Wallace Law

Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization of Water

Apparatus:
Name of apparatus Number
iPad connected to temperature sensor 1
Electronic balance 1
Bunsen burner 1
Tripod 1
Wire gauze 1
Retort stand and clamp 2
Slotted weight 1
Piece of thread 1
Stopwatch 1
Lab jack 1
Measuring cylinder 1
Beaker 1
Half-metre rule with 2 pulleys 1

Objective: To determine the specific latent heat of vaporization of water

The diagram below shows the set-up of the experiment:

Figure 1
 Wallace Law

Theory
Determining the power of Bunsen flame

Definition of Specific heat capacity: The amount of energy absorbed by a substance to

change its temperature by 1°C.

Heat from the Bunsen flame is transferred to the glass beaker and the water it is
carrying. We record the temperature increase with a temperature sensor.

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃

Where:
𝐸 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
∆𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

From the above equation, we can deduce the following equation:

𝑃!"#$%# '"(#%( ∆𝑡 = (𝑚)*+%( 𝑐)*+%( + 𝑚'%*,%( 𝑐'%*,%( )∆𝜃

Where:
𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐵𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟
∆𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐵𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑢𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
∆𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

Determining the specific latent heat of vaporization of water

Definition of specific latent heat of vaporization: The amount of energy required for 1kg
of substance to convert from liquid to gaseous state.

When a substances changes state, it absorbs or releases a certain amount of energy.

During vaporization, liquid molecules absorb heat energy to increase their molecular
kinetic energy to break the intermolecular forces to raise its molecular potential energy,
then change into gaseous state.
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑙-

Where:
𝑄 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑙- 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

After the temperature of the beaker reached 100°C, the power absorbed by water is used
to raise the molecules’ potential energy instead of being used to increase their molecular
kinetic energy. Therefore, when latent heat is absorbed to vaporize the water into gas,
the temperature of the water will not rise.
 Wallace Law

Procedure

Part A: Estimating the power of Bunsen flame

1. The mass of slotted weight and the beaker were recorded with the electronic
balance.
2. About 150mL of tap water was poured into the beaker. The total mass of the
beaker carrying water was recorded.
3. The apparatus is set up as shown in figure 1 by passing the thread over two fixed
pulleys and the beaker of water. Then the slotted weight is hung on the end of
the thread respectively. The temperature sensor and its wire did not touch the
beaker.
4. The lab jack was adjusted until the bottom of the beaker is about 5mm above the
wire gauze.
5. The Bunsen burner was lit to heat up the water. Data-logging was started, and
the temperature-time graph was produced.
6. Data-logging was stopped after the water had boiled for about 1 minute.

Part B: Determining the rate of decrease in the mass of water in the beaker
1. The water was kept boiling. Temperature sensor was removed, and the reading R
of the electronic balance was recorded in 60s interval for 10 minutes.
2. The Bunsen burner was turned off.

Measurements

Rate of decrease in the mass of water in the beaker

Time (s) Reading of electronic balance (g)

60 154.56
120 159.86
180 165.29
240 170.17
300 174.08
360 180.56
420 185.12
480 189.34
540 194.34
600 198.80

𝑚'%*,%( = 101.95𝑔
𝑚+.+*/ = 250.15𝑔
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑚)*+%( = 𝑚+.+*/ − 𝑚'%*,%( = 250.15 − 101.95 = 148.2𝑔
 Wallace Law

Data Analysis

Estimating the power P supplied to the water and beaker by Bunsen flame

The temperature is recorded by the temperature sensor and logged into a temperature-
time graph with the iPad data-logging software. The graph is shown below:

∆1
From the temperature-time graph, the slope ∆+ = 0.225

The power supplied to water by the Bunsen flame:

𝑃∆𝑡 = (𝑚)*+%( 𝑐)*+%( + 𝑚'%*,%( 𝑐'%*,%( )∆𝜃

∆𝜃
𝑃 = (𝑚)*+%( 𝑐)*+%( + 𝑚'%*,%( 𝑐'%*,%( )
∆𝑡

148.2 101.95
𝑃 = [N O (4200) + ( )(840)]0.225
1000 1000

𝑃 = 159.3𝑊
 Wallace Law

Calculating the specific latent heat of vaporization of water

1. Determining the mass of water in the beaker

Where:
𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑊'%*,%( 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑊$/.++%2 )%345+ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

When the beaker of water boils at 100°C and water is partially turned into steam and
escaped from the beaker, 𝑊'%*,%( reduces as the total weight of water is decreased.

𝑇 = 𝑊'%*,%( … (1)

𝑇 + 𝑅 = 𝑊$/.++%2 )%345+ … (2)

𝐵𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 (1) 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 (2), 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡:

𝑅 = 𝑊$/.++%2 )%345+ − 𝑊'%*,%(

Hence, when the weight of beaker reduces, the weight of slotted weight increases.

Since the electronic balance measures the force 𝑅, the change in reading of the
electronic balance is 𝑊$/.++%2 )%345+ − 𝑊'%*,%( , and therefore, we can directly take
electronic balance as ∆𝑚 due to the constant gravitational acceleration.
 Wallace Law

Graph of Electronic Balance Reading R against Time

∆6
From the graph of R against t, the slope ∆+
= 0.0758

2. Finding out the specific latent heat of vaporization of water

𝑃∆𝑡 = ∆𝑚𝑙-

∆𝑚
𝑃= 𝑙
∆𝑡 -

𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝑃= 𝑙
1000 -

0.0758
159.3 = ( )𝑙
1000 -

𝑙- = 2.10 × 107 𝐽𝑘𝑔89

 Wallace Law

Discussion

1) Heat loss to surrounding

Explanation: As temperature rises, the difference in temperature between

the beaker of water and its surroundings increase, hence the
rate of heat loss to surroundings increases with the
temperature. However, as we did not calculate the heat loss
to surroundings, the power of the burner will be
overestimated. Resultantly, the latent heat of vaporization
will also be overestimated.

Way of improvement: Wrapping the beakers of water with insulating material such
as cotton.

By using insulating materials, the heat loss to surrounding

can be reduce, hence minimizing the temperature difference
between the water and the surrounding. Hence, the
percentage difference of heat loss at high temperatures and
at lower temperatures can be smaller, so the estimation of
specific latent heat of vaporization can be more accurate.

2) Water spillage

Explanation: During intense boiling, some of the water splash out of the
beaker due to the convection of liquid water. The actual
amount of water that vaporized is not as high as indicated by
the electronic balance. The power of the burner will be
underestimated and hence the specific latent heat of
vaporization is also underestimated.

Way of improvement: Using a taller beaker with a smaller volume of water

By adopting this method, the height of walls of the beaker

increase relatively to the water. Water molecules is less
likely to jump over the taller walls to escape the beaker of
water.
 Wallace Law

3) Heat is unevenly distributed

Explanation: The set-up does not contain a stirrer, hence when it is

heated from room temperature to 100°C the water is not
heated evenly. The reading of the temperature cannot reflect
the true temperature of water. As a result, the specific latent
heat of vaporization is not accurate.

Way of improvement: Addition of a stirrer to the experimental set-up

Without the stirrer, heat is distributed only by convection

which is not even. By adding a stirrer to the beaker and
constantly stirring the speaker, the water can move
constantly, ensuring all the water molecules absorb similar
amount of heat instead of only part of the water molecules
absorbing heat from the burner.

Precaution: Wear heat-proof gloves while stirring as

vaporized steam is ~100°C

4) Evaporation of water

Explanation: Before the temperature of water reaches its boiling point,

which is 100°C, some water may evaporate as some water
molecules on the surface of water gain energy and
evaporate. However, the temperature-time graph only
indicates the rise in temperature (as shown by the y axis in
the graph), the evaporation of water is not taken into
account. Therefore, the evaporation of water causes the
power to be underestimated. Resultantly, the latent heat of
vaporization is underestimated.
Way of improvement: Using beaker with smaller cross-sectional area

By using a beaker with smaller cross-sectional area, the

number of water molecules that are in contact with
atmosphere is reduced. Less water molecules can gain
sufficient energy to turn into steam and escape from the
beaker. As a result, the rate of evaporation of water reduces,
resulting in a more accurate result.
 Wallace Law

5) Heat absorbing property of the temperature sensor

Explanation: The temperature sensor is capable of absorbing part of the

energy supplied by the burner during heating. As the heat
capacity of the sensor is not considered, we would
underestimate the power gained by water. Hence, the
specific latent heat of water is underestimated.

6) Steam condensation onto the wall of the beaker

Explanation: When steam vaporizes, it should theoretically escape the

beaker. However, when it touches the colder walls of the
beaker, some of the steam condenses back into small water
droplets and accumulates on the inner wall of the beaker,
eventually going back into the water, which increases the
electronic balance reading of the beaker. Hence, the mass
reduced is underestimated, ultimately causing us to
overestimate the specific latent heat of the water.

7) Friction of the pulley system

Explanation: As the pulley is has friction which is not taken into account,
the forces calculated are not exact, resulting in an
inaccurate mass change.
 Wallace Law

Precautions

1. Temperature sensor should not touch the bottom of the beaker during heating

The bottom of the beaker is closer to the flame which means that its temperature is
slightly higher than that of water. If the sensor touches the bottom, the heat
temperature may receive heat higher than what the water actually receive. resulting in
an inaccurate result.

2. The bottom of the beaker should not be in contact with the wire gauze and the
tripod

This ensures the thread is stretched so that the reduce in mass of water will only cause
the tension in the thread to increase. When the bottom of the beaker touches the wire
gauze, the wire gauze may partially support the weight of the beaker of water instead of
the tension entirely supporting the beaker of water. As a result, the change in R
indicated by the electronic balance will be inaccurate.

3. The airhole of the Bunsen burner should be opened

The airhole should be opened right after the flame started burning to ensure the flame is
non-luminous when heating up the beaker and the water to better estimate the power
of the Bunsen burner.

Conclusion: The specific latent heat of vaporization of water is 2.10 × 107 𝐽𝑘𝑔89