ions such
as Na and Cl cause leaf burn. High frequency irrigation in small amounts as in drip improves
water availability and uptake due to micro-leaching effect in the wetted zone.

5. Crop tolerance: the crops differ in their tolerance to poor quality waters. Growing tolerant
crops when poor quality water is used for irrigation helps to obtain reasonable crops yields. For
example: Sugar beet, Safflower, Barely, spinach, Date palm etc.

6. Method of sowing: salinity reduces or slows germination and it is often difficult to obtain a
satisfactory stand. Suitable planting practices, bed shapes and irrigation management can greatly
enhance salt control during the critical germination period. Seeds have to be placed in the area
where salt concentration is less.

7. Mulching: mulching with locally available plant material helps in reducing salt problems by
reducing evaporation and by increasing infiltration.

8. Soil management: all soil management practices that improve infiltration rate and maintain
favorable soil structure reduces salinity hazard.

8. AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE SYSTEM

8.1. Concepts and Definition of Drainage and Drainage System

Agricultural drainage is removal and disposal of excess water from agricultural land. It is necessary
to provide an adequate drainage system for every irrigated soil. In the field, irrigation water, together
with any rainfall, will be partly stored on the soil surface and will partly infiltrate into the soil. If
rain or irrigation continues for long periods, pools may form on the soil surface. This excess water
on the soil surface is called ponded water. Ponding: -is the accumulation of excess water on the soil
surface. Drainage is needed to remove the excess water and stop the rise of the water table.

Water logging: is the accumulation of excess water in the root zone of the soil. Even if irrigation
water is of very good quality, it will contain some salts. So, bringing irrigation water to a field also
means bringing salts to that field. Salinization: is the accumulation of soluble salts at the soil

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surface, or at some point below the soil surface, to levels that have negative effects on plant growth
and/or on soils. So, drainage is used to control ponding at the soil surface, to control water logging
in the soil, and to avoid salinization.

Drainage: is the removal of excess water and dissolved salts from the surface and subsurface of the
land in order to enhance crop growth. Drainage can be either Natural or Artificial. Most areas have
some natural drainage; this means that excess water flows from the farmers' fields to swamps or to
lakes and rivers. Sometimes, however, the natural drainage is inadequate to remove the extra water
or salts brought in by irrigation. In such a case, an artificial or man-made drainage system is
required.

A man-made drainage system is an artificial system of surface drains and/or subsurface drains,
related structures, and pumps (if any) to remove excess water from an area. Therefore, drainage is
needed for successful irrigated agriculture because it controls ponding, water logging and salinity.

8.2.The Need for Drainage

Drainage to Control Ponding

To remove ponding water from the surface of the land, surface drainage is used.

Normally, this consists of digging shallow open drains.

Surface drainage is the removal of excess water from the surface of the land by diverting
it into improved natural or constructed drains, supplemented, when necessary, by the
shaping and grading of the land surface towards such drains.

Drainage to Control Water logging

To remove excess water from the root zone, subsurface drainage is used.
This is done by digging open drains or installing pipes, at depths varying from 1 to 3 m.
Subsurface drainage is the removal of excess water and dissolved salts from soils via
groundwater flow to the drains, so that the water table and root-zone salinity are
controlled.

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Drainage to Control Salinization

To remove salts from the soil, more irrigation water is applied to the field than the crops
require.
This extra water infiltrates into the soil and percolates through the root zone.
Poorly drained soils affect crop development by
Lowering soil temperature
Stopping air circulation and preventing bacterial activities
Encouraging certain plant diseases
Excess water can be caused by rainfall or by using too much irrigation water, but
may also have other origins canal seepage or floods.

8.3.Types of drainage system

Modern drainage systems may be divided into two categories, surface and subsurface. The typical
surface system consists of field drains, field ditches, a main collection ditch, and an outlet. A surface
system is designed to remove water that collects on top of the soil. Surface drainage is especially
important for soils that absorb water slowly. Subsurface drainage systems consist of small
conduits, a sub main, a main, and an outlet. The conduits, equivalent to the field drains in a surface
system, collect the water in the soil and drain it into the larger arteries. Factors determining the most
efficient drainage system design for a particular property include

 Soil type
 Land configuration
 Amount and pattern of rainfall, and
 Types of crops to be grown.
Soils of high sand or silt content are generally suited to subsurface drainage, while soils of
high clay content generally require surface systems.

Surface Drainage Systems

Surface drainage is the removal of excess water from the surface of the land.
This is normally accomplished by shallow ditches, also called open drains.
The shallow ditches discharge into larger and deeper collector drains.

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 In order to facilitate the flow of excess water toward the drains, the field is given an artificial
slope by means of land grading
Surface drainage systems always has two components:
 Open field drains to collect the ponding water and divert it to the collector drain.
 Land forming to enhance the flow of water towards the field drains.
A surface drainage system is a system of drainage measures, such as open drains and land
forming, to prevent ponding by diverting excess surface water to a collector drain.

Land forming means changing the surface of the land to meet the requirements of surface
drainage or irrigation.
There are three land-forming systems:
 Bedding
 Land grading and
 Land planning.
Bedding
Bedding is the oldest surface drainage practice.
With this system, the land surface is formed into beds.
This work can be done by manual labor, animal traction, or farm tractors.

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 The bedding system is normally used for grassland.
In modern farming, bedding is not considered an acceptable drainage practice for row crops, because
rows near the field drains will not drain satisfactorily. To overcome the disadvantages of the bedding
system, the two other methods of land forming have been developed: land grading and land planning.
Land grading
Surface drainage consists of forming the land surface by cutting, filling and smoothing it to
predetermined grades, so that each row or surface slopes to a field drain.
Land planning
Land planning is the process of smoothing the land surface to eliminate minor depressions
and irregularities, but without changing the general topography.

Subsurface drainage systems

Subsurface drainage is the removal of water from the root zone.
It is accomplished by deep open drains or buried pipe drains.
A subsurface drainage system is a system for the removal of excess water and dissolved salts
from the soil, using the groundwater as a "vehicle".
A subsurface drainage system is a man-made system that induces excess water and
dissolved salts to flow through the soil to pipes or open drains, from where it can be
evacuated.
Sub-surface drainage system- pipe drains

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 If it is decided to install a subsurface drainage system, a choice has to be made between open
drains or pipe drains.
Open drains have the advantage that they can receive overland flow and can thus also serve
as surface drainage.
The disadvantages are the loss of land, the interference with the irrigation system, the
splitting up of the land into small farm blocks, which hampers farming operations, and
that they are a maintenance burden.
Pipe drains: pipe drains are buried pipes with openings through which the soil water can
enter.
A singular drainage system is a drainage system in which the field drains are buried pipes
and all field drains discharge into open collector drains.
In a composite system, the field pipe drains discharge into a pipe collector, which in turn
discharges into an open main drain.
The collector system itself may be composite, with sub-collectors and a main collector.

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 A composite drainage system is a drainage system in which all field drains and all collector
drains are buried pipes.
Deep open drains: the excess water from the root zone flows into the open drains.
The disadvantage of this type of subsurface drainage is that it makes the use of machinery
difficult.

Advantages of Drainage
One of the benefits of installing a drainage system to remove excess water is that the
soil is better aerated.
This leads to a higher productivity of crop land or grassland because:
The crops can root more deeply
The choice of crops is greater
There will be fewer weeds
Fertilizers will be used more efficiently

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 There will be less denitrification

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